Wave and Sound

 Wave: The disturbances of the particles of the medium in which energy is handed over from one
point to another is called wave.
 Longitudinal wave: The wave in which particles of the medium travel along the direction of
propagation of wave is called longitudinal wave. For example; sound wave
 Transverse wave: The wave in which particles of the medium travel perpendicular to the direction
of propagation of wave is called longitudinal wave.
 Progressive wave: A wave which moves forward and energy is handed over from one point to
another point is called progressive wave. Progressive waves have properties such as wavelength,
height, amplitude, velocity, frequency, and period. Examples of progressive waves are sound waves,
seismic waves, and ocean waves.
 Stationary wave: When two waves of same type having same amplitude, same frequency and same
wavelength, travelling with same speed in opposite direction superimpose each other, they give rise
to a new kind of wave, called stationary wave. In stationary wave, various nodes and antinodes are
formed. The stationary wave equation is, y = 2a coskx sin𝜔𝑡
 Principle of superposition: When two or more waves cross at a point, the displacement at that point
is equal to the sum of the displacements of the individual waves. If y1, y2, y3………….. are the
displacements of the individual waves, then from the principle of superposition,
y = y1 + y2 + y3……………..

 Mechanical waves: The waves which require medium to travel are called mechanical wave. For
example: sound wave. For the propagation of wave, medium must have the property of elasticity
and inertia
 Nodes and Antinodes: Nodes are the points of the medium which are permanently at rest i.e.
amplitude of vibration of particle at nodes is zero.
Antinodes are the points of the medium at which amplitude of vibration of particles is maximum.

 End correction: The distance between open end of the pipe and the position of antinode just
outside the open end of the pipe is called end correction. It is necessary to find the exact
frequency of the stationary wave.
 Resonance: When the external frequency coincides with the natural frequency of the body, the
body begins to vibrate with maximum amplitude. This phenomenon is called resonance.
 Doppler’s Effect: The apparent change in frequency due to the relative velocity of source and
observer is called Doppler’s effect.
 Beat: The pulsation caused by the combination of two waves of slightly different
frequencies. Beats are caused by the interference between two waves of the same
amplitude, travelling with the same wave speed, but having slightly different frequencies,
f1 and f2.
 Intensity of sound: The sound energy falling per second per unit surface area is called intensity
of sound. It is calculated as, I = E/tA = P/A
 Beat frequency: The difference in frequency of the two notes that interfere to produce the
beats is called beat frequency. So, if two sound waves with frequencies of 256 Hz and
254 Hz are played simultaneously, a beat frequency of 2 Hz will be detected.
 Ultrasound: The sound having frequency greater than 20 KHz is called ultrasound. Some birds
like bats produce ultrasound.
 Infrasound: The sound having frequency less than 20 Hz is called infrasound. Some animals like
elephants produce infrasound.

