Module -5

Global warming: concept, indicators, factor and effects. Global climate change-indicators,
health impacts, effect on biodiversity. Introduction to global efforts in conservation of
biodiversity. .EIA regulations in India, status of EIA in India, list of projects needing
environmental clearance under EIA notifications. Case study of hydro power/ thermal power
projects.
Global Warming: Concept, Indicators, Factors, and Effects
Concept of Global Warming
Global warming refers to the long-term heating of Earth's climate system observed since the
pre-industrial period (between 1850 and 1900) due to human activities, primarily fossil fuel
burning, which increases heat-trapping greenhouse gas levels in Earth's atmosphere
(Encyclopedia of Climate and Weather). The term is frequently used interchangeably with the
term climate change, though the latter refers to both human- and naturally produced warming
and the effects it has on our planet (A Dictionary of Environment and Conservation). The
scientific consensus is that the Earth's climate is warming at an unprecedented rate, largely
due to anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO 2), methane (
CH 4), and nitrous oxide (N2 O) (Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our
Energy Future). These gases trap heat in the atmosphere, leading to a phenomenon known as
the greenhouse effect, which is essential for life on Earth but is being intensified by human
activities (The Oxford Handbook of Climate Change and Society).
Indicators of Global Warming
Multiple lines of evidence indicate that global warming is occurring. These indicators are
observed across various components of the Earth system:
 Rising Global Average Temperature: Direct measurements from weather stations
and ocean buoys show a clear upward trend in global average surface temperatures.
The warmest years on record have occurred in recent decades (Climate Change: The
Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future).
 Warming Oceans: The oceans absorb a significant portion of the excess heat from
greenhouse gas emissions. Data from ocean heat content measurements show a
consistent warming trend in the upper layers of the ocean (Encyclopedia of Climate
and Weather).
 Shrinking Ice Sheets and Glaciers: Both the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets are
losing mass at an accelerating rate. Glaciers worldwide are retreating, contributing to
sea-level rise (Climate Change: The Science of Global Warming and Our Energy
Future).
 Decreased Snow Cover: Satellite observations show a decrease in spring snow cover
in the Northern Hemisphere, and snow is melting earlier in the season (A Dictionary
of Environment and Conservation).
  Sea Level Rise: Global mean sea level has been rising due to thermal expansion of
warming ocean water and the melting of glaciers and ice sheets (The Oxford
Handbook of Climate Change and Society). Tide gauge and satellite altimetry data
confirm this trend.
 Extreme Weather Events: There is an observed increase in the frequency and
intensity of certain extreme weather events, including heatwaves, heavy precipitation
events, and droughts in some regions (Encyclopedia of Climate and Weather).

