Inheritance
Chromosomes, Genes and
Proteins
● Chromosomes: made of DNA, which contains genetic information in the form of
genes
● Gene: a length of DNA that codes for a protein
● Allele: an alternative form of a gene
● Inheritance of sex in humans is used with X and Y chromosomes.
● Haploid nucleus: a nucleus containing a single set of unpaired chromosomes
(e.g., sperm and egg)
● Diploid nucleus: a nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes (e.g., in body
cells)
● The sequence of bases in a gene determines the sequence of amino acids
used to make a specific protein.
● Different sequences of amino acids give different shapes to protein molecules.
DNA and Protein Synthesis
DNA: controls cell function by controlling the production of proteins, including enzymes,
membrane carriers, and receptors for neurotransmitters
● DNA has 2 long strands and 4 nucleotides, AT and CG
● mRNA has AU and CG bases
● Overall, protein synthesis occurs outside of the nucleus in the cytoplasm
● Protein synthesis has two stages:
○ Transcription (rewriting the base code of DNA into bases of mRNA)
○ Translation (using mRNA base sequence to build amino acids into a
sequence in a protein)
● How proteins are made:
○ the gene coding for the protein remains in the nucleus
○ messenger RNA (mRNA) is a copy of a gene
○ mRNA molecules are made in the nucleus and move to the cytoplasm
○ the mRNA passes through ribosomes
○ the ribosome assembles amino acids into protein molecules
○ the sequence determines the specific order of amino acids of bases in the
mRNA
● All body cells in an organism contain the same genes, but many genes in a
particular cell are not expressed because the cell only makes the specific
proteins it needs
Cell Division: Mitosis
Mitosis: The nuclear division gives rise to genetically identical cells
● Mitosis is needed for:
○ Growth: in animals, each tissue provides its own new cells when needed.
○ Repair damaged tissues: for example, when you cut your skin, mitosis
provides new cells to cover up cuts.
○ Replacement of worn-out cells
○ Asexual reproduction: in plants
● The exact replication of chromosomes occurs before mitosis
● During mitosis, the copies of chromosomes separate, maintaining the
chromosome number in each daughter cell
Stem Cells: unspecialised cells that divide by mitosis to produce daughter cells that can
become specialised for specific functions
Cell Division: Meiosis
Meiosis: Reduction division in which the chromosome number is halved from diploid to
haploid
● Meiosis is involved in the production of gametes.
● Meiosis results in genetic variation, so the cells produced are not all genetically
identical.
● Gametes such as sperm and ovum are produced via meiosis.
Monohybrid Inheritance
Inheritance: The transmission of genetic information from generation to generation.
● Here are some common terminologies you should know to understand
monohybrid inheritance.
Terminologies
● Genotype: the genetic makeup of an organism in terms of the alleles present
(e.g. Tt or GG)
● Phenotype: the observable features of an organism (e.g. tall plant or green
seed)
genotype + environment + random variation → phenotype
● Homozygous: having two identical alleles of a particular gene (e.g. TT or gg).
Two identical homozygous individuals that breed together will be pure-breeding
● Heterozygous: having two different alleles of a particular gene (e.g. Tt or Gg),
not pure-breeding
● Dominant: an allele that is expressed if it is present (e.g. T or G)
● Recessive: an allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele of
the gene present (e.g. t or g)
Pedigree Diagram
● Pedigree diagrams trace the inheritance pattern of a specific characteristic
(usually a disease) through generations of a family.
● Pure Breeding: The individual is homozygous for that characteristic
● This can determine the probability that someone in the family will inherit the
genetic disorder.
Genetic Diagrams
● Monohybrid Inheritance can be determined using a genetic diagram known as a
Punnett square.
● A Punnett square diagram shows the possible combinations of alleles that
could be produced in the offspring.
● The dominant allele is shown using a capital letter, and the recessive allele
uses the same letter but lowercase.
● If you are asked to use your own letters to represent the alleles in a Punnett
square, try to choose a letter that is obviously different as a capital than the
lowercase so the examiner is not left doubt as to which is dominant and which is
recessive.
1:1 Monohybrid Crosses
● In this cross, there is a 1:1 ratio of boy to girl, meaning a 50% chance of the
offspring being a boy and a 50% chance of the offspring being a girl.
3:1 Monohybrid Crosses
● There is more variation in this cross, with a 3:1 ratio of brown eyes: blue eyes,
meaning each offspring has a 75% chance of having brown eyes and a 25%
chance of having blue eyes
Modification of Mendelian
Genetics
Codominance
Codominance: a condition where two alleles of a gene are equally dominant (50%)
● Both alleles are equally expressed in the phenotype of the heterozygote.
● For example, if the parent phenotype is red and white, a co-dominant will have
both red and white colour in the offspring.
ABO Blood Group (Codominance and Multiple Allele)
● Inheritance of blood group is an example of codominance
● There are three alleles for the blood group given by the symbols IA, IB and IO.
● IA and IB are co-dominant giving blood group AB or IAIB, and both dominant to IO.
Sex-Linked Characteristics
Sex-linked characteristic: a characteristic in which the gene responsible is located on
a sex chromosome, making it more common in one sex than in the other.
● Generally, in the IGCSE syllabus, the most common is X-linked recessive trait.
● X-linked recessive disorders are more common in males than in females.
Syllabus 17.4.18: You must be able to use genetic diagrams to predict the results of
monohybrid crosses involving codominance or sex linkage and calculate phenotypic
ratios.