mmz 2003

Objectives

Terminal Objective

Upon completion of this module, the participant will be able

to measure the thickness of piping and vessel walls by
ultrasonic test, using the Ultrasonic instrument.
The participant will be able know basic Ultrasonic Testing
principles.
Enabling Objectives

In order to achieve the terminal objective, the participant will be able to

accomplish the following:
Explain how the Ultrasonic instrument works.
Calibrate an Ultrasonic instrument for specified ultrasonic tests.
Select the proper probe and couplant for specified ultrasonic tests.
Properly prepare a specimen surface for an ultrasonic test.
Document inspection results.
At the end of the lesson the participants will be able to:
understand Non Destructive Testing and Destructive Testing.
know the different methods used in NDT.
list the different NDT applications.
decide the best NDT application.
know advantages of NDT.
list the different industries that involved NDT.
differentiate certification versus qualification.
know the different level of personnel in NDT and their responsibilities.
Definition:

Non Destructive Testing (NDT)Testing of material, component

or assembly by means, which do not affect its ultimate use.

Non Destructive Testing is the applied use of technologies for

inspecting materials to known standards.
Small percentage of batches
of product tested
Measurement of actual forces
applied
Product tested cannot be
reused
Product not tested, assumed
to have the same properties
as product tested
MOST COMMON METHODS
• Visual Testing
• Penetrant Testing
• Magnetic Particle Testing
• Eddy Current Testing
• Ultrasonic Testing
• Radiographic Testing

OTHER METHODS
• Acoustic Emission
• Magnetic Flux Leakage
• Infrared Testing
• Other methods
NDT applications are carried out at almost any stage in
the production or life cycle of a component:

– To assist in product development

– To screen or sort incoming materials
– To monitor, improve or control manufacturing
processes
– To verify proper processing such as heat treating
– To verify proper assembly
– To inspect for in-service damage
Capable of testing 100% of products
Capable of testing before, during, and after
production of components
Capable of testing parts or components in
service/ in operation/ on site
Capable of retesting the products
Various materials, sizes, geometries may be
tested using specific NDT methods.
Costly
May be injurious or deadly
May cause hazards to environment
May cause damage to reputation of the company

May be prevented if NDT and

Inspection were carried out
properly
Oil and Gas
Construction
Metal Fabrication
Chemical
Aerospace
Power Generation
Transportation
Medical
Electronic
Metal Manufacturing
Composite Manufacturing
Inspection and Testing
Research and Development
Training and Certification
 NDT personnel
should posses : High Skill, Knowledge, and Integrity

To achieve these : Proper training and certification

required
Training : By qualified training personnel and
accredited training centres
International Certification Schemes available:
Company Certification
Employees are trained and certified in accordance with the requirements of the
company.
– In-house training
– Internal Certification issued by company
– Valid in the specific company only

Central Certification

Personnel are trained and certified in accordance with the requirements of

independent bodies:
– Training conducted by Accredited Training Centers
– Examinations issued by Independent Certification Bodies
– Certificates issued to personnel
Has its beginning in the early 1960's. The
Society for Nondestructive Testing (SNT at
that time) Board of Directors charged the
Technical Council to develop a set of
guidelines which could be used by employers
to develop their own "In -house" employer
based training, qualification and certification
programs.
This set of guidelines, first published in 1966, is
called the Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-
1A. This document established levels of
qualification based upon a combination of
education, training, experience, and qualification
examinations. The basic levels begin with NDT
Level I primarily used as an operator technician.
The next level requires more training and
experience, but permits more independent
activity including accepting and rejecting test
objects. The NDT Level III requires
experience comparable to an NDT Level II.
there are several personnel qualification and
certification programs used, SNT-TC-1A
employer based certification has been widely
accepted throughout the United States as the
primary guide used for NDT personnel
certification. This document is revised
periodically, usually every 4 years. The current
revision is the 2016 Edition.
 Page 6
Qualified to perform specific
calibrations,
Record test result
Specific examinations and specific
evaluations (with specific written
instructions).
 Page 6

Qualified to set-up and calibrate equipment and

to interpret and evaluate results with respect to
codes, standards, and specifications.
Must be able to organize and report NDT test
result.
Prepare written instructions, qualified to provide
on-the-job training and guidance of trainees and
report examination results.
 Page 6

must be capable and responsible for establishing

techniques, interpreting codes, and designating
the test method and technique to be used,
Capable of training and examining NDT Level I
and II personnel for certification.
Must have a practical background in the
technology and be familiar with other commonly
used methods of NDT.
 Page 7

The major challenge is to learn as much as

possible during the qualification process.
The another challenge is upgrading the
knowledge,
Our mind should be set as there is something
more to learn every day and every moment.
 Page 7

The knowledge is so important in NDT and of

course there is no replacement for the same
As the NDT deals directly to the life of people
its very important to perform the best.
 Page 7

The two important terms related in the NDT

field are Qualification and certification.

Qualification is the process take place before

one person can be get certified.
 Page 7

Formal training in the fundamental principles

and applications
Experience in the application of the method
under the supervision of certified individual
Demonstrated ability to pass written and
practical test
The ability to pass the vision test for visual
acuity and color perception
 Page 8

Is the written testimony of the individual of

his proper qualification
The certificates are available in 03 forms like
Level I, Level II and level III.
 Page 8

1. Name
2. Identification of method
3. Level of certification
4. Date and name of certification issuing
person.
 Page 8

Correct certification and qualification is

extremely important because the inspection
performed by the technician is directly related
to the health and safety of humans.
 Page 8
Its an organized program developed to
provide personals the necessary knowledge
and skill.
Normally this will be a class room program
The duration will be specified by the
employer
 Page 8
Include work activities accomplished under
the direct supervision of a qualified and
certified individual.
Time spent in the training program will not
be counted
The experience period will be stated in the
employers written procedure
Level I and II should pass the general, specific
and Practical exam.
Level III should pass the Basic, Method and
specific exams

Page 8
The duty of certification is the responsibility
of Employer.
The personnel's may be certified when they
complete the initial training, experience,
exams and other requirements of the
employer.