Optics
 Huygen’s principle:
1. Each point on the primary wavefront acts as the source of secondary wavelets sending out
disturbances in all directions.
2. The new position of wavefront at any instant is given be the forward envelope of the
secondary wavelets at that instant.
 Wavefront: The locus of all the particles vibrating in the same phase is called wavefront.
Wavefront is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave.
 Wavelets: Each point on the wavefront acts as the source of disturbance of the particle which is
called wavelet.
 Interference: The phenomenon of non-uniform distribution or re-distribution of energy in the
medium due to superposition of light waves from two coherent sources traveling along same
direction is called interference of light.
 Coherent sources of light: The sources of light which emit waves that have same
amplitude, same frequency, same wavelength and same or constant phase difference.
 Condition for constructive interference: Path difference = nλ
 Condition for destructive interference: Path difference = (2n + 1) λ/2
 Diffraction of light: The bending of light as it passes around the edge of an aperture or slit is
called diffraction. The necessary condition for the diffraction is that the wavelength of wave
should be comparable to the size of the aperture.
 Diffraction grating: diffraction grating is an optical component with a periodic structure that
diffracts light into several beams travelling in different directions.
 Polarization of light: The phenomenon due to which light wave is restricted to the
particular direction is called polarization of light.
 Brewster’s law: Statement: “The tangent of angle of polarization is equal to the
refractive index of the medium.” i.e. tanθp = μ
 Polaroids: Polaroids are the artificially made plates which are used to produce plane
polarized light.
Mechanics
 Moment of inertia: The product of mass and square of distance of the mass from the axis of
rotation is called moment of inertia. It is calculated as, I = mr 2 where, m is mass and r is distance
of the mass from the axis of rotation.
 Radius of Gyration: It is defined as the distance from the axis of rotation to a point at which
whole mass of the body is supposed to be concentrated. The moment of inertia in terms of radius
of gyration is, I = mK2.
 Angular momentum: The moment of linear momentum is called angular momentum. It is
denoted by L and is calculated as, L = mvr or L = Iω.
 Principle of conservation of angular momentum: Statement: “If no external torque acts on a
system, the total angular momentum of the system remains constant.” i.e. Iω = constant.
 Couple: Two equal and opposite parallel forces acting on a body at different points is called
couple.
 Simple Harmonic Motion: The ‘to’ and ‘fro’ periodic motion of a body in which acceleration is
directly proportional to the displacement is called Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM).
 Simple pendulum: It is a heavy point mass object suspended by a weightless, inextensible
and flexible string which executes simple harmonic motion.
 Second Pendulum: A simple pendulum having time period two seconds is called second
pendulum.
 Free oscillation: The oscillation of a body having constant amplitude is called free
oscillation.
 Damped oscillation: An oscillation of a body whose amplitude decreases gradually is called
damped oscillation.
 Viscosity: The property of a fluid (liquid and gas) due to which relative motion of layer of
fluid is opposed is called viscosity. Viscosity is caused due to the intermolecular force of
attraction between the molecules of fluid.
 Stoke’s law: Stoke’s law states that the viscous force acting on a spherical body of radius ‘r’
moving with velocity ‘v’ in a liquid of coefficient of viscosity ‘η’ is f = 6πηrv.
𝑑𝑣
 Newton’s law of viscosity: Viscous force, F = ηA𝑑𝑥
 Terminal velocity: Constant velocity acquired by a body moving in a viscous medium is
called terminal velocity.
 Equation of continuity: It states that the area of cross section of moving liquid is inversely
proportional to the velocity of liquid. i.e. Av = constant
 Bernoulli’s Theorem: Statement- “for the incompressible and non – viscous liquid, the sum
of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy per unit mass is always constant. i.e.
𝑝 1
𝜌
+ 2 𝑣 2 +gh = constant.
 Surface tension: The property of liquid by virtue of which it tries to occupy minimum possible
surface area is called surface tension. It is calculated as, T = F/L.
 Surface energy: The ratio of work done to increase the surface area of liquid to the increase in
surface area of liquid is called surface energy. It is numerically equal to surface tension.
 Capillary action: The rise or fall of liquid in the capillary tube is called capillary action.
Thermodynamics
 First law of thermodynamics: Statement- “if an amount of heat dQ is supplied to a system, a part
of it is used to increase the internal energy dU and rest of it is used to perform external work dW.
 Isothermal process: The thermodynamic process in which temperature of the system remains
constant is called isothermal process. For isothermal process, P 1V1 = P2V2
 Adiabatic process: The thermodynamic process in which there is no exchange of heat is called
adiabatic process. For adiabatic process, P 1𝑉1𝛾 = P2𝑉1𝛾
 Isobaric process: The thermodynamic process in which pressure of the system remains constant
𝑉1 𝑇1
is called isobaric process. For isobaric process, =
𝑉2 𝑇2
 Isochoric process: The thermodynamic process in which volume of the system remains constant
𝑃 𝑇
is called isochoric process. For isochoric process, 𝑃1 = 𝑇1
2 2
 Molar heat capacity at constant volume: The amount of heat required to increase the temperature
of one mole of gas through 1 kelvin at constant pressure is called molar heat capacity at constant
volume.
 Molar heat capacity at constant pressure: The amount of heat required to increase the
temperature of one mole of gas through 1 kelvin at constant pressure is called molar heat capacity
at constant pressure.
 Reversible process: A reversible process is one which can be retraced in the opposite direction so
that it passes through exactly the same process.
 Irreversible process: A reversible process is one which cannot be retraced in the opposite
direction so that it passes through exactly the same process.
 Second law of thermodynamics:
 Kelvin’s statement: “It is impossible to get the continuous supply of work by cooling a
body to a temperature lower than that of its surroundings.”
 Clausius statement: “It is impossible for a self-acting machine unaided by any external
agency, to convey heat from one body at a lower temperature to another at a higher
temperature.”
 Entropy: Amount of disorder or randomness of the system is called entropy. Entropy is
∆𝑄
the function of temperature. The change in entropy is calculated as, ∆s = . Its unit is
𝑇
J/K.
Electricity

