Chapter One

Introduction

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 Objective
• To understand AI and related concept
• Get a feel of scholars view to define AI
• Briefly discuss the difference between
Expert system and other systems

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  The term AI is first used by John McCarthy (1956) who
considers it to mean the science and engineering of making
intelligent machine

 Intelligence is the computational part of the ability to achieve

goals in the world.
 Varying kinds and degrees of intelligence occur in people, many
animals and some machines.

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 General views of AI
 AI attempt to understand intelligent entities as well as
to build them in order to understand human behavior.
 The idea is to develop an intelligent systems that has
human level intelligence or better if possible.
• The concern of AI is to enable computers behave
like human and emulate the reasoning power of
humans
• in order to do tasks that require human intelligence.

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 Views of AI
 No single definition for AI is proposed by scholars that is
acceptable for all researcher.
 Russell and Norvig categorize views of AI into four
categories:

Thinking humanly Thinking rationally

Acting humanly Acting rationally

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 Thinking humanly
 AI as systems that think humanly
 “The automation of activities that we associate with human thinking, activities
such as decision-making, problem solving, learning …” (Bellman definition,
1978)
 “The exciting new effort to make computers think … machines with minds, in
the full and literal sense” (Haugeland definition, 1985)
 Requires:
 Scientific theories of internal activities of the brain
 How human thinks?
 How to validate a given agent think humanly?
The answer Requires either
1. Predicting and testing the behavior of human subjects from his/her
thinking point of view or
2. Direct identification from neurological data
 Study on Mental processing logic of human being (cognitive science) is not
yet fertile
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 Acting humanly: The Turing Test
 AI as systems that act humanly
 “The art of creating machines that perform functions that
require intelligence when performed by people.” (Kurzweil
definition, 1990)
 “The study of how to make computers do things at which, at
the moment, people are better.” (Rich and Knight definition,
1991)
Can machines act like human do? Can machines
behave intelligently?
 Turing Test: Alen Turing (1950), operational definition
of intelligence.
 A computer passes the test if
 a human interrogator, after posing some written questions, cannot tell
whether the written responses come from a person or from a
computer.
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  The computer would need to possess the following
capabilities:
 Natural Language Processing (NLP) to enable it to
communicate successfully in human language
 Knowledge representation to store what it knows or hears
 Automated reasoning to use the stored information to answer
questions and to draw new conclusions
 Machine learning to adapt to new circumstances and to detect
and extrapolate patterns
 Computer vision to perceive objects
 Robotics to manipulate objects and move about
 And others

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 Thinking Rationally:
 AI as systems that think rationally
 A system is rational if it thinks/does the right thing through
correct reasoning.
 Right thinking is related to irrefutable reasoning process
 Require structure that always gave correct conclusion
given correct premises
 Logic is the key to design and implement an agent that
think rationally
 “The study of the computations that make it possible to
perceive, reason, and act.” (Winston definition, 1992)

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 Acting rationally: The rational agent
 AI as systems that act rationally
 Doing the right thing so as to achieve one’s goal,
given one’s beliefs.
 AI is the study and construction of rational agents (an agent
that perceives and acts)
 Rational action requires the ability to represent knowledge
and reason with it so as to reach good decision.
 This view is interested to design an agent that act the best
alternative action on the environment for the problem at
hand considering all the issues
 “Computational intelligence is the study of the design of
intelligent agent” (Poole, et al definition, 1998)

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  The right thing: is the action/decision which is expected
to maximize goal achievement, given the available
information
 Doesn't necessarily involve thinking
 e.g., blinking reflex

 AI follows all the four approach but tension existing

between approaches which are centered around human and
rationality.
 Human centered approach must be empirical science,
involving hypothesis and experimental confirmation.
 A rationalist approach involves a combination of
mathematics and engineering

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  AI is found on the premise that:
 workings of human mind can be explained in terms of
computation, and
 computers can do the right thing given correct premises
and reasoning rules to achieve a specified goal.
 The field of Artificial intelligence adopts different
ideas, viewpoints and techniques from different
disciplines such as
 Mathematics(logic, computation, and probability ),
 Economics(How should we make decisions so as to maximize
payoff ) ,
 Computer engineering (AI successful, we need two things:
intelligence and an artifact. The computer has been the artifact of
choice. )
 Control theory and cybernetics (How can artifacts operate under
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their own control? )
 History of AI
 Formally initiated in 1956 and the name AI was
coined by John McCarthy.
 The advent of general purpose computers provided
a vehicle for creating artificially intelligent entities.
 Used for solving general-purpose problems

 Which one is preferred?

