Chapter 3

Classification of Elements & Periodicity in

ClassProperties
11 Chemistry — Exam Notes

Learn this fully and you can score full marks. Everything here is exam-relevant.

1. History of Classification ★★ Very Important

Scientists tried to arrange elements in order. Here is what each one did:

Scientist Based on Key contribution Problem

Law of Triads: middle element's

Döbereiner Only 3 triads worked.
Atomic mass mass = average of the other two.
(1829) Many elements left out.
e.g. Li(7), Na(23), K(39)

Law of Octaves: every 8th element Failed after calcium.

Newlands
Atomic mass similar to 1st (like musical notes). Noble gases not
(1866)
e.g. Li and Na are similar. yet known.

Properties repeat by atomic mass.

Atomic mass Wrong order for some
Mendeleev Left gaps for elements not yet
(also used pairs: Ar/K, Co/Ni,
(1869) discovered. Predicted Gallium
properties) Te/I.
(Eka-Al) and Germanium (Eka-Si).

Modern Periodic Law: properties

Moseley
Atomic number are periodic function of atomic No major flaw.
(Modern)
number. 7 periods, 18 groups.

Memory: D-N-M-M (Don't Never Miss Marks)

Exam fact: Mendeleev predicted properties of Gallium and Germanium before they were
discovered. This is asked every year.

2. Modern Periodic Table ★★★ Most Important

Modern Periodic Law: Properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic number.
The table has 7 periods (rows) and 18 groups (columns).

Periods — How many elements in each?

Period Elements Subshells filled Count

1 H, He 1s 2

2 Li to Ne 2s, 2p 8

3 Na to Ar 3s, 3p 8

4 K to Kr 4s, 3d, 4p 18

5 Rb to Xe 5s, 4d, 5p 18

6 Cs to Rn 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p 32

7 Fr to ... 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p 32

Rule: Elements in a period = 2 × (number of atomic orbitals in that period).

Blocks — Which group belongs to which block?

Block Groups Last electron enters General config Examples
 s-block 1 and 2 s subshell ns¹ or ns² Na, K, Ca, Mg

p-block 13 to 18 p subshell ns² np¹■■ C, N, O, Cl, Ne

d-block 3 to 12 d subshell ns² (n−1)d¹■¹■ Fe, Cu, Zn

f-block Bottom 2 rows f subshell (n−2)f■■¹■ (n−1)d■■¹ ns² Ce-Lu, Th-Lr

• Group 17 = Halogens Group 16 = Chalcogens Group 18 = Noble gases

• s-block + p-block = Representative elements (also called main block elements)
• f-block elements = Inner transition elements (Lanthanoids: Ce→Lu | Actinoids: Th→Lr)

3. IUPAC Nomenclature for Elements above Z = 100 ★

Each digit of the atomic number gets a Latin name. Join them and add -ium.

Digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Name nil un bi tri quad pent hex sept oct enn

Symbol n u b t q p h s o e

Example: Z = 105 → un-nil-pent-ium = Unnilpentium (symbol: Unp)

Example: Z = 118 → un-un-oct-ium = Ununoctium (symbol: Uuo)

4. Finding Group, Period and Block ★★★ Most Important

Step 1: Write the full electronic configuration.
Step 2: Period = highest n value in configuration.
Step 3: Block = which type of subshell the last electron entered (s/p/d/f).
Step 4: Group = for s-block, add s electrons. For p-block, add 10 + s electrons + p electrons.

Numerical 1 ★★★
Q. Find group, period and block of (i) Na (ii) P (iii) I
(i) Na Z=11 → 1s² 2s² 2p■ 3s¹
Last electron in 3s¹ → Period = 3, Group = 1, Block = s-block
(ii) P Z=15 → 1s² 2s² 2p■ 3s² 3p³
Last electron in 3p³ → Period = 3, Group = 10+2+3 = 15, Block = p-block
(iii) I Z=53 → 1s² 2s² 2p■ 3s² 3p■ 4s² 3d¹■ 4p■ 5s² 4d¹■ 5p■
Last electron in 5p■ → Period = 5, Group = 10+2+5 = 17, Block = p-block

5. Atomic Radius ★★ Very Important

Distance from the nucleus to the outermost electron shell.

Three types:
• Covalent radius — used for non-metals. Half the distance between 2 same atoms bonded together.
• Metallic radius — used for metals. Half the internuclear distance between metal atoms in a crystal.
• Van der Waal's radius — used for noble gases. Half the distance between 2 non-bonded atoms. This is
always the largest.
Size order: Van der Waal's radius > Metallic radius > Covalent radius

Trends:
 Direction Trend Reason

Nuclear charge increases but shells stay the same.

Across period (left to right) → Decreases
Electrons pulled closer to nucleus.

Down a group ↓ Increases New shells are added. Electrons are farther from nucleus.

