PART I: THE FOUR MAJOR ETHICAL FRAMEWORKS

13-VIRTUE ETHICS (Aristotle)

• Morality is rooted in the character of the person, not in rules or consequences. A

virtuous person acts morally because it's who they are.
• Virtue ethics is an ethical framework that focuses on the character of the
individual rather than on rules or consequences. It emphasizes moral excellence
(arete) achieved through habitual practice of virtues.

Concept Meaning
1. Arete Moral excellence/virtue
o Virtues are good values; vices are bad ones.
o Virtue is a power or disposition that helps a
person function according to reason and perform
activities excellently.
o It is developed through constant practice and
self-correction, not overnight.
2. Golden Mean Virtue lies between two extremes (deficiency and excess)
(Mesotes) o Virtue lies in the mean between two
extremes: deficiency and excess.
o Example:

§ Deficiency: Hate/Indifference
§ Mean: Love
§ Excess: Obsession
o The mean is determined by reason and depends
on the situation, not the individual’s subjective
feeling.
3. Role of Virtues are developed through constant practice, not instant
Practical learning
Wisdom o The virtuous person uses reason to find the
appropriate response in any situation.
o Habit is not just repetition but is guided
by rational choice.
4. Virtue vs. o Duty ethics focuses on rules and obligations.
Duty Ethics o Virtue ethics focuses on human excellence and
doing more than what is merely required.
 5. Limitations o Not all actions have a mean (e.g., using drugs
like shabu is always wrong).
o Virtue ethics requires contextual judgment, not
rigid rules.

The Golden Mean Illustrated:

Vice of Deficiency VIRTUE (MEAN) Vice of Excess

Cowardice Courage Recklessness
Apathy Patience Passive acceptance
Hatred/Indifference Love Obsession
Stinginess Generosity Prodigality

Example: A student who has developed the virtue of honesty through years of practice
will naturally refuse to cheat on an exam—not because they're afraid of getting caught,
but because dishonesty is inconsistent with who they are.

Note: Not all actions have a "mean." There is no moderate or "just right" amount of using
illegal drugs, committing murder, or betraying trust. These actions are wrong.

14. NATURAL LAW ETHICS (St. Thomas Aquinas)

• Moral principles are inherent in human nature and discoverable through reason.
We have an innate capacity (synderesis) to desire what is good.

Key Concepts:

Concept Meaning
Synderesis The natural capacity to desire what is good
Divine Law God's eternal law made known to humans
Purpose (Telos) Things are good when used for their natural purpose
Conscience The voice of right reason within us

Two Ways to Understand Natural Law:

1. Purpose ("Para saan ito?") — An action is right when it respects the natural
purpose of a thing.
2. Essence ("Ano ba ito?") — Knowing what something is guides how we should
treat it.
Example: A driver who texts while driving violates natural law because they are not
respecting the purpose of driving (which is to transport people safely). Reason tells us
this without needing a law book—it's written in our nature to preserve life.
Example: You instinctively know not to have sexual relations with an animal. Nobody
needed to teach you this—the "light of reason" within you recognizes this as contrary to
nature.

Criticisms:

• David Hume's "is-ought problem": Just because something is a certain way

doesn't mean it ought to be that way
• The theory can seem anthropocentric (everything exists for human benefit)

15. KANT'S DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS (Immanuel Kant)

• The morality of an action is determined by the motive or intention (duty), not by

consequences. "Deontos" = duty/obligation in Greek.

Key Concepts:

Concept Meaning
Good Will The intention to do one's duty
Categorical An unconditional moral command that applies to all rational
Imperative beings
Universalizability Act only according to rules that could become universal laws
Persons as Ends Never treat people merely as means to an end

The Four Formulations of the Categorical Imperative:

Formulation Meaning Example

Law of Nature Act as if your maxim should Before lying, ask: "What
become universal law if everyone lied?"
End in Itself Treat humanity (self and others) as Don't befriend someone just to
an end, never merely as a means get their notes

Autonomy Act as if you are legislating Your action should be worthy of

universal law becoming a rule for all
Kingdom of Act as if you are setting the Your treatment of others reflects
Ends standard for a community of the kind of world you want
rational beings

Perfect vs. Imperfect Duties:

Perfect Duty Imperfect Duty

Must be done ALWAYS Should be done as often as possible
No lying, no killing, no harming Charity, love, self-improvement
Absolute obligations Flexible in practice
Example: A store owner gives correct change. Under Kant, we must ask: Why?
 • If they do it because they fear getting caught → NOT moral (inclination)
• If they do it because it's their DUTY to be honest → MORAL (done from duty)
Example: A student helps a classmate. If they help only to receive a favor in return, they
are using the classmate as a means to their own benefit. This violates the "end in itself"
principle.

16. UTILITARIANISM (Jeremy Bentham & John Stuart Mill)

• The morality of an action is determined by its consequences. The right action

produces the greatest good for the greatest number.

Key Concepts:

Concept Meaning
Principle of Utility Actions are good if they promote happiness, bad if they
produce unhappiness
Greatest Happiness Choose the action that benefits the most people
Principle
Consequentialism Only results matter, not intentions
Hedonic Calculus Measuring pleasure by intensity, duration, certainty, etc.
Example: A local government has a limited budget. They must choose between building
a new park (benefits 1,000 residents) or a dialysis center (benefits 50 kidney patients).
Utilitarianism would choose the park because it benefits more people—even if the dialysis
patients need it more urgently.
Example: During a pandemic, a utilitarian approach would support lockdowns that
inconvenience millions if doing so saves hundreds of thousands of lives. The calculation
is about net benefit.