 Ocean Acidification: As the ocean absorbs more CO 2from the atmosphere, its acidity
increases. This change in ocean chemistry can have significant impacts on marine
ecosystems (A Dictionary of Environment and Conservation).
Factors Contributing to Global Warming
The primary factors contributing to global warming are anthropogenic, though natural factors
also play a role in climate variability.
 Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas)
for energy, tr ansportation , and industrial processes is the largest source of
anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, particularly CO 2(Climate Change: The
Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future). Deforestation also contributes
by reducing the amount of CO 2absorbed by trees. Agriculture, particularly livestock
farming and rice cultivation, releases significant amounts of methane and nitrous
oxide (A Dictionary of Environment and Conservation).
 Land Use Changes: Deforestation, urbanization, and other land-use changes alter the
Earth's albedo (reflectivity) and affect carbon cycling, contributing to warming (The
Oxford Handbook of Climate Change and Society).
 Natural Variability: Natural factors such as volcanic eruptions, solar radiation
changes, and internal climate variability (e.g., El Niño-Southern Oscillation) can
influence global temperatures, but their contribution to the observed warming trend
over the past century is considered minor compared to anthropogenic factors
(Encyclopedia of Climate and Weather).
Effects of Global Warming
The effects of global warming are widespread and profound, impacting natural systems and
human societies:
 Environmental Impacts:
o Sea Level Rise: Threatens coastal communities, leading to increased flooding,
erosion, and saltwater intrusion into freshwater sources (Climate Change: The
Science of Global Warming and Our Energy Future).
 o Changes in Precipitation Patterns: Leading to more intense droughts in
some regions and increased flooding in others, impacting agriculture and
water availability (A Dictionary of Environment and Conservation).
o Extreme Weather Events: Increased frequency and intensity of heatwaves,
wildfires, heavy rainfall, and tropical cyclones (Encyclopedia of Climate and
Weather).
o Ecosystem Disruption: Shifts in species ranges, phenological changes (e.g.,
earlier flowering), and increased risk of extinction for vulnerable species (The
Oxford Handbook of Climate Change and Society).
o Ocean Acidification: Harms marine life, particularly organisms with calcium
carbonate shells or skeletons, such as corals and shellfish (A Dictionary of
Environment and Conservation).
 Socio-economic Impacts:
o Food Security: Impacts on agricultural yields due to changes in temperature,
precipitation, and extreme weather events (Climate Change: The Science of
Global Warming and Our Energy Future).
o Water Scarcity: Reduced availability of freshwater in many regions due to
altered precipitation patterns and glacier melt (Encyclopedia of Climate and
Weather).
o Human Health: Increased heat-related illnesses and deaths, spread of vector-
borne diseases, and impacts on mental health (The Oxford Handbook of
Climate Change and Society).
o Displacement and Migration: Climate-induced displacement of populations
due to sea-level rise, extreme weather, and resource scarcity (A Dictionary of
Environment and Conservation).
o Economic Losses: Damage to infrastructure, agriculture, and tourism, leading
to significant economic costs (Climate Change: The Science of Global
Warming and Our Energy Future).
Global Climate Change: Indicators, Health Impacts, Effect on Biodiversity
Global Climate Change Indicators
The indicators of global climate change largely overlap with those of global warming, as
warming is a central component of climate change. These include:
 Temperature Anomalies: Deviations from long-term average temperatures, showing
a clear warming trend globally
 Changes in Cryosphere: Reductions in Arctic sea ice extent and thickness, melting
of glaciers and ice sheets, and decreased snow cover
  Sea Level Rise: As discussed previously, a direct consequence of thermal expansion
and ice melt
 Ocean Heat Content: The increasing amount of heat stored in the oceans.
 Ocean Acidification: The ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans
 Extreme Weather Events: Documented changes in the frequency, intensity, and
duration of heatwaves, droughts, floods, and storms

 Atmospheric CO 2Concentration: Co ntinuous measurements show a steady

increase in atmospheric CO 2levels since the industrial revolution, far exceeding
natural variations over hundreds of thousands of years Health Impacts of Climate
Change
Climate change poses significant and diverse threats to human health:
 Heat-Related Illnesses and Mortality: Increased frequency and intensity of
heatwaves lead to heatstroke, dehydration, and exacerbation of cardiovascular and
respiratory diseases, particularly among vulnerable populations
 Vector-Borne Diseases: Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns can
expand the geographic range and alter the seasonality of disease vectors such as
mosquitoes and ticks, leading to an increased incidence of diseases like malaria,
dengue fever, and Lyme disease
 Water-Borne Diseases: Increased frequency of heavy rainfall and flooding can
contaminate water sources, leading to outbreaks of diarrheal diseases like cholera and
giardiasis Droughts can also concentrate contaminants in dwindling water supplies.
 Respiratory and Allergic Disorders: Higher temperatures can increase ground-level
ozone pollution, which exacerbates asthma and other respiratory conditions. Longer
pollen seasons and increased pollen production due to higher CO 2levels can worsen
allergic reactions
 Food and Water Insecurity: Climate change impacts on agriculture and water
resources can lead to malnutrition and food shortages, particularly in vulnerable
regions. Contaminated water sources further compromise health
 Mental Health Impacts: Exposure to extreme weather events, displacement, and the
anxiety associated with climate change can lead to increased rates of stress, anxiety,
depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder
 Injuries and Fatalities from Extreme Weather: Direct impacts from floods, storms,
and wildfires can cause injuries, fatalities, and long-term disabilities Effect on
Biodiversity
Climate change is a major driver of biodiversity loss, impacting ecosystems and species
across the globe:
 Habitat Loss and Degradation: Rising sea levels inundate coastal habitats, extreme
weather events destroy ecosystems, and changes in temperature and precipitation alter
habitat suitability
 Species Range Shifts: As temperatures rise, many species are forced to shift their
geographic ranges towards cooler poles or higher altitudes. Species that cannot adapt
or migrate quickly enough face extinction
 Phenological Mismatches: Changes in seasonal timing (e.g., earlier spring, altered
migration patterns) can disrupt ecological interactions, such as predator-prey
relationships or plant-pollinator synchrony, leading to reproductive failures or reduced
survival
 Increased Extinction Risk: Vulnerable species, particularly those with limited
dispersal abilities, narrow climatic tolerances, or restricted habitats (e.g., polar bears,
coral reef species), face a heightened risk of extinction
 Ocean Acidification Impacts: As discussed, ocean acidification directly harms
marine organisms with calcium carbonate shells or skeletons, such as corals, shellfish,
and plankton, disrupting marine food webs
 Ecosystem Function Disruption: Changes in species composition and abundance
can alter ecosystem processes such as nutrient cycling, primary productivity, and
water purification, leading to cascading effects throughout the ecosystem
 Increased Frequency of Wildfires: Warmer temperatures and drier conditions in
many regions contribute to more frequent and intense wildfires, destroying habitats
and impacting biodiversity