Page 8
 Say True or False :

1. The responsibility of issuing a certificates to the NDT Examiner is always

retained by the employer in compliance with the SNT-TC- I A document.

2. ASNT provides a service for examining Level-I, II and I III personnel in the
General and Specific areas.

3. lf the SNT-TC- I A document is to be used as a recommended guideline, the

"Written practice” must be submitted to ASNT for approval.

4. If the SNT-TC- TA guidelines are followed, the Level I II examiner should have a
knowledge of other commonly used methods of NDT even though certification
is needed only in the ultrasonic area.
1. A level I examiner performing an ultrasonic test is permitted (In accordance with SNT-TC- l A)
to accept or reject the part provided that written instructions or procedures are given to him
by a Level II or level III.

2. To comply with the guidelines of SNT-TC- IA, all three levels of examiners must take a General',
‘Practical' and Specific' test if examinations are used to determine certification.

3. If an employer does not have a Level lII in his company, the services of an outside agency may
be retained to perform these functions.
mmz 2003
At the end of the lesson the trainees will be able to:

Know the history of ultrasonic testing.

Understand Ultrasonic Testing (Inspection) and where it is used.
Understand the advantages and disadvantages of Ultrasonic Testing.
 Origins

Soviet Scientist Sergei Y. Sokolov is considered the father of modern ultrasonic testing. In
1928, Sokolov successfully demonstrated how to use ultrasonics to detect flaws in
metals. Unsurprisingly, Sokolov proposed that this technique would be beneficial in the
industrial arena for testing irregularities in solid materials. Sokolov's experimentation laid
the groundwork for future developments in ultrasonic testing (Portal of Non-Destructive
Testing).
 Commercial Use

In 1942, British scientist Donald Sproule successfully adapted the principles of echo-
sounding for the detection of defects in steel. Sproule's apparatus was unique, because it
had separate transmitting and receiving transducers. Across the pond in the United States,
scientist Floyd Firestone had independently developed a similar ultrasonic device. In 1945,
Firestone's 'Supersonic Reflectoscope' became the first commercially available ultrasonic
flaw [Link] the twenty years that followed, ultrasonic testing was refined and became
a trusted resource by manufacturers for flaw detection.
• To understand and
appreciate the
capability and limitation
of UT
Sound is transmitted in the material to be tested
The sound reflected back to
the probe is displayed on
the Flaw Detector

0 2 4 6 8 10
The distance the sound traveled can be displayed on the Flaw Detector
The screen can be calibrated to give accurate readings of the distance
Signal from the backwall

0 2 4 6 8 10

Bottom / Backwall
The presence of a Defect in the material shows up on the screen of the flaw
detector with a less distance than the bottom of the material
The BWE signal
Defect signal

Defect 0 2 4 6 8 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

60 mm

0 2 4 6 8 10

The depth of the defect can be read with reference to

the marker on the screen
 Y
axis

Peak
Vertical / Amplitude
(%)

Amount of reflected
Echo / Amplitude
sound energy

X
Division
axis
0 2 4 6 8 10
Sub-division
Horizontal / Time Base / Depth / Distance /
Range / Beam Path Length(BPL)
Calculation:

Range
1 Number of Echoes =
Thickness cal. blocks

Range
2 Division = Number of division (10)

Division
3 Sub-Division =
Number of sub-div. (5)
The closer the reflector to
the surface, the signal will C B A
be more to the left of the
screen

30 46 68

The thickness is read from the screen

The THINNER the material the

C less distance the sound travel

A
It can detect to both surface and sub surface defects
The depth of the defect can be measured easily
Only one side accessibility
It can determine the position size and shape of the
defect
Minimal part preparation required
Instant results
Detailed images can be produced with automated
systems
It can be use for thickness measurements, in
addition to flaw detection
Portable
Surface preparation is required. (Rough surface will be
difficult)
Skill and training is more extensive. (Experience and
high technical knowledge technician)
Always couplants are required
Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are
difficult to inspect
Discontinuities just beneath the surface will be difficult
and linear oriented parallel may go undetedcted
Reference standards are required for both equipment
calibration and flaw standardization.
There is no permanent record
mmz 2003
Answer the following questions:

Testing of materials which do not affect its ultimate use.

❑ NDT

NDT’s most common method

❑ Visual Testing
❑ Penetrant Testing
❑ Magnetic Particle Testing
❑ Eddy Current Testing
❑ Ultrasonic Testing
❑ Radiographic Testing
Industries involve in NDT
❑ Oil and Gas
❑ Construction
❑ Metal Fabrication
❑ Chemical
❑ Aerospace
❑ Power Generation
A type of testing where small percentage of batches of product tested and the product
tested cannot be reused.
❑ Destructive Testing

A type of certification where employees are trained and certified in accordance of the
requirement of the company.
❑ Company Certification

Personnel are trained and certified in accordance with the requirements of

independent bodes.
❑ Central Certification
Is the process take place before one person can be get certified.
❑ Qualification

Is the written testimony of the individual of his proper qualification

❑ Certification

This document established levels of qualification based upon a

combination of education, training, experience, and qualification
examinations.
❑ SNT TC 1A
Principles of Sound
 Sonic / Audible
Human Ultrasonic
Infrasound/ 16Hz - 20kHz •20kHz = 20,000Hz
Subsonic