 General purpose problem solving systems
 Domain specific systems

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 Summary on history of AI
 1943 McCulloch & Pitts: Boolean circuit model of brain
 1950 Turing's "Computing Machinery and Intelligence"
 1956 Dartmouth meeting: "Artificial Intelligence" adopted
 1952—69 Look, Ma, no hands!
 1950s Early AI programs, including Samuel's checkers
program, Newell & Simon's Logic Theorist,
Gelernter's Geometry Engine
 1965 Robinson's complete algorithm for logical reasoning
 1966—73 AI discovers computational complexity
Neural network research almost disappears
 1969—79 Early development of knowledge-based systems
 1980-- AI becomes an industry
 1986-- Neural networks return to popularity
 1987-- AI becomes a science
 1995-- The emergence of intelligent agents

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 The Foundations of AI
Artificial intelligence is a science and technology based on disciplines
such as Computer Science, Biology, Psychology, Linguistics,
Mathematics, and Engineering.

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 Application areas of AI
a) Gaming − AI plays crucial role in strategic games such as chess,
poker, tic-tac-toe, etc., where machine can think of large number of
possible positions based on heuristic knowledge.
b) Expert Systems − is a computer program that contains
some of the subject-specific (domain specific) knowledge
of one or more human experts.
It is a programs that achieve expert-level competence in solving
problems in task areas by using knowledge of a specific tasks
 Eg. Diagnosis and Troubleshooting of Devices and Systems of All
Kinds
 Financial Decision Making
 Medical diagnosis
 etc…..
Every expert system consists of two Building Blocks parts:
 the knowledge base; and
 Inference engine
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 Application areas of AI Cont.
Knowledge base
 Knowledge base contains all necessary knowledge
about the domain that is required to handle problems.
 The knowledge can be acquired from experts,
documents, books and/or other sources.
 It is formalized and organized so as to be used by the
computer by using Rule , Cases…..
 Rules are one of the most popular knowledge
representations.
 The basic form of a rule is
 if <conditions> then <conclusion>
 where <conditions> represent premises and
 <conclusion> represents associated action for the premises.
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 Application areas of AI Cont.
Inference engine
 After the system gets the required knowledge, it
needs to be instructed how to use the knowledge
in solving problems.
 Inference engine represents the reasoning
technique that manipulates, uses and controls the
knowledge to solve problems.
 Data-driven also called forward chaining
 Goal-driven also called backward chaining

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 Application areas of AI Cont.
I. forward chaining
 In this process, it receives a problem description as a set of
conditions and tries to derive conclusions as a solution.
 With data-driven control, rules are applied whenever their
left-hand-side conditions are satisfied.
 To use this strategy, one must begin by entering
information about the current problem as facts to the
system
II. backward chaining
 This strategy focuses its efforts by only considering rules
that are applicable to some particular goal.
 It is similar with forward chaining in most process, the big
difference is it receives the problem description as set of
conclusions, instead of conditions, and tries to find the
premises or causes of the conclusions.
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 Application areas of AI Cont.
c) Natural Language Processing − It is possible to interact
with the computer that understands natural language spoken by
humans.
 Speech Recognition − Some intelligent systems are capable
of hearing and comprehending the language in terms of
sentences and their meanings while a human talks to it. It can
handle different accents, slang words, noise in the background,
change in human’s noise due to cold, etc.
 Handwriting Recognition − The handwriting recognition
software reads the text written on paper by a pen or on screen
by a stylus. It can recognize the shapes of the letters and convert
it into editable text.
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 Application areas of AI Cont.
d) Vision Systems − These systems understand, interpret,
and comprehend visual input on the computer. For example,
 A spying aero plane takes photographs, which are used to figure out
spatial information or map of the areas.
 Doctors use clinical expert system to diagnose the patient.
 Police use computer software that can recognize the face of criminal
with the stored portrait made by forensic artist.
e) Robotics − Robots are able to perform the tasks given by a human.
They have sensors to detect physical data from the real world such as light,
heat, temperature, movement, sound, bump, and pressure. They have
efficient processors, multiple sensors and huge memory, to exhibit
intelligence. In addition, they are capable of learning from their mistakes
and they can adapt to the new environment.
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 Types of AI