Causes and Consequences of Biodiversity Loss due to Climate Change. Suggest

Conservation Measures.
 Causes of Biodiversity Loss
 Rising global temperatures alter habitat conditions and force species to migrate from
their native regions.
 Changes in rainfall patterns cause droughts and floods, affecting ecosystem
productivity and species survival.
 Extreme climatic events such as cyclones, wildfires, and heat waves destroy habitats
and wildlife populations.
 Sea-level rise inundates coastal ecosystems including mangroves, wetlands, and
estuaries.
 Ocean acidification damages coral reefs and shell-forming marine organisms.
 Climate change promotes the spread of invasive species, pests, and disease-causing
organisms.
 Melting glaciers and polar ice reduce habitats available for cold-adapted species.
 Consequences of Biodiversity Loss
 Loss of species reduces genetic diversity and lowers ecosystem resilience.
 Extinction of species disrupts food chains and ecological interactions.
 Habitat degradation decreases ecosystem productivity and ecological stability.
 Loss of pollinators affects agricultural productivity and food security.
  Reduction in biodiversity decreases ecosystem services such as nutrient cycling and
water purification.
 Forests with lower biodiversity store less carbon, accelerating climate change impacts.
 Economic sectors such as agriculture, fisheries, forestry, and tourism suffer due to
biodiversity decline.
 Conservation Measures
 Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions through renewable energy and energy-
efficient technologies.
 Protection and restoration of forests, wetlands, grasslands, mangroves, and coral reefs.
 Afforestation and reforestation programs to improve carbon sequestration and habitat
availability.
 Expansion of protected areas, wildlife sanctuaries, and biodiversity reserves.
 Development of wildlife corridors to facilitate species migration and adaptation.
 Promotion of sustainable agriculture, forestry, and fisheries practices.
 Conservation of endangered species through habitat management and captive
breeding programs.
 Strengthening environmental policies, biodiversity monitoring, and community
participation in conservation activities.
 Effective conservation measures improve ecosystem resilience and help reduce
biodiversity loss under changing climatic conditions.

