Chapter 9

Sinusoidal Steady State Analysis

Chapter Outline
Introduction
9.1 Sinusoidal Signals
9.2 Sinusoidal Response
9.3 Phasor Representation of Circuit Elements
9.4 Analysis of Phasor Circuits
9.4.1 Phasor Analysis of Special Circuits
[Link] Single-Loop and Single Node-Pair
[Link] Calculating the Total Impedances
[Link] Delta-Wye Transformation
[Link] Source Transformation
9.4.2 Phasor Analysis of General Circuits
9.5 Thevenin-Norton Equivalent phasor circuits
9.6 Phasor Diagrams
9.7 Practical Relevance - Frequency Response of the Transistor Voltage Amplifier
Problems
Chapter Learning Objectives
❖ Understand the importance and characteristics of sinusoidal signals.
❖ Determine all the key parameters of a sinusoidal signal and its different sine and cosine
representations.
❖ Understand phasor representation and how to apply it to AC steady-state circuit analysis
techniques.
❖ Carry out different steady-state analysis techniques using phasor circuit method.
❖ Carry out general analysis, and phasor circuit analysis methods.
❖ Understand the application of AC circuits under sinusoidal excitations.
❖ Learn how to use of the phasor diagram to determine phasor currents and voltages.

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Introduction:

In the preceding chapters, we focused on resistive circuits excited by direct current (DC) voltage
and current sources (Chapters 2–5), as well as electric circuits that include energy storage
elements such as capacitors and inductors (Chapters 6–8), with excitation signals that are either
DC or pulsating (switching actions). In contrast to Chapters 6–8, where we analyzed both
transient and steady-state responses under DC sources, Chapter 9 shifts attention to the steady-
state analysis and design of electric circuits subjected to sinusoidal, time-varying voltage and
current excitations. Understanding the behavior of circuits under time-varying signals is essential
for electrical engineers and technicians.

As discussed in Chapter 1, voltage and current signals can take many forms. The most common
are sinusoidal signals, which arise from the nature of electromagnetic (EM) waves, whose
electric and magnetic fields vary sinusoidally. In electrical, electronics, and communication
engineering, sinusoidal voltage and current sources are especially important because they serve
as external forcing functions for electric and radio systems, as well as for power transmission and
communication signals. In fact, sinusoidal waveforms play a fundamental role in many
applications across engineering and science.

Circuits whose excitation functions (voltage or current) vary sinusoidally with time are referred
to as alternating current (AC) circuits. Whether sine functions, cosine functions, or both are used
to represent voltage and current, the circuit is still classified as an AC sinusoidal circuit. We will
use several trigonometric identities to ensure consistency in AC circuit analysis.

Finally, unlike Chapters 6–8, this chapter focuses exclusively on the steady-state response of
circuits under sinusoidal excitation (i.e., forced sinusoidal functions). This steady-state approach
is valid because the circuits considered are linear and the excitations are purely sinusoidal. As a
result, only steady-state responses are observed; transient effects have decayed, and initial
conditions no longer influence the circuit behavior, leaving only the sustained response driven by
the input excitation.

9.1 Sinusoidal Signals

Unlike other important electrical signals, such as exponential and pulse excitations, sinusoidal
voltage and current excitations persist indefinitely as smooth, repetitive oscillations between
positive and negative peaks. These functions are referred to as periodic functions.

Mathematically, sinusoidal time-varying waveforms of voltage and current can be expressed

using either sine or cosine functions. Several examples of sinusoidal voltage and current sources,
represented by sine and cosine functions, are illustrated in Figure 9.1 as functions of time 𝑡. The
parameters 𝑇, 𝑉𝑚 , 𝐼𝑚 , and 𝑡0 will be discussed shortly.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2
 2𝜋
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡( 𝑇 𝑡)
(Sinusoidal voltage with maximum voltage +Vm, minimum voltage of -Vm and zero-time
phase shift)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2𝜋
𝑣(𝑡) = Vm 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡( 𝑇 (𝑡 − 𝑡0 ))

(Sinusoidal voltage with maximum voltage +Vm, minimum voltage of -Vm and
negative time phase-shift by 𝑡0 )
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2𝜋
𝑣(𝑡) = Vm 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡( 𝑇 𝑡 + 𝑡0 )
(Sinusoidal voltage with maximum voltage +Vm, minimum voltage of -Vm and
positive time phase-shift by 𝑡0 )
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3
 2𝜋
𝑖(𝑡) = Im 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡( 𝑇 𝑡)
(Sinusoidal current with maximum current +Im, minimum current of -Im and
zero time phase-shift)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2𝜋
𝑖(𝑡) = Im 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡( 𝑡 − 𝑡0 )
𝑇
(Sinusoidal current with maximum current +Im, minimum current of -Im and
negative time phase-shift by 𝑡0 )
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2𝜋
𝑖(𝑡) = Im 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡( 𝑡 + 𝑡0 )
𝑇
(Sinusoidal current with maximum current +Im, minimum current of -Im and
positive time phase-shift by 𝑡0 )

4
Figure 9.1 Sinusoidal functions and their corresponding waveforms as a function of time 𝒕
with period T for all times −∞ < 𝒕 < +∞ (Rotating Images)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
It is possible to represent the sine and cosine function by what is called the angular frequency
and sketched as a function of "𝜔𝑡", i.e. the product of time and angular frequency as shown in
Figure 9.2 in terms of the angle in radians for all times 𝑡. The parameters of 𝜔, and 𝜃0 will be
discussed shortly.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

𝑣(𝑡) = Vm 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡(𝜔𝑡)
(zero angle phase-shift)

………………………………………………………………………………………………

𝑣(𝑡) = Vm 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃0 )
(Negative angle phase-shift by 𝜃0 )
………………………………………………………………………………………………

5
 𝑣(𝑡) = Vm 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃0 )
(Positive angle phase-shift by 𝜃0 )

………………………………………………………………………………………………

𝑖(𝑡) = Im 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡(𝜔𝑡)
(Zero-angle phase-shift)
………………………………………………………………………………………………

𝑖(𝑡) = Im 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃0 )
(Negative angle phase-shift by 𝜃0 )
………………………………………………………………………………………………

6
 𝑖(𝑡) = Im 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃0 )
(Positive angle phase- shift by 𝜃0 )
Figure 9.2 Sinusoidal functions and their corresponding waveforms as a function of time
𝝎𝑡 for all times −∞ < 𝒕 < +∞ (Rotating Images)
Since we are typically interested in electrical system starting at a given time, we orbitally always
start our signals at 𝑡 = 0. For examples, Figure 9.3 shows sinusoidal signals valid only for time
𝑡 > 0.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2𝜋
𝑖(𝑡) = Im 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡( 𝑇 𝑡)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2𝜋
𝑣(𝑡) = Vm 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡( 𝑡)
𝑇

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………………………………………………………………………………………………………

𝑣(𝑡) = Vm 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡(𝜔𝑡)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

𝑣(𝑡) = Vm 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡(𝜔𝑡)
Figure 9.3 Sinusoidal functions and their corresponding waveforms valid for⁡𝒕 > 𝟎.
Whereas, for 𝒕 < 𝟎, the function is zero (Rotating Images)
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
We notice that the choice of a cosine function or a sine function to represent 𝑖(𝑡) and 𝑣(𝑡) is up
to the student since the effect is only in reference to the value of the signal at t = 0.
Now let us study one sinusoidal function carefully, given all its associated parameter as shown in
Figure 9.4.