 Artificial Intelligence can be divided into various types, there are mainly two types of the main categorization which are based on
capabilities and based on functionally.
 Following is the flow diagram which explains the types of AI.

A. Based on Capabilities
1. Weak AI or Narrow AI:
➢ Narrow AI is a type of AI which is able to perform a dedicated task with intelligence. The most common and currently available
AI is Narrow AI in the world of Artificial Intelligence.
➢ Narrow AI cannot perform beyond its field or limitations, as it is only trained for one specific task. Hence it is also termed as
weak AI. Narrow AI can fail in unpredictable ways if it goes beyond its limits.
➢ Apple Siri is a good example of Narrow AI, but it operates with a limited predefined range of functions.
➢ IBM's Watson supercomputer also comes under Narrow AI, as it uses an Expert system approach combined with Machine
learning and natural language processing.
➢ Some Examples of Narrow AI are Google translate, playing chess, purchasing suggestions on e-commerce sites, self-driving
cars, speech recognition, and image recognition.

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 Types of AI Cont.

2. General AI:
General AI is a type of intelligence that could perform any intellectual task with efficiency like a human.
 The idea behind the general AI to make such a system that could be smarter and think like a human on its own.
 Currently, there is no such system exists which could come under general AI and can perform any task as perfect
as a human. It may arrive within the next 20 or so years but it has challenges relating to hardware, the energy
consumption required in today’s powerful machines, and the need to solve for catastrophic memory loss that
affects even the most advanced deep learning algorithms of today
 The worldwide researchers are now focused on developing machines with General AI.
 As systems with general AI are still under research, and it will take lots of effort and time to develop such
systems.
3. Super AI:
 Super AI is a level of Intelligence of Systems at which machines could surpass human intelligence, and can
perform any task better than a human with cognitive properties. This refers to aspects like general wisdom,
problem solving and creativity. It is an outcome of general AI.
 Some key characteristics of strong AI include capability include the ability to think, to reason solve the puzzle,
make judgments, plan, learn, and communicate on its own.
 Super AI is still a hypothetical concept of Artificial Intelligence. The development of such systems in real is still a
world-changing task.
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 Types of AI Cont.
B. Based on the functionality
1. Reactive Machines
➢ Purely reactive machines are the most basic types of Artificial Intelligence.
➢ Such AI systems do not store memories or past experiences for future actions.
➢ These machines only focus on current scenarios and react on it as per possible best action.
➢ IBM's Deep Blue system is an example of reactive machines.
➢ Google's Alpha Go is also an example of reactive machines.
2. Limited Memory
➢ Limited memory machines can store past experiences or some data for a short period of time.
➢ These machines can use stored data for a limited time period only.
➢ Self-driving cars are one of the best examples of Limited Memory systems. These cars can store the recent speed
of nearby cars, the distance of other cars, speed limits, and other information to navigate the road.
3. Theory of Mind
➢ Theory of Mind AI should understand human emotions, people, beliefs, and be able to interact socially like
humans.
➢ This type of AI machines is still not developed, but researchers are making lots of efforts and improvement for
developing such AI machines.
4. Self-Awareness
➢ Self-awareness AI is the future of Artificial Intelligence. These machines will be super intelligent and will have
their own consciousness, sentiments, and self awareness.
➢ These machines will be smarter than the human mind.
➢ Self-Awareness AI does not exist in reality still and it is a hypothetical concept.
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