Cation vs Anion:
• Cation (M■) is smaller than parent atom — electrons removed, Zeff increases, size decreases.
• Anion (X■) is larger than parent atom — electrons added, Zeff decreases, size increases.

Isoelectronic species — same number of electrons:

e.g. O²■, F■, Na■, Mg²■ all have 10 electrons.
Rule: Among isoelectronic species, more protons = smaller size.

Numerical 2 ★★
Q. Arrange in increasing order of size: O²■, F■, Na■, Mg²■
All have 10 electrons. Proton count: O²■(8), F■(9), Na■(11), Mg²■(12)
More protons = smaller size.
Answer: Mg²■ < Na■ < F■ < O²■

6. Ionisation Enthalpy (IE) ★★★ Most Important

Minimum energy needed to remove one electron from a neutral gaseous atom in ground state.
X(g) → X■(g) + e■ ∆iH is always positive (energy is supplied)
Units: kJ/mol or eV/atom
Successive IEs always increase: IE■ < IE■ < IE■
Higher IE = harder to remove the electron.

4 Factors that affect IE:

1. Shielding effect — inner electrons shield outer electrons from the nucleus. More shielding = lower IE.
2. Nuclear charge — higher Z = stronger pull = higher IE.
3. Electronic configuration — half-filled and fully-filled subshells are extra stable = higher IE.
4. Penetration power — electrons closer to nucleus are harder to remove. Order: s > p > d > f.

Trends:
• Across a period → : IE generally increases (nuclear charge increases).
• Down a group ↓ : IE decreases (atomic size and shielding increase).

Exceptions — these come in exams every year:

Exception 1: IE of Be > IE of B (expected: B should be higher because it comes after Be)
Reason: Be has 2s² (fully filled, extra stable). B has last electron in 2p which has less penetration —
easier to remove.

Exception 2: IE of N > IE of O (expected: O should be higher)

Reason: N has 2p³ (half-filled, extra stable). O has 2p■ where one orbital is paired — electron-electron
repulsion makes it easier to remove.
Memory: Be stays firm, B lets go. N stays firm, O lets one go. Half-filled and fully-filled = stable = high IE.

7. Electron Gain Enthalpy ★★

 Energy change when an electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom.
X(g) + e■ → X■(g) ∆egH can be negative or positive
More negative value = stronger tendency to gain electron = more non-metallic character.

Trends:
• Across period → : EGE becomes more negative (non-metallic character increases).
• Down a group ↓ : EGE becomes less negative (size increases, nuclear pull decreases).

Important exceptions:
• F has less negative EGE than Cl (not more negative, even though F is above Cl).
Reason: F is very small — high electron density — strong repulsion when adding another electron.
• O has less negative EGE than S for the same reason.
So: Cl has the highest EGE among halogens — NOT fluorine. This is a very common exam trap.
• Noble gases have positive EGE — they do not want to gain electrons at all.

8. Electronegativity ★★
Tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared pair of electrons towards itself.
Measured on Pauling scale. Fluorine has the highest value = 4.0.
• Across period → : Increases (Zeff increases).
• Down a group ↓ : Decreases (atomic size increases).
Order: F > O > N > Cl > Br > S > C > H
Memory: Funny Old Nerds Can Bring Some Cool Happiness = F, O, N, Cl, Br, S, C, H

9. Metallic & Non-Metallic Character ★

Property Across Period → Down Group ↓

Atomic radius Decreases Increases

Ionisation enthalpy Increases Decreases

Electron gain enthalpy More negative Less negative

Electronegativity Increases Decreases

Metallic character Decreases Increases

Non-metallic character Increases Decreases

Most metallic element = Cs (Caesium) | Most non-metallic element = F (Fluorine)

Memory trick: Atomic radius is the ONLY trend that decreases across a period while all others increase.

Oxides:
• Metal oxides are basic e.g. Na■O
• Non-metal oxides are acidic e.g. CO■, SO■
• Middle elements (like Al) form amphoteric oxides — react with both acid and base.

Last Minute Exam Points — Do Not Skip

★★★ Mendeleev predicted Gallium (Eka-Aluminium) and Germanium (Eka-Silicon) — asked every
year.
★★★ IE of Be > B and IE of N > O — these exceptions appear in almost every board exam.
★★★ Cl has higher EGE than F — common trap question.
★★ Isoelectronic species: among same electrons, more protons = smaller size.
★★ Van der Waal's radius > Metallic radius > Covalent radius.
★★ When finding group in p-block: Group = 10 + valence electrons.
★ F is most electronegative (4.0), Cs is least.
★ Noble gases: highest IE, positive EGE, zero electronegativity.
★ f-block = inner transition elements. Lanthanoids: Ce to Lu. Actinoids: Th to Lr.
★ Successive IEs always go up. A sudden large jump means the next electron is from inner shell.

★ = Important ★★ = Very Important ★★★ = Must Do for Full Marks

All the best, Sulaiman. You have everything you need right here.