8
 Figure 9.4 Sinusoidal voltage source sketched as a function of time for 𝒕 > 𝟎
Important characteristics of the given sinusoidal function are noted below:
Mathematical Representation:
The time-varying periodic sinusoidal function of Figure 9.4 can be expressed mathematically as
a cosine or as a sine function:
2𝜋
𝑣(𝑡) = Vm 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑡 − 𝑡0 )
𝑇
2𝜋
𝑣(𝑡) = ⁡ Vm 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑡 − 𝑡0 + 𝑇/4)
𝑇

We can easily show that the above two equations are identical by recalling the trigonometric
identity relating cosine and sine functions:

𝜋
cos⁡ 𝑥 = sin⁡ (𝑥+ 2) .
It is often convenient to convert between cosine and sine functions using standard trigonometric
identities, such as those listed in Table 9.1. For generality, both cosine and sine representations
will be used interchangeably throughout this chapter to enhance clarity and illustration.

Table 9.1 Trigonometric identities relating cosine to sine functions

cos(𝜔𝑡) ⁡ = ⁡ ∓ sin(𝜔𝑡 ∓ 𝜋⁄2) ⁡ = ⁡ − cos(𝜔𝑡 ∓ 𝜋) = cos⁡(−𝜔𝑡)

sin(𝜔𝑡) ⁡ = ⁡ ∓ cos(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜋⁄2) ⁡ = ⁡ − sin(𝜔𝑡 ∓ 𝜋) = −sin⁡(−𝜔𝑡)
cos(𝜔𝑡 ∓ 𝜃) ⁡ = cos⁡(𝜔𝑡)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ± sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
sin(𝜔𝑡 ∓ 𝜃) ⁡ = sin⁡(𝜔𝑡)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∓ cos(𝜔𝑡) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
1 + cos(2𝜔𝑡)
cos⁡(𝜔𝑡)2 =
2
1 − cos(2𝜔𝑡)
sin⁡(𝜔𝑡)2 =
2
+𝐴1 cos(𝜔𝑡) ∓ 𝐴2 sin(𝜔𝑡) ⁡ = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃)

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 𝐴 = √𝐴1 2 + 𝐴2 2
For 𝐴1 > 0,
𝐴
𝜃 = ⁡ ∓𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝐴2
1
For 𝐴1 < 0,
𝐴
𝜃 = ⁡𝜋 ± 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝐴2
1

We can completely describe a unique sinusoidal function once we know three of its attributes:
1. Sinusoidal period (T) or frequency f in period/s or frequency ω in rad/s.
2. Amplitude (Vm )
3. Phase-shift in time or in angles (radians or degrees).
It will be shown that in AC phasor circuit analysis approach to be discussed in this chapter, we
will be able to keep track of these three defining parameters without having to work with time
functions and differential equations.
1. Period(T):

There exists a time interval during which a sinusoidal function attains all of its possible values.
In the example shown in Fig. 9.4, during the interval from 𝑡0 to 𝑡0 + 𝑇, the voltage 𝑣(𝑡) assumes
all possible values. This interval is known as the period of the sinusoidal function, denoted by 𝑇,
and is typically expressed in seconds.

Thus, the period of a sinusoidal function is the time required for the signal to complete one full
cycle or oscillation. Since a sinusoidal waveform is periodic and repeats every 𝑇, the function
values repeat whenever time 𝑡 differs by an integer multiple of 𝑇, i.e.,

𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡 + 𝑛𝑇)

For n = 1, 2, 3, ….
Given the periodicity of the sinusoidal function, it is necessary to add or subtract 2π or 360° or
their multiples so that each element of the argument (i.e. ωt or ) of the cosine or sine function
are always between –π and π, or -180° and +180°.
2. Frequency (f):
Since every T seconds, the waveform repeats itself exactly once, then the number of cycles per
second represents the frequency of the sinusoidal signal, denoted f and given by,
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 1
𝑓 = ⁡ 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒⁡𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑⁡𝑖𝑛⁡𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = ⁡ 𝑇 ⁡𝐻𝑧

10
Where the unit of cycles/second is known as hertz (Hz) in honor of the German physicist
Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894).
Recall from trigonometry, the angular frequency denoted ω represents the number of cycles
measured every 360° degrees or 2π radians (rad). Hence, we have ω expressed as,
𝑜𝑛𝑒⁡𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒⁡𝑖𝑛⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 2𝜋
𝜔 =⁡ =⁡ = 2𝜋𝑓⁡⁡⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒⁡𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇

Hence, there are two common ways to express the frequency of a sinusoidal signal: as
the frequency, 𝑓, measured in hertz (Hz), or as the angular frequency, 𝜔, measured in radians
per second (rad/s). In communication systems, radio stations are typically identified by their
broadcast frequencies in kilohertz (kHz) or megahertz (MHz), as in AM and FM transmission. In
high-performance computing devices, internal communication signals often operate in the
gigahertz (GHz) range. For example, a signal with 𝑓 = 100 MHz undergoes 100 million
oscillations per second. Each oscillation has a period of 𝑇 = 10 nanoseconds, which
is 10−8 seconds (i.e., one hundred-millionth of a second).
2𝜋
Using the relation 𝜔 = ⁡ = 2𝜋 and 𝜃0 = 𝜔𝑡0 , we can represent the sinusoidal voltage equation
𝑇
in three possible equal ways:
𝑣(𝑡) = Vm cos 𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= ⁡ Vm 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡⁡ − ⁡ 𝜃0 ) (9.1)
2𝜋
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= Vm 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑇 𝑡⁡ − ⁡ 𝜃0 )

= Vm 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑡⁡ − ⁡ 𝜃0 )

Occasionally, it is useful to sketch a sinusoidal signal as a function of 𝜔𝑡. The quantity 𝜔𝑡 can
be expressed in either radians, from 0 to 2𝜋 (where 𝜋 ≈ 3.14 rad), or in degrees,
from 0∘ to 360∘ (where 𝜋 rad = 180∘ ). It is important to note that when 𝜔𝑡 is expressed in
radians, the phase angle of the sine or cosine function must also be expressed in radians.
Similarly, when 𝜔𝑡 is expressed in degrees, the phase angle must be expressed in degrees. This
ensures that the argument of the sinusoidal function has consistent units for both 𝜔𝑡 and 𝜃.
Students should become comfortable working with sinusoidal functions in both the time domain
and the frequency domain.