Introduction to Global Efforts in Conservation of Biodiversity

Global efforts in biodiversity conservation recognize the intrinsic value of biodiversity and its
essential role in maintaining ecosystem services vital for human well-being These efforts
involve a multi-faceted approach, combining international agreements, national policies,
scientific research, and local community engagement.
 International Conventions and Agreements:
o Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): A landmark international treaty
adopted in 1992, the CBD has three main objectives: the conservation of
biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and
equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic
resources. It sets global targets (e.g., Aichi Biodiversity Targets, now
superseded by the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework) and
encourages national strategies.
o Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora (CITES): Regulates international trade in specimens of wild
animals and plants to ensure that such trade does not threaten their survival
o Ramsar Convention on Wetlands: An intergovernmental treaty that provides
the framework for national action and international cooperation for the
conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources
 o World Heritage Convention: Identifies and protects cultural and natural
heritage sites around the world considered to be of outstanding universal
value.
 Protected Areas: The establishment and effective management of national parks,
wildlife sanctuaries, marine protected areas, and other forms of protected areas are
fundamental to in situ conservation, protecting habitats and species within their
natural environments
 Ex Situ Conservation: This involves conserving components of biodiversity outside
their natural habitats, such as in botanical gardens, zoological parks, seed banks, and
gene banks. These facilities play a crucial role in preserving genetic diversity and
supporting reintroduction programs
 Sustainable Use and Management: Promoting sustainable practices in agriculture,
forestry, fisheries, and tourism to minimize negative impacts on biodiversity while
meeting human needs. This includes ecosystem-based management approaches.
 Restoration Ecology: Efforts to restore degraded ecosystems and habitats to improve
their ecological function and support biodiversity
 Capacity Building and Education: Strengthening institutional and human capacities
for biodiversity conservation, raising public awareness, and promoting environmental
education
 Financial Mechanisms: Mobilizing financial resources for biodiversity conservation
from national budgets, international aid, private sector investments, and innovative
financing mechanisms
 Research and Monitoring: Scientific research to understand biodiversity patterns,
threats, and effective conservation strategies, along with long-term monitoring to
track changes and assess the effectiveness of conservation interventions
 Effects of Climate Change on Biodiversity and its Impacts on Terrestrial,
Aquatic and Marine Ecosystems
 Climate change alters temperature, precipitation patterns, and atmospheric conditions,
affecting the survival and distribution of species worldwide.
 Rising temperatures force many plant and animal species to migrate towards higher
altitudes and latitudes in search of suitable habitats.
 Changes in seasonal patterns affect flowering, breeding, nesting, and migration
cycles, disrupting ecological balance.
 Frequent droughts, floods, heat waves, and storms destroy habitats and reduce species
populations.
 Impacts on Terrestrial Ecosystems
 Higher temperatures and reduced rainfall decrease forest productivity and increase
vegetation stress.
 Climate change increases the frequency and intensity of forest fires, causing habitat
destruction and biodiversity loss.
 Species shift towards cooler regions, resulting in changes in ecosystem composition
and food-web interactions.
  Mountain ecosystems face habitat shrinkage as species move to higher elevations with
limited space.
 Example: Himalayan species such as snow leopard and alpine vegetation are shifting
towards higher altitudes.
 Impacts on Aquatic Ecosystems
 Rising water temperatures reduce dissolved oxygen levels, affecting fish and other
aquatic organisms.
 Changes in rainfall patterns alter river flows and disrupt breeding and migration of
aquatic species.
 Wetlands experience drying and habitat degradation, affecting migratory birds and
aquatic biodiversity.
 Sensitive freshwater species decline while pollution-tolerant species become
dominant.
 Example: Reduced river flow and increased temperature adversely affect freshwater
fish populations.
 Impacts on Marine Ecosystems
 Ocean warming causes changes in the distribution and abundance of marine species.
 Coral bleaching occurs when elevated temperatures force corals to expel symbiotic
algae.
 Ocean acidification affects shell-forming organisms such as mollusks and plankton.
 Sea-level rise submerges coastal habitats including mangroves, estuaries, and salt
marshes.
 Example: Repeated bleaching events have significantly damaged the Great Barrier
Reef ecosystem.
 Climate change ultimately leads to habitat loss, species extinction, ecosystem
instability, and reduction of ecosystem services.