0 10 100 1K 10K 100K 1M 10M 100m

Ultrasonic Testing
0.5MHz - 50MHz
▪ Basing on the frequency the sound can
be classified into three types:
[Link] Sound
[Link]
[Link]
 Sonic / Audible
Ultrasonic
Infrasound/ Human
16Hz - 20kHz •20kHz = 20,000Hz
Subsonic

0 10 100 1K 10K 100K 1M 10M 100m

Ultrasonic Testing
0.5MHz - 50MHz

1. The sound which has a frequency below

20Hz will be termed as Infrasonic
2. The sound which has a frequency between
20Hz to 20,000Hz will be termed as Audible
3. The sound which has frequencies above
20,000Hz will be termed as Ultrasonic Sound
Sound

Sound is a wave that is created by vibrating objects and propagated through a medium
from one location to another.

A wave can be described as a disturbance that travels through a medium, transporting

energy from one location to another location.

The medium is simply the material through which the wave is moving; it can be thought
of as a series of interacting particles. Solid, liquid and gas.
• Sound cannot travel in
vacuum

SOLID LIQUID GAS

High density Medium density Low density

Strong bonding Medium bonding Weak bonding
Crystallographic structure
• Wavelength :
The distance required to complete a cycle
– Measured in Meter or mm
• Frequency :
The number of cycles per unit time
– Measured in Hertz (Hz) or MHz
• Velocity :
How quick the sound travels
Distance per unit time
– Measured in meter / second (m / sec) or Km/sec
 • The velocity of sound in a particular material is CONSTANT
• It depend upon the density and elastic property of the material.
• It will NOT change if frequency changes
• Only the wavelength changes
• Examples:
V Compression in steel : 5960 m/s
V Compression in water : 1470 m/s
V Compression in air : 330 m/s
5 M Hz

STEEL WATER AIR

What is the velocity difference in steel compared with in water?

4 times

If the frequency remain constant, in what material does sound

has the highest velocity, steel, water, or air?
Steel
If the frequency remain constant, in what material does sound
has the shortest wavelength, steel, water, or air?
Air
Remember the formula
=v/f
 Glass
High Frequency
5 K Hz

DRUM BEAT
Low Frequency Sound
40 Hz
• Sound : mechanical vibration

What is Ultrasonic?
Very High Frequency sound – above 20 KHz
20,000 cps
• Frequency :Number of cycles per second

1 second 1 second 1 second

1 cycle per 1 second = 1 3 cycle per 1 second = 3 18 cycle per 1 second =

Hertz Hertz 18 Hertz

THE HIGHER THE FREQUENCY THE SMALLER THE WAVELENGTH

• 1 Hz = 1 cycle per second
• 1 Kilohertz = 1 KHz = 1000Hz
• 1 Megahertz = 1 MHz = 1000 000Hz

20 KHz = 20 000 Hz
5 M Hz = 5 000 000 Hz
 Wavelength is the distance required to complete a cycle.
Sound waves are the vibration of particles in solids, liquids or gases.
Particles vibrate about a mean position.
wavelength
Displacement

The distance
taken to
wavelength complete one
cycle
One cycle
Wavelength Velocity
V
=
f

Frequency
 1 M Hz 5 M Hz 10 M Hz 25 M Hz

LONGEST SMALLEST
=v/f

F F
Which probe has the smallest wavelength?

Which probe has the longest wavelength?

FREQUENCY OF
GENERAL APPLICATION
PROBE
Very coarse grained materials like C.I., S. G. Iron,
0.5 MHz austenitic Stainless Steel, soft plastics, rubber,
composites etc.
For coarse grained materials like steel castings and
1.0 MHz
those with very high thickness.
For large sized components with fair sensitivity
2.0 MHz
requirement like testing of forgings.
For optimum sensitivity, resolution and penetration. For
4.0 MHz inspection of fine grained material and those involving
low thickness.
For very high sensitivity or checking thin walled
6.0 MHz components used in critical space and nuclear
applications.
For obtaining exceptionally high sensitivity and
10.0 MHz resolution. For inspection of materials like titanium,
managing steel etc.
 Effect of frequency

Low Frequency High Frequency

Long wavelength Short wavelength
More beam spread Less beam spread
Shorter near zone Longer near zone
Better penetration Less penetration
Less attenuation More attenuation
Longer dead zone Shorter dead zone
Less sensitivity Higher sensitivity
 Effects of Diameter
Large Diameter Small Diameter

Less beam spread More beam spread

Longer near zone Shorter near zone

Better penetration Less penetration

Less attenuation (due to
More attenuation
beam spread)
Difficult coupling on Easier coupling on
curved surfaces curved surfaces
More coverage on flat Less coverage on flat
surfaces surfaces
 V f =V
= or or V= f
f
5MHz compression wave
probe in steel

5,900 x1000
= = 1.18mm
5,000,000
• Which of the following compressional probe
has the highest sensitivity?
• 1 MHz
• 2 MHz
• 5 MHz
• 10 MHz
10 MHz
• The higher the frequency the smaller the
wavelength
• The smaller the wavelength the higher the
sensitivity
• Sensitivity :The smallest detectable flaw by the
system or technique
• In UT the smallest detectable flaw is ½ (half the
wavelength)
The ultrasonic inspection will be done normally in a range of
0.5MHz to 25MHz
More common is 1 to 10 MHz

The new methodologies will be using frequencies up to 400

MHz for testing laminated materials and will use
frequencies of around 400 KHz for air coupled UT.
This method is used to:

1. Measure the thickness

2. Examine the internal structure of the
material to find internal discontinuities
– The specific areas which has been
inspected will be accepted, repaired or
rejected basing on the serviceability of the
Page 3
object.
UT is used to test both metallic and non
metallic products.
Casting Welding

forging sheet

plastic ceramic
• Find the wave length for a wave travelling in
the speed of 6000m/s with a frequency of
5MHz
1. The time required to perform one complete cycle is called
a. Period b. Frequency C. Wavelength d. Velocity

2. The number of cycles per second (cps) a vibration is called the

a. Period b. Frequency C. Wavelength d. Velocity

3. The words waves, beam and sound are used interchangeably in ultrasonic testing
a. True b. false

4. Assuming a constant frequency, wave length will be longer in

a. Air b. water c. steel

5. For aluminium velocity is 6.5 x 106 mm/sec. what is the smallest defect you can detect
when ½ the wavelength is considered to be the smallest discontinuity that can be detected
with ultrasonic when frequency is 2.5 MHz?
mmz 2003
Basic Principle of Acoustic
In Ultrasonic testing the Sound will be
generated with the help of transducers.
To produce this, a short pulse of electrical
current will be given to the crystal, this will
excite the crystal to vibrate.
The sound generated by the transducer will
pass through the couplant and will enter into
the test object.
All type of sound waves will travel through
solids and only few of the waves will travel
through liquids and air.
Since the density and rigidity is better for
solids the all type of waves will be able to
travel through solids
Types of waves used in Ultrasonic testing are
classified according to the type of vibration:

Longitudinal [compression]
Transverse [shear or angle]
Surface [Rayleigh] Wave
Plate [Lamb] Wave
All materials are made up of atoms linked by
electromagnetic forces.
Solid have better dense atomic structure
when comparing with the liquid.
This is also called compression wave
This is the base form of vibration
Other mode of vibration will be generated from longitudinal wave
This can travel through all modes (Solids, liquids and Gases)
The particle movement and sound propagation will be parallel
They travel in both compression and rare faction modes.
This mode of vibration has the maximum velocity
This will be used to check the thickness and the
discontinuities parallel to the surface.
also called as Transverse wave
particle movement and sound
propagation will be perpendicular
velocity will be almost 50% of
Longitudinal wave
generated by mode conversion of
Longitudinal wave
used to find internal discontinuities which is not parallel to
the surface
travel only through solids
The angle produced by a probe will vary from material to
material.
also called as Rayleigh wave
velocity of this wave will be 2% less than
that of shear wave
particle movement will be elliptical in
shape.
used to check the surface imperfections
working depth of these waves is1λ
travel only through solids
The energy reflection will happen from
sharp corners and from actual
discontinuities.
The wave propagation can be disturbed by
finger dampening.
This is also known as Plate wave
This is used to check thin sheets/plates
When the thickness is equal to or less than 3 λ these
waves will occur
The particle movement will be elliptical in shape
 They velocity will not be constant
the velocity will depend upon:
Thickness of material, frequency applied,
incident angle and type of material.
There are mainly two type of wave forms for
lamb wave
[Link]
[Link]
Wave type Speed Particle Media Defects
movement of
travel
Longitudinal Highest Parallel to wave All Laminar or
direction thickness
Shear ½ Perpendicular Solids Perpendicula
longitudinal to wave direction r or tilted
Surface -8% shear Elliptical Solids Open or
subsurface
Plate -8% shear Elliptical Solids All over plate
This waves will be used to find surface and
subsurface related problems
 • Velocity varies according to the material

Compression waves Shear waves

• Steel 5920 m/s • Steel 3245 m/s

• Water 1470 m/s • Water NA
• Air 344 m/s • Air NA
• Copper 4700 m/s • Copper 2330 m/s
The energy can be reflected, focused and
refracted.
The energy will be reflected from actual
discontinuities.
The energy will be refracted when it is
travelling form one medium to the other
 Homework:
• Manufacturing of UT probes
• History of UT
• Ability of UT to detect surface defects
 Loses intensity
due to

Beam Spread Attenuation

• Sound beam comparable • Energy losses due to
to a torch beam material
•Reduction differs for small •Made up of absorption
and large reflectors and scatter
Attenuation

- is defined as the loss in intensity of the ultrasonic beam as it passes through a

material and is dependent upon the physical properties of the material.

- The energy loss.

- The attenuation can be because of absorption, scattering or reflection.
• Reflection and scattering basically depend upon the grain size and wave
length.
• Scattering will happen whenever the grain size is more than 1/3 times of
wave length
• The bigger the grain size
the worse the problem
• The higher the frequency
of the probe the worse
the problem

1 MHz 5 MHz
 The sound beam
spread out and the
intensity decreases
 Attenuation and beam
80%
spread. 6dB+ reduction
FSH
80%
40%
FSH
FSH
36%
FSH

No attenuation,only beam
spread. 6dB reduction
 • Sound will be either transmitted across or
reflected back

Reflected

How much is reflected and

Interface transmitted depends upon the
relative acoustic impedance of the 2
materials

Transmitted
 Is the resistance of a medium to the passage of sound waves.
Measured in
kg / m2 x sec

Formula
Z V
= Density , V = Velocity

Steel 46.7 x 106

Water 1.48 x 106
Air 0.0041 x 106
Perspex 3.2 x 106

Acoustical Impedance ratio is the factor which determines the

amount of transmission and reflection from an interface.
 2
Z1 Z 2
100 % reflected
Z1 Z 2

% Sound Reflected + % Sound Transmitted = 100%

Therefore
% Sound Transmitted = 100% - % Sound Reflected
Z1 (Steel) = 46.7 x 106
Z2 (Water) =1.48 x 106
2
46.7 1.48
100 % reflected
46.7 1.48
2
45.22
100 % reflected
48.18

2
0. 93856 100 88.09% reflected
 How much sound transmitted?