3. Amplitude (𝑽𝒎 ):
There exists one maximum and one minimum amplitudes in any given cycle, regardless which
cycle is chosen, this value is known as the peak value of the sinusoidal voltage denoted 𝑉𝑚 as
shown in Fig. 9.4.
Another characteristic of the sinusoidal function is its average or DC value when measured over
one period T is zero. This is obvious since the positive and negative areas over one cycle are

11
equal, so the average value is zero. Mathematically, the DC value of a sinusoidal function given
in Fig. 9.4 is calculated from,
𝑇+𝑡0
1
𝑉𝐷𝐶 = ⁡ ∫ 𝑣(𝑡)⁡𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑡0

𝑇+𝑡0
1 2𝜋
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= ∫ 𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑡 − 𝑡𝑜 ) 𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝑇 𝑇
𝑡0

Students are invited to verify this result.

So, regardless of the amplitude value and the time shift, the DC value of a sinusoidal function is
always zero. Hence, electrical engineers consider the DC value of a sinusoidal signal
meaningless. This is why in electrical engineering practice we define another important
characteristic of a sinusoidal voltage or current signal over a period T as root-mean-square (rms)
value that is mathematically defined by,

1 𝑇
V𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ⁡ √𝑇 ∫0 𝑣 2 (𝑡)⁡𝑑𝑡

Using either any version of Eq. (9.1) and integrated for⁡𝑡𝑜 to⁡𝑇 + 𝑡𝑜 to obtain,

1 𝑇+⁡𝑡0 2𝜋 2
V𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √⁡ ∫𝑡 (𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑡 − 𝑡0 )) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 𝑇

Vm
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= ⁡
√2
Students are invited again to verify this result.

From the above equation, we observe that the rms (root mean square) value represents the square
root of the average of 𝑣 2 (𝑡) over one period. Since 𝑣 2 (𝑡) is always nonnegative, there is no
cancellation due to negative values, as would occur with the average of 𝑣(𝑡) itself. Thus, taking
the square root of the mean of 𝑣 2 (𝑡) over one period yields the rms value. This value is constant
for a given peak amplitude and does not depend on frequency, time, or phase shift.

4. Phase-Angle:

From Fig. 9.4, we observe that at 𝑡 = 0, the voltage is neither zero nor equal to +𝑉𝑚 or −𝑉𝑚 .
This occurs due to a time shift, or equivalently, a phase shift in the waveform. This shift is
known as the phase angle of the sinusoidal function and is denoted by 𝜃0 in Eq. (9.1).

Typically, if the value of the sinusoidal function at 𝑡 = 0 is zero or at its maximum, it represents
the reference starting point of the function, with a phase angle of zero. However, if the value
at 𝑡 = 0 is neither zero nor a maximum, as in Fig. 9.4, the waveform is shifted in time either to

12
the left or to the right of 𝑡 = 0. This shift corresponds to a nonzero phase angle and results in the
argument of the sinusoidal function containing an additional phase term, whether expressed in
the time domain or the frequency domain.

In all cases, the phase angle does not affect the period, frequency, or amplitude of the signal.
Finally, before determining the phase relationship between two sinusoidal signals, both signals
must be expressed in the same form (either sine or cosine) and with positive amplitudes.

Phase lead and lag:

Often in electrical circuits with sinusoidal excitation functions, the frequencies of all the branch
currents and voltages are the same as the frequency of the excitation source whether it is a
current or a voltage source. Understanding the time relationships between current and voltage
signals within the same AC circuit is practical and very useful for the functionality of the AC
circuit or the system in general.
As an example, let us consider a simple AC electric circuit in Figure 9.5(a) has its voltage and
current sinusoidal signals expressed in the following two equations, respectively, and sketched in
Figure 9.5(b).
𝑣𝑆 (𝑡) ⁡ = ⁡ Vm 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡(𝜔𝑡)
𝑖𝑆 (𝑡) ⁡ = ⁡ Im 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡(𝜔𝑡⁡ + ⁡𝜃)

Figure 9.5 (a) AC electric circuit

13
 Figure 9.5(b) voltage and current sinusoidal representation
From the sketch, it is clear that the source current⁡𝑖𝑆 (𝑡), reaches its peak value before or ahead of
the source voltage⁡𝑣𝑆 (𝑡), by  radians (or 𝜃/𝜔 seconds). Hence, we say that the current 𝑖𝑆 (𝑡)
leads the voltage 𝑣𝑆 (𝑡)⁡by the phase lead angle⁡𝜃. Similarly, if the current source is shifted to the
right of 𝑣𝑆 (𝑡)⁡by  radians, i.e. 𝑖𝑆 (𝑡) ⁡ = ⁡ Im 𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡(𝜔𝑡 − ⁡𝜃), then we say that the current source
𝑖𝑆 (𝑡) lags the voltage source 𝑣𝑆 (𝑡)⁡by a phase lag angle of⁡𝜃, which can be expressed in radians
or degrees. To further illustrate the phase lag and lead concepts, we consider Example 9.1 below.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Example 9.1 – Properties of a sinusoidal function
𝜋 𝜋
For a given sinusoidal current expressed by 𝑖(𝑡) = 4 sin( 3 𝑡 + 6 ) ⁡𝐴. Determine the current
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
sinusoidal parameters: a) Period, b) Frequency, c) The magnitude at⁡4 , 3 , 2 , 𝑇, d) The DC value,
and e) The rms value.
Solution:
a) To calculate the period, we use the following formula,

2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑇= ⁡= = 6⁡⁡𝑠
𝜔 𝜋/3
b) To calculate the frequency, we use the following formula,

1 1
𝑓= = = 0.167⁡⁡⁡𝐻𝑧
𝑇 6
c) To calculate the magnitude of⁡𝑖(𝑡), we simply substitute values,

14
 𝑇 𝜋𝑇 𝜋 𝜋6 𝜋 2𝜋 √3
𝑖 ( ) = 4 sin( + ) = 4 sin( + ) = 4 sin( ) = 4 = 2√3 = 3.46⁡⁡𝐴
4 34 6 34 6 3 2
𝑇 𝜋𝑇 𝜋 𝜋6 𝜋 5𝜋
𝑖 ( ) = 4 sin( + ) = 4 sin( + ) = 4 sin( ) = 2⁡⁡𝐴⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡
3 33 6 33 6 6
𝑇 𝜋𝑇 𝜋 𝜋6 𝜋 7𝜋
𝑖 ( ) = 4 sin( + ) = 4 sin( + ) = 4 sin( ) = −2⁡⁡𝐴
2 32 6 32 6 6
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑖(𝑇) = 4 sin( 𝑇 + ) = 4 sin( 6 + ) = 4 sin( ) = 2⁡⁡𝐴
3 6 3 6 6
d) To calculate the DC value, we can either use the formula, or since we are dealing with a
sinusoidal function, we know it’s zero,
1 𝑇+𝑡0 1 𝑇+𝑡0 𝐼𝑚 𝑇+𝑡0
𝐼𝐷𝐶 = 𝑇 ∫𝑡 𝑖(𝑡)⁡𝑑𝑡 ⁡= 𝑇 ∫𝑡 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) ⁡𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑇
cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) |𝑡0
0 0

𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚
=− [cos(𝜔(𝑇 + 𝑡0 ) + 𝜃) − cos(𝜔𝑡0 + 𝜃)] = − [cos(𝜔𝑡0 + 𝜃) − cos(𝜔𝑡0 + 𝜃)]
𝑇 𝑇

⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= 0
e) To calculate the rms value, we use the formula,

1 𝑇2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑖 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0

1 𝑇 2 2 𝐼𝑚 2 𝑇 1 1
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= √ ∫ 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)𝑑𝑡 = √ ∫ − cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜃) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 𝑚 𝑇 0 2 2

Using the following trigonometric identity,

1 − cos(2𝜔𝑡)
sin⁡(𝜔𝑡)2 =
2
We have,

𝐼𝑚 2 𝑇 1 1 𝐼𝑚 2 1 1 sin(2𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜃) 𝑇
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =√ ∫ − cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜃) 𝑑𝑡 = √ ( 𝑡− ]0
𝑇 0 2 2 𝑇 2 2 2𝜔

𝐼𝑚 2 𝐼2 2
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= √ + (− sin(2𝜔𝑇 + 2𝜃) + sin(2𝜃))
2 4𝜔𝑇

𝐼𝑚 4
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= ⁡= = 2.83⁡⁡⁡𝐴
√2 √2
………………………………………………………………………………………………..........

15
Example 9.2 – Sinusoidal properties
Express the sinusoidal expression for a current signal that has a peak of⁡8⁡𝐴, frequency⁡400⁡𝐻𝑧,
and the value of -4 A at 𝑡 = 0. What is the current value at 𝑡 = 1.2⁡𝑚𝑠?
Solution:
To find an expression, we can either use a sine or a cosine function, and then shift it left or right
as necessary, but first we should calculate the radian frequency⁡𝜔,
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 800𝜋⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
Let the expression for the function be given arbitrary by a sine expression as follows,
𝑖(𝑡) = 8 sin(800𝜋𝑡 − 𝜃) 𝐴
Since the value of 𝑖(𝑡) = −4⁡𝐴 at 𝑡 = 0, hence, we have,
𝑖(0) = 8 sin(−𝜃) = −4
Solving for
4 𝜋
𝜃 = sin−1 =
8 6
Therefore, the function is given by,
𝜋
𝑖(𝑡) = 8 sin (800𝜋𝑡 − ) ⁡𝐴
6
At 𝑡 = 1.2⁡𝑚𝑠,
𝜋
𝑖(1.2) = 8 sin (800𝜋𝑥1.2𝑥10−3 − ) = 8𝑠𝑖𝑛2.99 = 4.84⁡𝐴
6

𝑖(𝑡)(A)

𝑡(ms)

[Link]
………………………………………………………………………………………………..........

16
Exercise 9.1 – Sinusoidal properties
Express the sinusoidal expression for a voltage signal that has a peak of⁡220⁡𝑉, frequency⁡60⁡𝐻𝑧,
and the value of −95⁡𝑉 at 𝑡 = 2⁡𝑚𝑠.
Answer:

𝑣(𝑡) = 220 sin(120𝜋𝑡 − 1.2) ⁡𝑉

………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
Example 9.3 – Phase-angle
Given the following two sinusoidal voltage functions:
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑣1 (𝑡) = 12 sin( 3 𝑡 + 6 ) 𝑣2 (𝑡) = −6 sin( 3 𝑡 + 6 )

Determine the phase angle between the two functions in radians and degrees. Assuming⁡𝑣1 (𝑡) is
the reference signal.
Solution:
First, we must express both sinusoids as the same positive trigonometric function,
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑣1 (𝑡) = 12 cos ( 𝑡 + − )⁡ = 12 cos ( 𝑡 − )⁡
3 6 2 3 3
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
𝑣2 (𝑡) = 6 cos( 𝑡 + + 𝜋 − ) = 6 cos( 𝑡 + )
3 6 2 3 3
Now we can say that,
2𝜋 𝜋
𝑣2 (𝑡) leads⁡𝑣1 (𝑡) by [ 3 − (− 3 )] = ⁡⁡𝜋⁡⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑 or⁡180°, or⁡𝑣1 (𝑡) lags⁡𝑣2 (𝑡) by⁡⁡𝜋⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑 or⁡180°.

In this case, it can be said that 𝑣2 (𝑡) lags⁡𝑣1 (𝑡) by 180°. Notice since the phase difference is
180°, then it is also correct to state that 𝑣2 (𝑡) lags⁡𝑣1 (𝑡) by 180°.

17
 𝑣1 (𝑡)(V)

𝑣2 (𝑡)(V)

𝑡(ms)

[Link]
………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
Exercise 9.2:
Repeat Example 9.3 for the following two signals.
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑣1 (𝑡) = 10 sin( 3 𝑡 − 6 ) ⁡𝑉 𝑣2 (𝑡) = −6 cos ( 3 𝑡 − 6 ) ⁡𝑉

Answer:
𝜋
𝑣2 (𝑡) lags⁡𝑣1 (𝑡) by⁡ 2 ⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑 or⁡90°
𝜋
⁡𝑣1 (𝑡) leads⁡𝑣2 (𝑡) by⁡ 2 ⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑 or⁡90°

………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
Example 9.4 – Phase-angles for multiple functions
To further illustrate the phase lag and lead concepts, consider the AC circuit in Figure 9.6 that
consists of two series-connected circuits A and B as shown that has three of its sinusoidal
voltages expressed by,
𝑣𝑠 (𝑡) ⁡ = ⁡10 𝑠𝑖𝑛(200𝑡) ⁡𝑉
𝑣𝑜1 (𝑡) = ⁡5 𝑠𝑖𝑛(200𝑡 + 30𝑜 ) ⁡⁡𝑉
𝑣𝑜2 (𝑡) = ⁡2.5 𝑠𝑖𝑛(200𝑡 − 68𝑜 ) ⁡⁡𝑉
Determine the phase relationship between:
(a) 𝑣𝑠 (𝑡)⁡and 𝑣𝑜1 (𝑡)
(b) 𝑣𝑠 (𝑡)⁡and 𝑣𝑜2 (𝑡)⁡

18
 (c) 𝑣𝑜1 (𝑡)⁡and 𝑣𝑜2 (𝑡)
Sketch these three sinusoidal voltages and describe the lead and lag relationships between them.