Causes of Biodiversity Loss Due to Climate Change

1. Rising Global Temperature
Increasing temperatures alter habitat suitability and force species to migrate or adapt.
2. Changes in Rainfall Patterns
Irregular rainfall causes droughts, floods, and habitat degradation.
3. Extreme Weather Events
Cyclones, heat waves, floods, and wildfires destroy habitats and reduce species populations.
4. Sea Level Rise
Coastal habitats such as mangroves, estuaries, and wetlands are submerged.
5. Ocean Acidification
Increased carbon dioxide absorption reduces ocean pH and affects marine organisms.
6. Melting Glaciers and Polar Ice
Loss of ice-dependent habitats threatens cold-region species.
7. Increased Pest and Disease Outbreaks
Climate change promotes the spread of pathogens and invasive species.
 Consequences of Biodiversity Loss
1. Species Extinction
Many species may disappear permanently due to inability to adapt to changing climatic
conditions.
2. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation
Natural ecosystems become degraded and fragmented, reducing species survival.
3. Disruption of Food Chains
Loss of one species affects several other dependent organisms.
4. Reduced Ecosystem Services
Important services such as pollination, water purification, nutrient cycling, and carbon
sequestration decline.
5. Loss of Genetic Diversity
Reduced genetic variation lowers species resilience to environmental changes.
6. Economic Impacts
Agriculture, fisheries, forestry, and tourism sectors suffer due to biodiversity decline.
7. Threat to Human Well-being
Loss of biodiversity affects food security, livelihoods, and ecosystem health.

Suitable Conservation Measures

1. Reduction of Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Promote renewable energy, energy efficiency, and low-carbon technologies.

2. Habitat Conservation and Restoration

Protect forests, wetlands, grasslands, coral reefs, and mangroves.

3. Establishment of Protected Areas

Expand national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and biosphere reserves.

4. Afforestation and Reforestation

Increase forest cover to enhance carbon sequestration and habitat availability.

5. Sustainable Resource Management

Adopt sustainable agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and water management practices.

6. Conservation of Endangered Species

Implement captive breeding, species recovery, and habitat management programs.

7. Strengthening Environmental Policies

Enforce biodiversity conservation laws and climate adaptation strategies.

8. Community Participation
Encourage local communities in biodiversity monitoring and conservation activities.

9. Research and Monitoring

Conduct long-term biodiversity assessments and climate impact studies.
10. International Cooperation