 Kirchhoff’s laws:
 First law (Junction law): The sum of currents flowing into the junction is equal to the
sum of currents flowing out of the junction.
 Second law (voltage law): The algebraic sum of the potential differences in any loop must
be equal to zero as: ΣV = 0.
 Potentiometer: It is an electrical device which is used to measure emf , compare emf and find
internal resistance of cell.
 Principle of potentiometer: When a constant current flows through a wire, the potential
difference across any portion is directly proportional to the length of that portion.
 Wheatstone bridge principle: At balanced condition, P/Q = X/R
 Shunt: A low resistance which is always connected in parallel to the galvanometer is called
shunt.
 Joule’s law of heating: Statement- “ The amount of heat produced in a conductor of resistance
‘R’ and carrying current ‘I’ in time ‘t’ is, H = I 2Rt

Magnetism

 Hall effect: When a current carrying conductor is placed in magnetic field, voltage is developed
in the conductor which is known as Hall voltage. This effect is called Hall effect.
 Biot – Savart law: The magnetic field at any point ‘P’ at a distance ‘r’ from the current carrying
𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
conductor due to small element dl is, dB = 4𝜋0 𝑟2
.
 Ampere’s Circuital law: It states, the line integral of magnetic field in any closed path is equal to
the 𝜇0 times the total current enclosed by that path. ∮ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0I
 Electromagnetic induction: The phenomenon of inducing an emf in a conductor due to change
in magnetic flux linking with the conductor is called electromagnetic induction.
 Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction:
 Whenever the magnetic flux linking with the conductor changes, emf is induced in the
conductor.
 The induced emf lasts until change is magnetic flux continuous.
 The magnitude of induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux
𝑑𝜑
linking with the coil. i.e. E α
𝑑𝑡
 Magnetic flux: The magnetic field lines passing normally through the given surface is called
magnetic flux. It is calculated as, φ = Ba cosθ
 Lenz’s law: It states, the direction of induced emf is such that it opposes the cause which
produces it.
 Self - induction: The phenomenon of inducing an emf in a coil due to the change in magnetic
flux linking with the coil is called self - induction.
 Mutual induction: The phenomenon of inducing an emf in the secondary coil due to the change
in magnetic flux in the primary coil is called mutual induction.
 Eddy currents: The currents induced in a conductor due to the change in magnetic flux linking
with the conductor are called eddy currents. Eddy currents produce heat in the metal surface. In
induction pot, eddy currents produce heat.
 Impedence: The effective resistance of an electric circuit is called impedence. For example,
impedence of LR circuit is, Z = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2
 Quality factor: The ratio of potential difference across inductance (L) or capacitance (C) to the
1 𝐿
applied emf (E) is called quality factor. It is calculated as, Q = 𝑅 √𝐶