100 % - the reflected sound

Example : Steel to water

100 % - 88 % ( REFLECTED) = 12 % TRANSMITTED

The BIGGER the Acoustic Impedance Ratio

or Difference between the two materials:
More sound REFLECTED than transmitted.
 Air Steel

Steel
Air
Large Acoustic Impedance Large Acoustic Impedance
Ratio Ratio

Steel Aluminum
Steel
Steel

No Acoustic Impedance Small Acoustic Impedance

Difference Difference
• A sound wave is travelling from media 1 with
Z1=4.616 to media 2 with Z2 =1.07
• Find the ratio of reflected and transmitted
wave.
Reflection and Snell’s Law
Ultrasonic sound wave obeys the laws of
reflection, refraction and diffraction.
Ultrasonic waves are reflected at boundaries
where there are differences in acoustic
impedance
differences in acoustic impedance =
impedance mismatch
The Phenomenon of Sound
REFLECTION
REFRACTION
DIFFRACTION
• Inclined sound waves are generated at an
angle to the probe/test object interface;
• by cementing the element onto a wedge
shaped delay path which is normally made of
Perspex.

[Link]
/
The sound will radiate from vibrating tips
The sound radiating from the tips will have
low and high intensities, giving the impression
of sound bending around the edges of the
defect.
When sound travels in a solid material, one form of
wave energy can be transformed into another
occurs when a wave encounters an interface between
materials of different acoustic impedance and the
incident angle is not normal to the interface.
The wave will split into two or more of wave types
When an ultrasound wave passes through an interface
at an oblique angle, it produces both reflected and
refracted waves.

Refraction takes place at an interface due to the

different velocities of the acoustic waves within the two
materials.
 Law of Reflection
• Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection

60o 60o
 Inclined incidence(not at 90o )
Incident

Transmitted

The sound is refracted due to differences in

sound velocity in the 2 DIFFERENT materials
 REFRACTION
• Only occurs when:
The incident angle is other than 0°

30°

Water Steel Water

Steel Steel Steel

Refracted
 REFRACTION
• Only occurs when:
The incident angle is other than 0°
The Two Materials has different
VELOCITIES

30°
30°

Steel Water

Steel Steel
65°
30°

No Refraction Refracted
Transmitted waves obey the refraction law
Snell's Law describes the relationship between the angles and
the velocities of the waves.
can be used to determine the possibility of detecting defects
 Normal

Incident I
Material 1

Material 2 Refracted
R
Sine I Vel in Material 1
Sine R Vel in Material 2
C
20 Sine I Vel in Material 1
Sine R Vel in Material 2
Perspex
Sine 20 2730
Steel Sine 48.3 5960
48.3 0.4580 0.4580
C
C Sine I Vel in Material 1
15
Sine R Vel in Material 2

Perspex Sine 15 2730

Sine R 5960
Steel
5960
34.4 SinR Sin15
2730
C
SinR 0.565
R 34.4
C
20

Perspex

Steel
48.3

C
24
S
 C
C When an incident beam of sound
approaches an interface of two
different materials:
REFRACTION occurs

Perspex
There may be more than one waveform
Steel transmitted into the second material,
example: Compression and Shear

When a waveform changes

into another waveform:
C
C MODE CHANGE

SS
 If the angle of Incident is
C increased the angle of
refraction also increases

Up to a point where the

Compression Wave is at
Perspex 90° from the Normal

Steel 90° This happens at the

FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE

C
S
The larger the difference in acoustic velocities between the
two materials, the more the sound is refracted.
Notice that the shear wave is not refracted as much as the
longitudinal wave compared to incident. Why?

Also note that when a longitudinal wave is reflected inside

the material, the reflected shear wave is reflected at a
smaller angle than the reflected longitudinal wave. Why?
• Calculate the refracted angle for a wave
travelling from steel (Vi=5900m/s) to
aluminum (Vr=6200m/s) with incident angle
(i) = 45
critical angles calculation are used to design probe angle in relation
with the test material, most angle probes are design for steel

Before first critical angle: There may be more than one waveform
transmitted into the second material
before the 1st critical angle both compression and shear waves are
refracted in the material.
First critical angle: refracted compression wave is at 90° from the
normal and only shear wave is left in the second medium
second critical angle: by further increasing the angle of incident,
shear wave is refracted to 90º from the normal.

shear wave changes to an elliptical motion and becomes surface

wave.
between the 1st and 2nd critical angle only shear wave exists
If the incident angle is increased above 2nd critical, compression and
shear waves totally reflect at the interface and there will be no
wave in the material.
C 27.2 Sine I 2730
Sine 90 5960
Perspex
Sin90 1
C
Steel 2730
SinI
5960
S SinI 0.458
I 27.26
C C Sine I 2730
57.4
Sine 90 3240
Perspex
Sin90 1
S
Steel 2730
SinI
3240
SinI 0.8425
I 57.4
 Before the 1st. Critical Angle: There
1st. are both Compression and Shear
wave in the second material
C
At the FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE
2nd. Compression wave refracted at 90°
Shear wave at 33 degrees in the
material

90° Between the 1st. And 2nd.