Support global initiatives such as the Convention on Biological Diversity and United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change for biodiversity and climate protection.
EIA Regulations in India, Status of EIA in India, List of Projects Needing
Environmental Clearance under EIA Notifications
Stages Involved in the EIA Process
Project Proposal
↓
Screening
↓
Scoping
↓
Baseline Environmental Data Collection
↓
Impact Prediction and Assessment
↓
Mitigation Measures
↓
Preparation of EIA Report
↓
Public Consultation
↓
Appraisal
↓
Environmental Clearance
↓
Post-Clearance Monitoring
Stages Involved in the EIA Process
1. Screening
Screening is the first stage of the EIA process. It determines whether a project requires
environmental clearance and the extent of environmental assessment needed. Based on the
size, capacity, and potential environmental impacts, projects are classified into Category A or
Category B under the EIA Notification, 2006.
2. Scoping
Scoping identifies the important environmental issues that need detailed study. During this
stage, the Terms of Reference (ToR) are prepared, specifying the scope of investigation, study
area, environmental parameters, and methodologies to be adopted for the EIA study.
3. Baseline Environmental Data Collection
This stage involves collecting information about the existing environmental conditions of the
project area before project implementation. Data related to air quality, water quality, soil
characteristics, noise levels, ecological resources, and socio-economic conditions are
gathered to establish a reference for impact assessment.
4. Impact Prediction and Assessment
The likely environmental impacts of the proposed project are identified and evaluated. The
assessment considers impacts on air, water, land, ecology, and human health. The
significance, extent, duration, and nature of impacts are analyzed using scientific methods
and environmental models.
5. Mitigation Measures
Suitable measures are proposed to minimize or eliminate adverse environmental impacts.
These measures may include pollution control systems, wastewater treatment facilities, green
belt development, solid waste management practices, and noise control measures.
6. Preparation of EIA Report
All findings of the environmental study are compiled into an EIA report. The report includes
project details, baseline environmental conditions, impact assessment, mitigation measures,
environmental management plan, and monitoring requirements.
7. Public Consultation
Public consultation provides an opportunity for local communities and stakeholders to
express their views regarding the project. Public hearings are conducted to collect
suggestions, concerns, and objections, which are considered during project evaluation.
8. Appraisal
The EIA report is reviewed by the Expert Appraisal Committee (EAC) or State Expert
Appraisal Committee (SEAC). The committee evaluates the adequacy of the study and the
effectiveness of proposed mitigation measures before making recommendations.
9. Environmental Clearance
Based on the appraisal, environmental clearance is granted by the Ministry of Environment,
Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) or the State Environment Impact Assessment
Authority (SEIAA). The approval may include specific environmental conditions to be
followed by the project proponent.
10. Post-Clearance Monitoring
After project approval, regular monitoring is carried out to ensure compliance with
environmental clearance conditions. Environmental audits and periodic reporting help assess
the effectiveness of mitigation measures and environmental management practices.
EIA Regulations in India
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a crucial tool for integrating environmental
considerations into the development process, ensuring that potential environmental impacts
of proposed projects are identified, predicted, evaluated, and mitigated before decisions are
made). In India, EIA is mandated under the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986. The
specific regulations governing EIA are primarily laid down in the EIA Notification, 2006,
which superseded the earlier 1994 notification, and subsequent amendments
Key features of the Indian EIA regulations include:
 Mandatory Environmental Clearance: Certain categories of projects, listed in the
EIA Notification, require prior environmental clearance (EC) from either the Ministry
of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) at the central level or the
State Environmental Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA) at the state level
(Environmental Impact Assessment: A Practical Guide).
 Categorization of Projects: Projects are categorized into 'Category A' and 'Category
B'.
o Category A projects are those that require EC from the central MoEF&CC, as
they have the potential for significant environmental impacts.
o Category B projects require EC from the SEIAA. Category B projects are
further sub-divided into B1 (requiring full EIA process) and B2 (not requiring
EIA, but needing scrutiny by the Expert Appraisal Committee/State Expert
Appraisal Committee) (Environmental Law in India).
 Stages of EIA Process: The EIA process typically involves four stages:
1. Screening: Determining whether a project requires EC and, if so, its category.
2. Scoping: Identifying the key environmental issues and terms of reference for
the EIA study.
3. Public Consultation: Involving local communities and stakeholders through
public hearings and/or written submissions to gather their concerns and
suggestions. This stage is mandatory for certain projects.
4. Appraisal: Evaluation of the EIA report and recommendations by an Expert
Appraisal Committee (EAC) at the central level or State Expert Appraisal
Committee (SEAC) at the state level, leading to a recommendation for grant or
rejection of EC (Environmental Impact Assessment: A Practical Guide).
  EIA Report: The project proponent is required to prepare a detailed EIA report based
on the terms of reference, assessing the potential impacts and proposing mitigation
measures.
 Environmental Management Plan (EMP): A crucial component of the EIA report,
outlining the measures to be taken during project construction and operation to
mitigate adverse environmental impacts (Environmental Law in India).
 Post-Clearance Monitoring: Projects granted EC are subject to regular monitoring to
ensure compliance with the conditions stipulated in the clearance letter.
Status of EIA in India
The status of EIA in India has evolved significantly since its inception, facing both
achievements and challenges:
 Strengthening Legal Framework: The EIA Notification, 2006, and subsequent
amendments have provided a more structured and comprehensive legal framework for
environmental clearance in India (Environmental Law in India).
 Increased Awareness: EIA has contributed to increased environmental awareness
among project proponents, regulatory bodies, and the public (Environmental Impact
Assessment: A Practical Guide).
 Challenges and Criticisms:
o Quality of EIA Reports: Concerns have been raised about the quality of EIA
reports, with allegations of inadequate data, biased assessments, and copy-
pasting from previous reports (Environmental Law in India).
o Public Consultation Effectiveness: The public consultation process has often
been criticized for being a mere formality, with limited genuine participation
and influence on decision-making.
o Compliance and Monitoring: Weak post-clearance monitoring and
enforcement mechanisms often lead to non-compliance with EC conditions
(Environmental Impact Assessment: A Practical Guide).
o Expert Appraisal Committees: Concerns about the composition,
independence, and technical expertise of EACs and SEACs have been raised.
o Delays in Clearance: The process can sometimes be lengthy, leading to
project delays and economic costs.
o Exemptions and Post-Facto Clearances: There have been instances of
projects operating without EC or seeking post-facto clearances, undermining
the preventive nature of EIA (Environmental Law in India).
 Recent Developments: The government has periodically introduced amendments and
new draft notifications (e.g., Draft EIA Notification, 2020) aimed at streamlining the
 process, but these have also faced criticism for potentially diluting environmental
safeguards.
List of Projects Needing Environmental Clearance under EIA Notifications
The EIA Notification, 2006, along with its amendments, lists various projects and activities
that require prior environmental clearance. This list is extensive and categorized into sectors.
Some of the major categories include (Environmental Law in India; Environmental Impact
Assessment: A Practical Guide):
 Mining of Minerals: All types of mining projects, including minor minerals, with
specified thresholds.
 Offshore and Onshore Oil and Gas Exploration, Development & Production:
Projects related to hydrocarbon exploration and production.
 River Valley Projects: Including hydro-electric power projects, major irrigation
projects, and flood control projects.
 Thermal Power Plants: All types of thermal power generation projects (coal, gas,
naphtha based).
 Nuclear Power Projects: Including nuclear power plants and processing of nuclear
fuel.
 Mineral Beneficiation: Projects involving the processing of minerals.
 Metallurgical Industries (Ferrous & Non-Ferrous): Large-scale metal production
and processing units.
 Cement Plants: All types of cement manufacturing units.
 Foundries: Units involved in casting metals.
 Chemical Industries: Including petrochemical complexes, basic chemicals, synthetic
organic chemicals, fertilizers, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and dyes.
 Man-made Fibres Manufacturing: Production of synthetic fibers.
 Distilleries: Alcohol production units.
 Sugar Industry: Sugar manufacturing units.
 Pulp & Paper Industry: Production of pulp and paper.
 Leather/Hide Processing: Tanneries.
 Coke Oven Plants: Production of coke.
 Asbestos Milling & Asbestos Based Products: Manufacturing units using asbestos.
 Building and Construction Projects: Large-scale construction projects, including
townships, industrial estates, and special economic zones, above certain built-up area
thresholds.
  Ports, Harbours, Break Waters and Dredging: Infrastructure projects in coastal
areas.
 Airports: Construction and expansion of airports.
 Highways: New national highways and expansion of existing ones.
 Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs): Facilities for treating industrial
wastewater.
 Common Municipal Solid Waste Management Facilities: Including landfills and
waste-to-energy plants.
 Common Hazardous Waste Treatment, Storage and Disposal Facilities (TSDFs):
Facilities for managing hazardous waste.
 Common Bio-Medical Waste Treatment Facilities: Facilities for treating medical
waste.
 Industrial Estates/Parks/Complexes/Areas, Export Processing Zones (EPZs),
Special Economic Zones (SEZs), etc.: Development of industrial infrastructure.
The specific thresholds and conditions for each project type determine whether it falls under
Category A or B and requires an EIA.
Case Study of Hydro Power/Thermal Power Projects
Hydro Power Projects
Hydro power projects involve harnessing the energy of flowing water to generate electricity.
While considered a renewable energy source, they can have significant environmental and
social impacts, necessitating EIA.
Environmental Impacts:
 Habitat Fragmentation and Loss: Construction of dams and reservoirs inundates
vast areas, leading to the loss of forests, agricultural land, and terrestrial habitats. This
fragments ecosystems and isolates wildlife populations
 Alteration of Riverine Ecosystems: Dams change the natural flow regime of rivers,
affecting water temperature, sediment transport, and nutrient cycling. This can impact
aquatic biodiversity, including fish migration (e.g., salmon) and downstream
ecosystems (Environmental Law in India).
 Reservoir-Induced Seismicity: The impoundment of large volumes of water in
reservoirs can sometimes induce seismic activity in geologically unstable regions
 Greenhouse Gas Emissions: While generally considered low-carbon, reservoirs in
tropical regions can release significant amounts of methane and carbon dioxide due to
the decomposition of submerged organic matter
  Water Quality Changes: Reservoirs can lead to stratification, reduced oxygen levels,
and altered water chemistry, impacting downstream water quality and aquatic life.
 Impact on Riparian Vegetation: Changes in water flow can affect the health and
composition of vegetation along riverbanks.
Social Impacts:
 Displacement and Resettlement: Large-scale displacement of local communities,
particularly indigenous populations, due to reservoir inundation. This often leads to
loss of livelihoods, cultural heritage, and social disruption.
 Impact on Livelihoods: Loss of agricultural land, fishing grounds, and forest
resources for communities dependent on the river and surrounding ecosystems.
 Health Impacts: Changes in water quality and availability can affect public health.
Stagnant water in reservoirs can also create breeding grounds for disease vectors.
 Cultural Heritage Loss: Submergence of historical sites, sacred places, and cultural
landscapes.
EIA Considerations for Hydro Power Projects:
 Detailed assessment of biodiversity in the project area, including aquatic and
terrestrial species.
 Hydrological modeling to predict changes in river flow, sediment transport, and water
quality.
 Socio-economic surveys to assess potential displacement, livelihood impacts, and
cultural heritage loss.
 Analysis of cumulative impacts from multiple dams in a river basin.
 Development of comprehensive resettlement and rehabilitation plans.
 Mitigation measures such as fish ladders, minimum environmental flows, and
compensatory afforestation .
Thermal Power Projects
Thermal power projects, primarily coal-fired, are a major source of electricity but also
significant contributors to air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.
Environmental Impacts:

 Air Pollution: Burning of fossil fuels releases particulate matter ( PM 2.5, PM 10), sulfur
dioxide (SO 2), nitrogen oxides (NO x ), carbon monoxide (CO), and heavy metals (e.g.,
mercury). These pollutants contribute to acid rain, smog, and respiratory diseases

 Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Coal-fired power plants are major emitters of CO 2, a

primary greenhouse gas contributing to global warming
  Ash Generation and Disposal: Large quantities of fly ash and bottom ash are
produced, requiring significant land for disposal in ash ponds or landfills. Improper
disposal can lead to soil and water contamination
 Water Consumption and Pollution: Thermal power plants require large volumes of
water for cooling. Discharge of heated water (thermal pollution) can harm aquatic
ecosystems. Wastewater from ash ponds can contain heavy metals and other
pollutants.
 Land Degradation: Coal mining (often associated with thermal power) leads to
deforestation, habitat destruction, and land degradation.
 Noise Pollution: Operation of machinery and transportation of coal can generate
significant noise pollution.
Social Impacts:
 Health Impacts: Air pollution from thermal power plants has severe health
consequences for nearby communities, including respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular
diseases, and increased mortality rates (The Oxford Handbook of Climate Change and
Society).
 Displacement: Land acquisition for power plants, ash ponds, and associated
infrastructure can lead to displacement of local communities.
 Livelihood Impacts: Pollution of air and water can affect agriculture, fisheries, and
other traditional livelihoods.
 Resource Depletion: Intensive use of coal and water resources can lead to local
resource scarcity.
EIA Considerations for Thermal Power Projects:
 Detailed air quality modeling to predict dispersion of pollutants and assess impacts on
human health and ecosystems.
 Assessment of water availability and potential impacts on local water resources,
including thermal pollution.
 Management plans for ash utilization and disposal, including options for beneficial
use.
 Greenhouse gas emission inventories and strategies for reduction (e.g., use of cleaner
technologies, carbon capture and storage).
 Socio-economic assessment of displacement, livelihood impacts, and health risks.
 Mitigation measures such as flue gas desulfurization (FGD), electrostatic precipitators
(ESPs), low NO x burners, and efficient cooling systems (Environmental Law in India).

 Monitoring of air and water quality, and health impacts in surrounding areas.
In both cases, the EIA process aims to identify these potential impacts early, propose
measures to avoid, minimize, or compensate for them, and ultimately inform decision-making
to ensure that development proceeds in an environmentally and socially responsible manner.