Modern physics

 Principles involved in Millikan’s oil drop experiment: (i) motion of oil drop under the action of
gravity alone (ii) motion of oil drop under the joint action of gravity and electric field.
 Applications of millikan’s oil drop experiment: (i) It is used to find the charge of an electron (ii)
It is helpful to find the mass of an electron (iii) It proves quantization of charge.
 Photoelectric effect: The phenomenon of emission of photoelectrons from the metal surface
when a light radiation of suitable frequency falls upon it is called photoelectric effect.
 Photon: Photon is a smallest discrete amount or quantum of electromagnetic radiation. Its
energy is calculated as, E = hf = hc/λ
 Quantum theory of radiation: It states, electromagnetic waves consist of small packet of energy
called photon. If ‘f’ is the frequency of electromagnetic radiation and ‘h’ is the Planck constant
then the energy of photon is, E = hf
 Einstein’s photoelectric equation: When a light radiation of suitable frequency falls on the
metal surface, some part of energy of photon is used to pull out the electrons from the metal
surface and rest of the energy is used to provide the kinetic energy for the emitted
electrons. i.e. E = φ + K.E.
 Laws of photoelectric emission: (i) When the light radiations of suitable frequency fall on the
metal surface, photoelectrons are emitted from it. (ii) Photoelectric emission takes place if
the frequency of incident photon is above the threshold frequency (iii) Maximum kinetic
energy of photoelectrons is independent to the intensity of incident light (iv) Photoelectric
current depends upon the intensity of incident light
 Threshold frequency: The minimum frequency of incident photon which is just sufficient
pull out the electrons from the metal surface is called threshold frequency.
 Work function (φ): The minimum energy of incident photon which is just sufficient to pull
out the electrons from the metal surface is called work function. It is calculated as, φ = hf0
 Stopping potential (V0): The potential at which photoelectric current becomes zero is called
stopping potential. It is denoted by V0.
 Rectifier: The device which converts a.c. into d.c. is called rectifier.
 Half wave rectifier: The rectifier which converts half cycle of a.c. into d.c. is called half wave
rectifier.
 Full wave rectifier: The rectifier which converts full cycle of a.c. into d.c. is called full wave
rectifier.
 Zener diode: Zener diode is a heavily dopped semiconductor diode which is designed operate in
the reverse direction. It is used as a voltage regulator.
 Transistor: A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electrical signals and
power. Transistor is one of the basic building blocks of modern electronics. Or, Transistor is a
device that regulates current of voltage flow and acts as a switch or gate for electronic signals
 Logic gate: Logic gate is a device that acts as a building block for digital circuit. It is an electronic
circuit having one or more inputs and only one output.
 Truth table: It is a table which shows all possible input and the corresponding output
combination for the logic gate.
 Applications of logic gate: (i) Logic gates are used in microcontrollers, microprocessors,
electronic and electrical project circuits. (ii) They are used in burglar alarms and buzzes (iii) They
are used in computation and processing.
 Bohr’s Postulates of Hydrogen atom: (i) Electron can revolve in those permissible orbits for
which angular momentum is integral multiple of h/2π.
𝑛ℎ
i.e. angular momentum, L = mvr = 2𝜋 where, n = 1,2,3……..
 Excitation energy: The energy required to excite the electron from ground state to excited state
is called excitation energy. First excitation energy is given by, E = E2 – E1 = -3.4 – (-13.6) = 12.4eV
 Excitation Potential: The potential corresponding to excitation energy is called excitation
potential.
 Ionization energy: The minimum energy required to remove the electron from the ground state
to infinity (ionized state) is called ionization energy.
 Ionization potential: The potential corresponding to ionization energy is called ionization
potential.
 De – Broglie wave: A moving particle behaves sometimes as a wave and sometimes as a particle.
So, every moving particle is associated with wave. The waves associated with a moving particle
are called matter waves or de-Broglie waves. The wavelength associated with matter waves is
called de-Broglie wave length.
 De – Broglie theory: Each particle in the universe shows both particle nature and wave nature.
This theory is called De – Broglie theory. Momentum of shows the particle nature and the
ℎ ℎ
wavelength of the particle is, λ = = .
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
 Uncertainty principle: It is impossible to determine precisely and simultaneously the values of
both the members of pair of physical variables (or canonically conjugate variables) which
describe the motion of an atomic system.
 Radioactivity: The process of spontaneous disintegration of unstable nucleus with the emission
of radioactive radiations is called radioactivity.
 Cause of radioactivity: Nucleons of a nucleus are acted upon by two forces. One is the attractive
nuclear force and another is coulomb repulsive force between its protons. If the attractive force
is much greater than the repulsive force, the nucleus becomes unstable. In such case, the
nucleus spontaneously disintegrates by emitting α particles, β particles and γ – rays.
 Laws of radioactive disintegration:
I. Radioactive disintegration is a random and spontaneous process. It is not affected by
external factors such as temperature, pressure, electric field etc.
II. In any radioactive decay, either α particle or β particle is emitted by the atom. Emission of
both types is impossible at a time. This is called displacement law.
III. The rate of disintegration of radioactive substance at any time is directly proportional to the
number of atoms present at that time. This is called decay law.

If N is the number of atoms left in time ‘t’ then the from decay law
𝑑𝑁
𝑑𝑡
αN
𝑑𝑁
Or, 𝑑𝑡
= -λN

 Half-life: The time taken by a radioactive substance to disintegrate half of its atoms is called
0.693
half-life of that substance. It is calculated as, T1/2 = 𝜆
 Units of radioactivity:

Becquerel: 1 Bq = 1 dis/s

Rutherford: 1Rd = 106 dis/s

Curie: 1 Curie = 3.7 x 107 dis/s
 Radio - carbon dating: The estimation of age by using isotope of carbon ( 146𝐶 ) is called radio
carbon dating.