Beyond the 2nd. Critical Angle: Only SHEAR
Critical Angle: All wave in the material.
waves are reflected Compression is reflected out
out of the material. NO of the material.
wave in the material.
S C At the 2nd. Critical Angle: Shear
is refracted to 90° and become
33° SURFACE wave
 Summary

Standard angle probes between 1st and

2nd critical angles (45,60,70)
Stated angle is refracted angle in steel
No angle probe under 35, and more
than 80: to avoid being 2 waves in the
same material.

C S

C
S
One Defect Two Echoes
1. Particle vibration in a longitudinal wave is in direction of wave particles
a. True b. False

2. The movement of sound waves through a medium is usually referred to as wave

propagation.
a. True b. False

3. Ultrasonic waves transmitted in fluids such as water are usually

a. Lamb waves b. Rayleigh c. shear d. longitudinal

4. Of the following sound wave modes, which one has multiple or varying wave
velocities?
a. Lamb waves b. Rayleigh c. shear d. longitudinal

5. A beam of energy approaching an interface is called_______beam of wave.

6. The bending of sound beam as it passes through as interface is called.
a. Reflection b. Refraction c. Attenuation d. Absorption

7. When the angle of incidence for a longitudinal wave exceeds the critical angle the__
a. Longitudinal wave mode will be at maximum amplitude in the specimen
b. Longitudinal wave mode will be totally reflected
c. Shear wave mode will be totally reflected
d. Longitudinal wave mode only will be transmitted into the specimen.

8. Acoustic impedance is defined as__

a. The product of material density and wave velocity
b. The of wave velocity to sound density
c. The product of frequency and wave velocity
d. The material’s reflecting ability

9. Any difference in acoustic impedance between adjacent media with normal beam
a. Refraction b. Reflection c. Propagation d. Attenuation.
• Calculate the 1st and 2nd critical angle for a
perspex/copper interface
• V Comp perspex : 2730m/sec
• V Comp copper : 4700m/sec
• A short pulse of electricity is applied to a piezo-electric
crystal
• The crystal begins to vibration increases to maximum
amplitude and then decays
Maximum

10% of
Maximum

Pulse length
• Is created by charging a capacitor in the circuitry then suddenly
releasing this charge oC electrical energy, about IKv to 2Kv, Into
the probe.

• This electrical energy is‘ converted into a mechanical vibration

by the piezo electric crystal in the probe.

• The ultrasonic vibrations are formed by the collapse of the

crystal after the electrical energy has been removed.

• The behavior of the crystal, on collapse, can be likened to the

behavior of a spring when it is stretched then released- The
spring will return to its former shape then shorten then stretch,
etc., until it finally comes to rest in its original shape.

• This cycle of expansion and contraction is what forms the

ultrasonic pulse. mmz 2003
 • The longer the pulse, the more penetrating
the sound
• The shorter the pulse the better the
sensitivity and resolution

Short pulse, 1 or 2 cycles Long pulse 12 cycles

mmz 2003
• To show separate, clear reflected signals on the CRT then
the pulses of sound must be short and sharp.

• To shorten the pulses the ultrasonic crystal must be

damped with a backing medium which absorbs the sound
energy

PULSE LENGTH controls RESOLUTION.

5 cycles for weld testing

Resolution is the ability to separate on the time base two or
more reflectors that are close together in terms of beam path
length.

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10

Longer Pulse Shorter Pulse

mmz 2003
• The number of pulses of ultrasonic energy that leave the probe in a given
time (usually per second).

• Each pulse of energy that leaves the probe must return before the next
pulse leaves otherwise they collide causing "ghost" or spurious echoes to
appear on the CRT.

• The time taken for the pulse to travel from die probe and return is
known as the transit time.

• The time berween pulses leaving the probe is known as the clock
interval.

mmz 2003
• Dead Zone
• Near Zone or Fresnel Zone
• Far Zone or Fraunhofer Zone

mmz 2003
• The intensity of sound beam fluctuates due to
the interference
• Causes misinterpretation of defects near the
surface
• Sound beam consists of three zones :
– Dead Zone
– Near Field or Fresnel Zone
– Far Zone or Fraunhoffer Zone
 The Sound Beam

NZ FZ Main
Beam

Intensity
varies

Exponential Decay

Distance
• Seen on the CRT as an extension of the initial pulse,

• the dead zone is the ringing time of the crystal and is

minimized by the damping medium behind the crystal.

• Flaws or the reflectors, that lying in the dead zone region

of the beam will not be detected.

• The dead zone can be seen at the start of the trace on a

CRT displaying A-scan, but only with single crystal
probes.

• The dead zone increases when the probe frequency

decreases.
Initial Pulse

0 2 4 6 8 10

Dead Zone
 The side lobes has multi
minute main beams
Two identical defects may
give different amplitudes of
signals

Near
Side Lobes
Zone
The main beam or the centre
beam has the highest
intensity of sound energy

Main Lobe Any reflector hit by the main

beam will reflect the high
amount of energy
Main Beam
Near Zone Far Zone
• Thickness • Thickness
measurement measurement
• Detection of defects • Defect detection
• Sizing of large defects • Sizing of all defects
only

Near zone length as small as possible

 2
D
Near Zone
4
V
f
2
D f
Near Zone
4V
• What is the near zone length of a 5MHz
compression probe with a crystal diameter of
10mm in steel?
2
D f
Near Zone
4V
2
10 5,000,000
4 5,920,000
21.1mm
 2 2
D D f
Near Zone
4 4V
• The bigger the diameter the bigger the near
zone
• The higher the frequency the bigger the near
zone
• The lower the velocity the bigger the near
zone
Should large diameter crystal probes have a high
or low frequency?
 1 M Hz
5 M Hz
1 M Hz 5 M Hz
 2 2
D D f
Near Zone
4 4V
• The bigger the diameter the bigger the near
zone
• The higher the frequency the bigger the near
zone
• The lower the velocity the bigger the near
zone
Should large diameter crystal probes have a high
or low frequency?
• In the far zone (fraunhoffer) sound pulses spread
out as they move away from the crystal