Criticisms:

Problem Explanation
Sacrificing minorities Can justify oppressing a few for the majority's benefit
Impossible calculations Can we really predict all consequences?
Ignores intentions Even evil motives are "good" if results are good

17. RAWLS' THEORY OF JUSTICE AS FAIRNESS (John Rawls)

• Justice requires fairness, especially toward the least advantaged members of

society. True justice addresses inequality.

Historical Context: The French Revolution gave us liberty, equality, and fraternity. But
justice was never fully realized—inequality remains.
Two Principles of Justice:

Principle Meaning
Equal Liberty Each person has equal right to basic liberties (vote, speech,
thought, assembly)
Difference Social and economic inequalities are only justified if they benefit
Principle the least advantaged

Key Insight: We don't deserve to be born rich or poor. This is a matter of luck, not merit.
Therefore, society should arrange itself to help those who drew the "short straw" in the
natural lottery.

Example: A university's scholarship program should prioritize students from

impoverished families, not give equal amounts to all students. This follows the difference
principle—helping the least advantaged first.
Example: Tax policies that fund public healthcare and education are justified under
Rawls because they benefit everyone, especially those who cannot afford private
services.

PART II: APPLIED ETHICS AND CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

18 GLOBALIZATION AND MORALITY

• Integration of people, companies, and governments across nations through trade

and technology.

The Moral Challenge: Globalization brings both benefits and harms. We must manage
it wisely.

PROS (Benefits) CONS (Harms)

Free trade and competition Widening gap between rich and poor
Job creation Exploitation of cheap labor
Technology sharing Cultural displacement (e.g., Boracay natives displaced)
Cultural exchange Environmental degradation
Faster communication Spread of diseases
Example: A multinational company opens a factory in a Philippine province, providing
500 jobs. Positive: Workers have income. Negative: Workers are paid ₱300/day while
the company makes millions. The community becomes dependent on the factory, and
local businesses suffer.

Filipino Context: We've been globalized since the Galleon Trade. The challenge is
balancing economic benefits with preserving our culture and environment.
 19 ETHICS AND RELIGION

Relationship: Religion and ethics are interdependent but distinct.

Religion Ethics
Born from charismatic experience The practical application of moral principles
Provides doctrines and teachings Guides daily behavior
The "bigger word" The "smaller word" (practice of beliefs)
Community of believers Individual moral agency
Example: A religious person believes "love your neighbor" (doctrine). In ethics, this
translates to concrete actions—helping a sick neighbor, feeding the hungry, visiting the
lonely.

Warning: Distinguish between religion and religious leaders. Leaders are human and
fallible. Blind obedience to any leader—religious or otherwise—is dangerous.

20 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

Core Question: What is our moral obligation to the environment?

Humans as Stewards: We have dominion over creation, but this means responsible
care, not exploitation.

The 7 R's of Environmental Management:

R Meaning Example
Refuse Say no to unnecessary items Refuse plastic straws, single-use plastics
Reduce Minimize consumption Buy only what you need
Reuse Use items multiple times Bring your own bag, container
Recycle Process materials for new use Turn plastic bottles into planters
Recover Extract energy from waste Composting, waste-to-energy
Regift Donate usable items Give old clothes, books to charity
Rethink Change your mindset Adopt sustainable lifestyle
Example: Instead of buying bottled water daily (wasteful), a student brings a reusable
tumbler and refills it at school (reduce, reuse). They also collect plastic waste from their
neighborhood and bring it to a recycling facility (recycle).

Consequences of Neglect:

• Climate change
• Flooding (due to deforestation)
• Marine life death (plastic ingestion)
• Health problems (pollution)
 21 JUSTICE AND TAXATION

Definition: Taxation is the compulsory contribution of citizens to fund government

services.

Three Inherent Powers of the State:

Power Function
Taxation Power Collect funds for government operations
Police Power Enact laws to protect public welfare
Eminent Domain Take private property for public use (with compensation)

Justice in Taxation: People should receive fair services in return for their taxes. The
system should be progressive—those who earn more should pay more.

Example: Under the TRAIN Law, minimum wage earners and those earning below
₱250,000 annually are exempt from income tax. This is just because they need their full
income for basic needs. High earners pay more because they can afford it, and their taxes
fund services that benefit everyone (roads, schools, hospitals).
Example: If taxpayers' money is used to build luxury rest houses for politicians instead
of public school classrooms, this is injustice—people are not receiving what is due to
them.

22 FILIPINO MILLENNIALS (FILLENIALS) AND MORALITY

Who are they? Born roughly 1980-2000. First generation raised with digital technology.

Characteristics:

Trait Description
Digital Natives Grew up with internet, smartphones, social media
Collaborative Want to work together using technology
Loyal to people, not Will switch jobs for better opportunities
institutions
Optimistic Filipino millennials are among world's most
optimistic
Socially engaged Use social media to discuss national issues

Top Concerns of Filipino Millennials:

1. Terrorism (40%)
2. Crime and personal safety (35%)
3. Healthcare (29%)
4. Climate change (27%)
5. Unemployment (24%)
Example: During the pandemic, Filipino millennials organized donation drives through
Facebook and Twitter, coordinated relief operations via messaging apps, and held the
government accountable through online discourse. They didn't wait for traditional
institutions to act—they used technology to mobilize.
Example: A Fillennial employee proposes using project management software instead of
paper-based systems. This isn't laziness—it's leveraging technology for efficiency.
Employers who dismiss this as "entitlement" miss the opportunity to innovate.

SUMMARY TABLE

Framework Core Question Basis of Morality Key Thinker

Virtue Ethics Who should I BE? Character Aristotle
Natural Law What does reason tell me? Human nature Aquinas
Kantianism What is my DUTY? Intention Kant
Utilitarianism What produces the most good? Consequences Bentham, Mill
Rawls' Justice What is FAIR to all? Equality Rawls