𝑣𝑠 (𝑡) 𝑣𝑜1 (𝑡) 𝑣𝑜2 (𝑡)

Figure 9.6 AC electric circuit

Solution:

Write the three signals in terms of cosine:

𝑣𝑆 (𝑡) ⁡ = ⁡10⁡𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡(200𝑡 − 90𝑜 )
𝑣𝑂1 (𝑡) ⁡ = 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠(200𝑡 − 60𝑜 ) ⁡⁡𝑉
𝑣𝑂2 (𝑡) ⁡ = 2.5 𝑐𝑜𝑠(200𝑡 − 158𝑜 ) ⁡⁡𝑉
(a) It is clear that the original signal 𝑣𝑆 (𝑡)⁡ has -90 phase shift, while 𝑣𝑂1 (𝑡) leads 𝑣𝑆 (𝑡) by
−60𝑜 − (−90𝑜 ) = 30𝑜 .
(b) The second output signal 𝑣𝑂2 (𝑡) lags 𝑣𝑆 (𝑡) by −90𝑜 − (−158𝑜 ) = 68𝑜 .
(c) The phase relationship between outputs 𝑣𝑂1 (𝑡) and 𝑣𝑂2 (𝑡) is measured by the phase
difference between 𝑣𝑂1 (𝑡) and 𝑣𝑂2 (𝑡): (30𝑜 − (−68)𝑜 ) = 98𝑜 , hence 𝑣𝑂1 leads 𝑣𝑂2 by
98𝑜 or 𝑣𝑂1 lags 𝑣𝑂2 by 262𝑜 .
The voltage sinusoidal representation can be sketched as in Fig. 9.7:

19
 Figure 9.7 voltage and current sinusoidal representation

𝑣𝑠
𝑣𝑜1
𝑣𝑜2

[Link]
5*(x+30))&hx=2.5*sin(0.01745*(x-68))&xh=400&xl=0&yh=12&yl=-12&a=1.2
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
When it comes to measuring the phase angles in sinusoidal AC circuits, typically to avoid sign
and calculation errors, it is better to be consistent in a given AC circuit to have all its branch
currents and voltages be expressed in terms of either cosine functions or sine functions. This will
require the use of several trigonometric identities to convert sinusoidal functions to the desired
format.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Exercise 9.3:
Repeat Example 9.4 by assuming the three voltages are given by,
𝑣𝑆 (𝑡) ⁡ = ⁡10⁡𝑠𝑖𝑛⁡(377𝑡 + 18𝑜 )
𝑣𝑂1 (𝑡) ⁡ = 10 𝑐𝑜𝑠(377𝑡 − 240𝑜 ) ⁡⁡𝑉
𝑣𝑂2 (𝑡) ⁡ = ⁡10 𝑐𝑜𝑠(377𝑡 + 120𝑜 ) ⁡⁡𝑉
Answer:

(a) 𝑣𝑆 (𝑡)⁡leads 𝑣𝑂1 (𝑡) by 168𝑜 .

(b) 𝑣𝑂2 (𝑡) leads 𝑣𝑆 (𝑡) by 192𝑜 .
(c) 𝑣𝑂1 and 𝑣𝑂2 are in phase.

20
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Example 9.5 – Sinusoidal trigonometric identities
Express the following sinusoidal sine function as one term of single cosine function. Calculate
the rms of the current.
𝑖(𝑡) = 2 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 25𝑜 ) + 4 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 48𝑜 ) A
Solution:
The first term can be expanded as follows,
2 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 25𝑜 ) = 2 sin(𝜔𝑡) cos(25𝑜 ) + 2 cos(𝜔𝑡) sin(25𝑜 ) = 1.81 sin(𝜔𝑡) + 0.85 cos(𝜔𝑡)
The second term,
4 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 48𝑜 ) = 4 cos(𝜔𝑡) cos(48𝑜 ) + 4 sin(𝜔𝑡) sin(48𝑜 ) = 2.68 cos(𝜔𝑡) + 2.97 sin(𝜔𝑡)
Combining the above two expressions,
𝑖(𝑡) = 1.81 sin(𝜔𝑡) + 0.85 cos(𝜔𝑡) + 2.68 cos(𝜔𝑡) + 2.97 sin(𝜔𝑡)
𝑖(𝑡) = 4.78 sin(𝜔𝑡) + 3.53 cos(𝜔𝑡) = 5.94 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 53.38𝑜 ) ⁡𝐴

Next, to find the rms values, we use the following formula,

1 𝑇 5.94
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑖(𝑡)2 𝑑𝑡 = = 4.2⁡𝐴
𝑇 0 √2

Notice the rms values of 𝑖(𝑡) doe does not equal the summation of the individual rms values of
each term of 𝑖(𝑡) as clearly can be shown from this numerical example.

[Link]

[Link]
x-48))&gx=5.94*sin(0.01745*(x-
53.38))&hx=2.5*sin(0.01745*(x+120))&sh=f&xh=500&xl=0&yh=12&yl=-12&a=1.2
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Exercise 9.4:
Show that the following two functions are identical:

21
 5𝜋 𝜋
𝑣(𝑡) = 8 cos(𝜔𝑡 + ) − 2 sin (𝜔𝑡 − ) ⁡𝑉
6 3
𝑣(𝑡) = 7.21𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 136.12𝑜 ) 𝑉
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Exercise 9.5:
Determine the magnitude 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 and phase angle 𝜃 in radiance for the following sinusoidal
expression,
𝜋 𝜋
𝑖(𝑡) = −6 cos (𝑡 − ) − 12 sin(𝑡 + ) ⁡𝐴 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃)⁡
3 3
Answer:
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 17.45⁡𝑉
𝜃 = 219.9𝑜
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Example 9.6 – General AC circuit
A sinusoidal voltage source given by 𝑣𝑆 (𝑡) = 24 sin(100𝜋𝑡 + 30°) V is connected to an electric
circuit as shown in Figure 9.8, resulting in a current given by:
𝑖𝑆 (𝑡) = 10 sin(100𝜋𝑡 + 45°) ⁡⁡𝐴
(a) Determine the period of oscillation⁡𝑇, frequency⁡𝑓, rms values of⁡𝑣𝑆 (𝑡) and⁡𝑖𝑆 (𝑡).
𝑇
(b) What values of 𝑣𝑆 (𝑡) and⁡𝑖𝑆 (𝑡)⁡are at⁡𝑡 = 3 s.