/2

K KV
Sine or
2 D Df
• Beyond the near zone Far Zone exists
• The amount or beam divergence depends
upon the crystal size and the wavelength
Sine K or KV
2 D Df

Edge,K=1.22
20dB,K=1.08
6dB,K=0.56
Beam axis
or Main Beam

mmz 2003
 K KV
Sine or
2 D Df
• The bigger the diameter the smaller the
beam spread
• The higher the frequency the smaller the
beam spread

Which has the larger beam spread, a compression

or a shear wave probe?
mmz 2003
• What is the beam spread of a 10mm,5MHz
compression wave probe in steel?

KV
Sine
2 Df
1.08 5920
5000 10
o
0.1278 7.35
 Beam Spread
• What is the beam spread of a 10mm,4MHz
compression wave probe is 3200m/sec
 1 M Hz
5 M Hz
1 M Hz 5 M Hz
 K KV
Sine or
2 D Df
• The bigger the diameter the smaller the
beam spread
• The higher the frequency the smaller the
beam spread

Which has the larger beam spread, a compression

or a shear wave probe?
The amplitudes of reflected sound from large and small reflectors follow
different laws.
LARGE REFLECTORS
(larger than the width of the ultrasonic beam) follow the
INVERSE LAW - The amplitude is inversely proportional to the distance/i.e... if the
distance is doubled then the signal amplitude is halved (i.e.... reduced by 6dB).

SMALL REFLECTORS
(smaller than the width of the beam) follow the
INVERSE SQUARE LAW - The amplitude is inversely proportional to the square
of the distance, i.e. if the distance is doubled then the amplitude from the
second reflector is one quarter of the amplitude of the nearer (12dB less).
LARGE REFLECTORS SMALL REFLECTORS
(INVERSE LAW) (INVERSE SQUARE LAW)
Dead zone is an extension of initial pulses (ringing time of the crystal).
Normally occurs with a single crystal probe and can be seen at the start of
the trace on the screen with A scan

increased by: Pulse length, sound energy, Gain & Internal reverberation

dead zone is inversely related to damping and frequency

 References:

[Link]
fPB4LKQ&index=6&t=0s

[Link]

[Link]
1. The higher the frequency of a transducer the:
a. Greater the beam spread and depth penetration
b. Less the beam spread and the greater the sensitivity and resolution
c. Less the sound beam attenuates thus increasing penetration
d. Less the sensitivity and the greater the penetration

2. A small diameter transducer will produce the smallest amount of beam spread for
a given frequency. True or False

3. Within a given material, near zone length will increase as transducer dimeter and
frequency are increased. True or False

4. Find the near zone length using a 6 mm diameter, 2 MHz straight beam
transducer( material steel) V 5900 m/s.
5. The length of the dead zone can be approximately by observing the position of
a. Back reflection pulse b. Initial pulse c. Echo from the faz zone

6. Calculate the beam spread in steel is _______ using 10 mm, 4 MHz straight beam
transducer. K= 1.22

[Link] beam transducer have less beam spread than low frequency transducer.
True or False

8. The longer the wavelength, the greater beam spread and better ability to locate small
discontinuities. True or False

9. When comparing two transducers of the same frequency, the larger transducer will
have the greatest beam spread.
mmz 2003
Chapter 3
At the end of the lesson the students will be able to:
• Know and identify the types of display
• Know Pulse Echo instrumentation and the circuit
• Know what is calibration
• Discuss the different reference blocks used
• The ultrasonic systems are referred to as
being one of the three types:
• A Scan
• B Scan
• C Scan
The most common type of display will be A Scan
• The all type of machines are produced to
generate electronic pulses and to amplify
returning echoes from the specimen.

• The A,B & C scans differ only in the

representation of display.
• the most common method used for
representing the specimen.
• can provide the details about the depth,
width and length of discontinuity.
• The A scan report will give elapsed time in
the horizontal direction
• The vertical direction will show the signal
amplitude which can be related to the
reflector size.
• The horizontal line is termed as sweep line
• The vertical deflections on the CRT will
represent the energy reflections from
either a discontinuity or from the back wall.
• The amplitude of echoes will depend upon
the distance and size of flaws.
• The B Scan will give the cross sectional
view.
• It gives the two dimensional view
• This method is commonly used for
lamination checking and corrosion
monitoring.
• The B scan will show the depth & Length of
discontinuity.
• Normally this report will give the real time
visualization of materials condition.

• The UTG machine in our institute is having

this type of representation.
• This will give the plan or top view.
• Normally this mode of inspection will be
automated.
• In C Scan the specimen will be scanned
using an automated mechanical positioning
device and the signals will be converted to
different color pattern.
• The C Scan will be produced by analyzing the
pulse height and time of arrival of the (A scan
data)
• The color variations will base on the pulse height
and time of arrival.
• The advantage of C scan is that its easy to
interpret the result.
• The C scan is similar to the X-ray image.
• The understandable display will be an
advantage of C Scan when comparing with
A &B Scan
• The draw back is that it can not show the
depth of defect.
• Normally the pulse echo instruments will
have similar electronic circuits and the
common circuitry are as follows:
• Power Supply
• Transducer
• Pulser
• Receiver Amplifier
• Clock/Timer
Figure 3
• This is controlled by On/Off switch and a
fuse.
• The power supply is connected to all the
other circuits
• The power supply consists of all the circuits
which is giving current for the basic
function of all circuits.