Figure 9.8 Single-phase circuit

Solution:
(a) Notice the period⁡𝑇 and the frequency⁡𝑓 are the same for 𝑣𝑆 (𝑡) and⁡𝑖𝑆 (𝑡),
2𝜋
𝑇= = 20⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑚𝑠
𝜔
𝜔
𝑓= = 50⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐻𝑧
2𝜋

22
Hence, the rms values are,

1 𝑇 10
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑖𝑆 (𝑡)2 𝑑𝑡 = = 7.1⁡𝐴
𝑇 0 √2

1 𝑇 24
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ ∫ 𝑣𝑆 (𝑡)2 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑇 0 √2

𝑇 𝑇
So, in order to calculate⁡𝑣𝑠 (3) and⁡𝑖𝑠 (3),

𝑇 20 2𝜋 𝑇 𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
𝑣𝑠 ( ) = 𝑣𝑠 ( ) = 24 sin ( + ) = 24 sin ( + ) = 12⁡𝑉
3 3 𝑇 3 6 3 6
𝑇 20 2𝜋 𝑇 𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
𝑖𝑠 ( ) = 𝑖𝑠 ( ) = 10 sin ( + ) = 10 sin ( + ) = 2.58⁡𝐴
3 3 𝑇 3 4 3 4

𝑣𝑠

𝑖𝑠

[Link]
………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
Exercise 9.6:
Given the following two sinusoidal currents⁡𝑖1 (𝑡)⁡and⁡𝑖2 (𝑡),
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
𝑖1 (𝑡) = 8 cos( 3 𝑡 + 6 ) ⁡𝐴 𝑖2 (𝑡) = 6 sin( 3 𝑡 + ) ⁡⁡𝐴
3

a) Find the sinusoidal functions for⁡𝑖 𝑇 (𝑡), where:

𝑖 𝑇 (𝑡) = 𝑖1 (𝑡) + 𝑖2 (𝑡)

23
 b) Find the rms values for⁡𝑖1 (𝑡), 𝑖2 (𝑡) and 𝑖 𝑇 (𝑡).

Answer:
𝜋 𝜋
(a) 𝑖 𝑇 (𝑡) = 14 cos( 3 𝑡 + 6 )
(b) 𝐼1,𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 5.66⁡𝐴, 𝐼2,𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 4.24⁡𝐴, 𝐼𝑇,𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 9.9⁡𝐴

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

9.2 The Complete AC Response*

(* footnote: maybe skipped without loss of continuity)

If you recall from Chapters 6, 7, and 8, the analysis of RLC circuits focused primarily on
switching circuits driven by DC sources. In those cases, the total response consisted of two parts:
a transient response (which exists for a short time after switching) and a steady-state
response (which remains after the transient effects have disappeared).

In this section, our focus shifts to RLC circuits excited by sinusoidal AC sources. To simplify
the analysis, we will consider only the steady-state response. This means we assume that all
transient effects that are determined by the circuit components and initial conditions have already
decayed to zero. As a result, the circuit response depends only on the applied AC source.

Before developing the general method used in this chapter, we will first present a complete
solution for a simple RC circuit driven by a sinusoidal input voltage 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡), as shown in Figure
9.9(a), for 𝑡 > 0 after the switch is closed. This example is intended for illustration only and
does not represent the method that will be used throughout the chapter. Instead, we will
introduce a simpler and more general approach for determining the steady-state
response 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) under sinusoidal excitation.

(a)
Figure 9.9(a) A Simple RC circuit under a sinusoidal driving function
Let us assume that the sinusoidal input voltage is given by,
𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑓𝑜𝑟⁡𝑡 ≥ 0

24
The goal is to determine the voltage across the capacitor for all times t > 0. The corresponding
differential equation is:
𝑑𝑣𝑐 (𝑡)
𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) + 𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑡
The solution procedure is similar to that discussed in Chapter 6, except that the forcing function
is now a sinusoidal voltage rather than a DC value.
As we studied earlier, the complete solution consists of two parts: natural response (transient
response),⁡𝑣𝑐,𝑡𝑟 (𝑡), and the steady-state (forced response), 𝑣𝑐,𝑠𝑠 (𝑡), as given by,

𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝑣𝑐,𝑡𝑟 (𝑡) + 𝑣𝑐,𝑠𝑠 (𝑡)

The transient response is given by the following general solution equation:
𝑣𝑐,𝑡𝑟 (𝑡) = 𝑘𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶
Where k is a constant that can be obtained from the capacitor’s initial condition.
From our studies in our introductory of Differential Equations math courses, the steady-state
response must be in the form of the excitation or forced input, 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡), hence one possible solution
for 𝑣𝑐,𝑠𝑠 (𝑡) is

𝑣𝑐,𝑠𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)

Where A and 𝜑 can be obtained in terms of the circuit components and input voltage parameters.
We note that the steady-state solution has the same angular frequency, 𝜔, as the input voltage.
Thus, the complete solution is given by:
𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝑣𝑐,𝑡𝑟 (𝑡) + 𝑣𝑐,𝑠𝑠 (𝑡)
𝑡
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= 𝑘𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 + 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) (9.2)
The first term of Eq. (9.2) goes to zero, hence the name transient, as time elapses. The second
term is a continious function of time and sustains its oscillatory nature in steady-state that
remains valid as long as the switch is closed and 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) is applied. Figure 9.9(b) and (c) show the
two equivalent circuits during traniset and steady-state condistions.

(b) (c)
Figure 9.9 Equivalent Circuits under (b) trainset and (c) stead-state conditions

25
The approach to solve for the steady-state response will be significantly reduced in terms of
mathectical complexity by incorpporating a direct technique known as phasor to obtain the
steady-state solution as discussed in the next section, unlike the differential equation solution
approach that leads to solving the total solution of both the transient and steady-state responses,
the simple phasor technique will lead to only the steady-state response.
In steady-state, all the voltage and current responses due to sinusodial excitation will aslo be
sinusoidal at the same frequency of the excitation signal. This is true since we are only dealing
with linear circuits consisting of ideal components R, L and C.
Only their maximum amplitudes and phase shift will be different than the excitation signal. The
phasor method is very powerful if we are only interested in obtaining the steady-state response.
What makes the phasor method simple is the knowledge that the response function form is
known (sinusoidal) and its frequency is also known.
Without giving any details of the differential equation solution approach, the student is asked to
trust but verify that the general solution for 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) is given by Eq. (9.3),
𝑡
𝑉𝑚
𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝑘𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 + ⁡cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 + 𝜑) (9.3)
√1+(𝜔/𝜏)2

Where,
𝑉𝑚 cos⁡(𝜃 + 𝜑) 1
𝑘 = 𝑣𝑐 (0) − ,⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝜏 =
√1 + (𝜔/𝜏)2 𝑅𝐶

and
−𝜔𝑅𝐶 −𝜔
𝜑 = tan−1( ) = tan−1
1 𝜏
In most practical applications, when driven by sinusoidal excitation, engineers are almost always
interested in the steady-state portion of the complete solution.

The steady-state response shows that the capacitor voltage amplitude 𝑉𝑚 /√1 + (𝜔/𝜏)2 is
different than the source amplitude,⁡𝑉𝑚 , but the capacitor frequency is the same as the source
frequency, 𝜔. We notice that if t is very large, the transient response goes to zero and only the
steady-state part remains.
The phase angle,⁡𝜑, is the angular difference between the input excitation, 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡), and the output
−𝜔
capacitor voltage, 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡). We notice that this phase angle, 𝜑 = tan−1 𝜏 and the magnitude
𝑉𝑚 /√1 + (𝜔/𝜏)2 are a function of the source frequency,⁡𝜔, and the circuit parameter or time
1
constant 𝑅𝐶.

The capacitor voltage in steady state is valid for all t > 0 for any source amplitude and
frequency. For example, if 𝜔 = 0, i.e. the source input is DC, as expected the response will only

26
consist of a transient component and as time elapses the capacitor is charged almost to the value
𝑉𝑚 .
And if we assume the source frequency is small compared to⁡𝜏, i.e. 𝜔 ≪ 𝜏, after the same time
ellipses so that the transient response has died, the steady-state response can be estimated to
𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) ≈ 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
Where
−𝜔
√1 + (𝜔/𝜏)2 ≈ 1 and 𝜑 = tan−1 ≈ 0°
𝜏

Which suggests that the capacitor voltage is almost equal to the source voltage, hence there is
almost zero current flowing in R, and the capacitor is behaving like an open circuit.
And if we assume the source frequency is high, i.e. 𝜔 ≫ 𝜏, then the capacitor voltage, 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) is
approximately given by,
𝑉𝑚
𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) ≈ sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 − 90°)
𝜔/𝜏
Where
𝜔 −𝜔
√1 + (𝜔/𝜏)2 ≈ ,⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝜑 = tan−1 ≈ −90°
𝜏 𝜏

𝑚𝑉
The new amplitude 𝜔𝜏 is very small compared to 𝑉𝑚 , that is, it is approximately zero volts.
Therefore, the capacitor behaves almost like a short circuit under these conditions.

The above observations are important because they provide insight into the behavior of
sinusoidal circuits and help us understand the usefulness of the phasor method, which will be
introduced next. Using this method, the steady-state response given in Eq. (9.3) can be obtained
by converting the differential equation into a simpler algebraic equation.

In the remainder of this chapter, we will assume that all AC circuits operate without switching
actions, and that 𝑡 = 0represents the beginning of the steady-state response.

To simplify notation, we will omit the subscript “ss” in the solution and will no longer explicitly
state the term steady-state when analyzing AC circuits, as it will be implied.

9.3 The Phasors

The phasor method for circuit analysis was introduced in 1893 when Charles Steinmetz (1878-
1912) demonstrated a mathematical relationship between complex numbers and AC sinusoidal
voltage and current waveforms. Since then, the use of phasors in analyzing electrical circuits has
become widespread, and the concept has been widely adopted by engineers and educators.

27
The phasor approach allows us to transform the integral–differential equations that describe the
dynamic behavior of RLC circuits into simpler algebraic equations. These algebraic equations
are much easier to solve using standard linear techniques.

Furthermore, by representing circuit elements using phasor-based impedances, we can often

determine circuit responses directly without first writing the governing differential equations.
This makes the analysis process more efficient and straightforward.

At this point, it is helpful to review the concept of complex numbers.

9.3.1 Review of Complex Numbers

Since the remainder of this textbook will use frequency-domain analysis for AC circuits, this
section provides a brief review to refresh students’ understanding of complex number algebra. It
also introduces useful relationships that will be helpful when working with complex numbers.
Students are encouraged to review the fundamentals of complex number algebra beyond the
material presented in this section.

Given a complex number Z, it can be represented in a rectangular form or a polar form as

follows, respectively,
𝑍 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 Rectangular Form

𝑍 = |𝑍|𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = |𝑍|∠𝜃 Polar Form

Where “𝑎” is known as the real part and “𝑏” is the imaginary part.

The imaginary operator* 𝑗 of the rectangular is defined as 𝑗 = √−1, whereas |𝑍| and 𝜃 are the
magnitude and phase components of the polar form give.
(*Footnote: In physics and mathematics, the symbol 𝑖 is typically used to represent the imaginary unit. In electrical engineering,
however, 𝑗 is used instead to avoid confusion with 𝑖, which commonly denotes electric current)

|𝑍| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 The magnitude of Z

𝑏
𝜃 = tan−1 𝑎 The phase-angle of Z

Recall from Euler’s identity,

𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Then the polar form of⁡𝑍 = |𝑍|𝑒 𝑗𝜃 is given by,

𝑍 = |𝑍|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑗|𝑍|𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Hence, the real and imaginary parts of Z can also be represented as,
𝑎 = Real Part of 𝑍 = ℛℯ{𝑍} = |𝑍| cos 𝜃
𝑏 = Imaginary Part of 𝑍 = ℐ𝓂{𝑍} = |𝑍| sin 𝜃

28
Moreover, often it is practical to represent⁡𝑍 as a vector in a plot of imaginary and real axes
known as the phase plane representation shown in Figure 9.10.
ℐ𝓂

𝑏 𝑍

0 𝑎
ℛℯ

Figure 9.10 phase plane

We have some useful properties and algebraic relations of complex number are listed in Table
9.2,
Table 9.2 Useful complex relations

Euler’s Identity: 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

1 𝑒 ±𝑗𝜃1
𝑒 ∓𝑗𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑗(𝜃1∓𝜃2 ) = 𝑒 𝑗𝜃1 𝑒 𝑗∓𝜃2 ⁡ = 𝑒 𝑗(±𝜃1 ∓𝜃2)
𝑒 ±𝑗𝜃 𝑒 ±𝑗𝜃2
°
𝑗 = √−1 +1 = 𝑒 ±𝑗0 −1 = 𝑒 ±𝑗𝜋
±1 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
∓𝑗 = = 𝑒 ∓𝑗 2 √ 𝑗 = ±𝑒 𝑗
4 √−𝑗 = ±𝑒
−𝑗
4
𝑗
Now if two different complex numbers are given,
𝑍1 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏
𝑍2 = 𝑐 + 𝑗𝑑
Equal Two Complex Numbers:
Then, we state that two equal complex numbers are donated as,
𝑍1 = 𝑍2 if and only if 𝑎 = 𝑐 and 𝑏 = 𝑑
Addition-Subtraction:
The summation and subtraction of 𝑍1 and 𝑍2 ,
𝑍1 ∓ 𝑍2 = (𝑎 ∓ 𝑐) + 𝑗(𝑏 ∓ 𝑑)
Multiplication:
The product of two complex numbers 𝑍1 and 𝑍2 is easier carried out if in polar form as follows,