• Either the power is served form the line or

from the battery.
• Is the element which receives electrical
energy and converts the same into
mechanical vibration.
• The ultrasonic transducer consists of a thin
crystal inside.
• The crystal will be made up of a thin piezo
electric disk.
• The crystal will produce the ultrasonic sound by
receiving electrical energy this will be introduced
into the object with the help of a thin layer of
couplant.
• When the sound energy is reflected from a
discontinuity or from a back wall; this reflected
sound will be received and converted into
electrical signals.
• Pulser circuit or pulse generator is used to
produce the short high energy burst of
electrical energy to the transducer.
• The receiver amplifier circuit is used to
receive and amplify the received electrical
signals from the specimen
• This will be displayed on the display unit.
• The vertical deflection on the CRT will be
the function of receiver amplifier circuit.
• Is also termed as timer/rate generator.
• This circuit will triger the pulser circuits.
• The display in the olden days were the
oscilloscope cathode ray tube with a sweep
generator, marker circuit and other related
circuits.
• Now a days the above is replaced by flat
panel display screen.
• Either old or new machines the equipment
will be occupied with a sweep circuit and
other controls to give the visual image from
the specimen.
There are few basic controls without we can
not operate the machine. They are :
• Gain Control:
• Probe Mode:
• Range:
• Delay:
• This is connected to the amplifier and is
used on adjust the amplification of
incoming signal from the probe.
• This amplified indication will be displayed
on the screen.
• Single:
• Double
• Through Transmission:
• If switched to single crystal the machine
will send and receive the energy from a
single cable.
• In Double crystal mode the instrument will
send the electrical signals through one
cable and will receive the electrical signal
from the second cable.
• The same method will be used for through
transmission also.
• The range and delay are used to adjust the
horizontal axis.
• The horizontal axis may be measuring
thickness, depth or time.
• The range controls is sometimes called as
“material calibration or material velocity
controls.”
• The instruments will have controls for both
coarse and fine settings.
• The Delay is used to set the known
reference distance into the correct
positions.
• The new age machines has got so many
new functions other than this basic
controls.
• The new age machines has menu sections
which can be adjusted with push button
keypads instead of knobs and toggle
switches.
• On /off: this is used to control/ stop the
power supply to the circuits/complnents.
this will allow the technician to enable and
disable the operations.
• Display/Status:
This will allow the technician to view the A
Scan Pattern in full screen and split screen
• This controls the amplifier circuit.
• This will increase/decrease the echo
amplitudes.
• This does not have a relation with the
energy going into the specimen.
• This will boost/amplify the signals coming
into the display unit.
• The most machines will have gain more
than 100dB.
• Most of the procedure will ask for a fine dB
tuning of minimum 2 dB.
• The all most all modern machines have
minimum of 0.1dB control.
• Is used to eliminate unwanted low
amplitude indication/signals
• Thie control also works on the receiver
amplifier circuit
• This will be used when inspection coarse
grain castings.
• During inspection a technician is not
supposed to change the reject value.
• Is used to set the material velocity
• The speed of sound through the material (
velocity) will depend upon density, elastic
properties temperature and mode of
vibration.
• Rectification
• Energy
• Dampening
• Frequency
• This control adjust the display signal.
• Normally 4 display forms are available,
1. + half wave rectified
2. - half wave rectified
3. Full wave rectified
4. Uncertified
• This will be used to adjust the resolution
and penetration parameters
• The low voltage pulse will have good
resolution
• The high voltage pulse will produce high
penetration
• The voltage variations may be from 100 –
400V.
This is used to shorten/lengthen the pulse
duration.

• 50 Ώ for better resolution

• 100 Ώ medium
• 400 Ώ for better penetration.
• The frequency control will allow for
selection of a frequency setting that will
produce a desired screen presentation.
• The frequency will be in terms of mega
Hertz.
• Normally it may be from 1 to 15 MHz.
Ultrasonic Testing
References:

[Link]
mmz 2003
At the end of the lesson the students will be able to:
• Know what is calibration
• Discuss the different reference blocks used
Ultrasonic Testing
Calibration
• The first step in UT is the calibration of
equipment.
• A predictable and reproducible response
to the known reflectors of different size
and depths within the calibration
standard must be demonstrated before
any actual application of test object can
began.
• The calibration block should be made up
of the same material and should be
processed same as that of the actual
metal (acoustically similar material).
• The calibration block is also termed as
calibration standard.
• Calibration is the process of adjusting the
ultrasonic test system so that it can display the
known distance and size from the calibration
standard.
• The response of the instrument must be
proportional to the size of reflector
• As the size of reflector increases the
amplitude of echo also will increase.
• The more used and correct term for the
calibrating is standardizing.
• standardizing is the adjustment of the
equipment controls so that the technician
can be sure that we can sure that the
equipment will detect all possible
expected discontinuities.
• Standardizing is the test system consists
of setting up the instrument system
exactly as it is used to be in the test.
• This also includes adjusting the controls
to give an adequate response to the
known discontinuities of the reference
standards.
• In UT all discontinuities are compared to
indications received from a reference
standard.
• The reference standard may be any one of the
many reference block or the set of blocks.
• The reference block or calibration block are
used to standardize the equipment and to
evaluate the discontinuity.
1. It verifies that the instrument/transducer
combination is performing with a proportional
response.
2. It establishes a sensitivity or gain setting at
which all discontinuities of a specified size or
larger will be detected.

Testing of discontinuities inside the object is

done by comparing them with the indications
received from the artificial discontinuities whose
depth and size is known.