𝑍1 𝑍2 = (|𝑍1 |𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑍1 )(|𝑍2 |𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑍2 ) = |𝑍1 ||𝑍2 |𝑒 𝑗(𝜃𝑍1 +𝜃𝑍2 ) = |𝑍1 ||𝑍2 |∠(𝜃𝑍1 + 𝜃𝑍2 )

29
Whereas multiplication in rectangular form is given as follows,
𝑍1 𝑍2 = (𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏)(𝑐 + 𝑗𝑑) = (𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏𝑑) + 𝑗(𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎𝑑)
Complex Conjugate:
Finally, the complex conjugate of a complex number is the same as the original complex
number, but its imaginary part is multiplied by (-1) as shown by the complex conjugate of 𝑍1 and
𝑍2 ,

𝑍 ∗ = 𝑎 − 𝑗𝑏 = |𝑍|𝑒 −𝑗𝜃

𝑍1 ∗ = 𝑎 − 𝑗𝑏 = |𝑍1 |𝑒 −𝑗𝜃𝑍1

𝑍2 ∗ = 𝑐 − 𝑗𝑑 = |𝑍2 |𝑒 −𝑗𝜃𝑍2
Where the asterisk “∗” donates the variable is complex conjugate of the original complex
number.
Division of Complex Numbers:
Like in the above multiplication case, division of two complex numbers 𝑍1 and 𝑍2 is easier
carried out when expressed in polar form as follows,

𝑍1 |𝑍1 |𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑍1 |𝑍1 | 𝑗(𝜃𝑍 −𝜃𝑍 ) |𝑍1 |

= = 𝑒 1 2 = ∠(𝜃𝑍1 − 𝜃𝑍2 )
𝑍2 |𝑍2 |𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑍2 |𝑍2 | |𝑍2 |

For |𝑍2 | ≠ 0.
Power Notations in Complex Numbers:
When a complex number 𝑍 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 is raised to a positive integer number "𝑛", we obtain the
following polar expression,

𝑍 𝑛 = (𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏)𝑛 = (|𝑍|𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 )𝑛 = |𝑍|𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜃

Then the rectangular form is easily obtained by using Euler’s identity as follows,
𝑍 𝑛 = |𝑍|𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜃 = |𝑍|𝑛 cos(𝑛𝜃) + 𝑗|𝑍|𝑛 ⁡𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝜃)⁡
………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
Interactive Example 9.1: Complex Number Calculations
………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
Example 9.7 – Complex Numbers calculations
Calculate the magnitude and phase for complex number Z for the following expressions,
𝑜 𝑜
(a) 𝑍 = (5𝑒 −𝑗60 )(2 + 𝑗3)(2𝑒 𝑗125 )

30
 (2−𝑗)(cos 45𝑜 −𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛45𝑜 )
(b) 𝑍 =
−𝑗+2sin⁡(245𝑜 )

Solution:
(a) Since complex number multiplication is easier when done in polar form, we change all
the complex numbers into the polar form as follows,
𝑜 𝑜 𝑜 𝑜 𝑜
𝑍 = (5𝑒 −𝑗60 )(2 + 𝑗3)(2𝑒 𝑗125 ) = (5𝑒 −𝑗60 )(3.606𝑒 𝑗56.31 )(2𝑒 𝑗125 )
𝑜
= 36.06𝑒 𝑗121.3
Hence, |𝑍| = 36 and ∠𝑍 = 121.31𝑜 .
(b) Since complex number division is easier when done in polar form, we change all the
complex numbers into the polar form as follows,
𝑜 𝑜 𝑜
(2 − 𝑗)(cos 45𝑜 − 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛45𝑜 ) (2.24𝑒 −𝑗26.6 )(𝑒 −𝑗45 )⁡ 2.24𝑒 −𝑗71.6 ⁡
𝑍= = = 𝑜
−𝑗 + 2sin⁡(245𝑜 ) −𝑗 − 1.8⁡ 2.06𝑒 −𝑗150.95 ⁡
𝑜
= 1.08𝑒 𝑗79.35
Hence, |𝑍| = 1.08 and ∠𝑍 = 79.35𝑜
…………………………………….…………………………….…………………………….……
Exercise 9.7:
Calculate the magnitude and phase for complex number Z for the following expressions,
𝑜
(a) 𝑍 = (−2 + 𝑗3)(−2𝑒 𝑗75 ) − 𝑗

(3−𝑗6)(5)−(−1−𝑗0.8)(−𝑗)
(b) 𝑍 = 𝑜
𝑗+2𝑒 𝑗125 ⁡

Answer:
𝑜
(a) 𝑍 = 7.58𝑒 −𝑗154.1
𝑜
(b) 𝑍 = 12.09𝑒 −𝑗176.35
…………………………………….…………………………….…………………………….……

31
Example 9.8 - Complex Numbers calculations
Given the following complex number expressions,
𝑍1 = 3 + 𝑗 𝑍2 = −𝑗6𝑠𝑖𝑛45𝑜
𝑜
𝑍3 = 5𝑒 𝑗25 𝑍4 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛80𝑜 − 2𝑗
𝑍5 = 6𝑠𝑖𝑛45𝑜 − 𝑗3𝑐𝑜𝑠(−40)𝑜
Calculate the following complex operation and give results in both rectangular and polar forms:
a) 𝑍 = 𝑍1 + 2𝑍3 + 𝑗
𝑍1 −𝑍5 𝑍2∗
b) 𝑍 =
√𝑍4 𝑍 ∗ 3 +𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛45𝑜
𝑍1 −5
c) 𝑍 = + 𝑍4 + 𝑍5
𝑍2 𝑍2∗

Solution:
(a) Substitute for the given complex,
𝑜
𝑍 = 𝑍1 + 2𝑍3 + 𝑗 = 3 + 𝑗 + 2(5𝑒 𝑗25 ) + 𝑗 = 3 + 𝑗 + 9.1 + 𝑗4.2 + 𝑗 = 12.06 + 𝑗6.23
𝑜
𝑍 = 13.6𝑒 𝑗27.3

(b) Substitute for the given complex,

First, we simplify the following into rectangular form,
𝑍2 = −𝑗6𝑠𝑖𝑛45𝑜 = −𝑗4.24
𝑍2∗ = 𝑗4.24
𝑜
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑍3 = 5𝑒 𝑗25 = 4.53 + j2.11
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Z ∗ 3 = 4.53 − j2.11
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑍4 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛80𝑜 − 2𝑗 = 2.95 − j2
𝑍5 = 6𝑠𝑖𝑛45𝑜 − 𝑗3𝑐𝑜𝑠(−40)𝑜 = 4.242 − j2.298
jsin45o = 𝑗0.707
Z5 Z2∗ = (4.24 − j2.298)(j4.24) = 9.75 + j18
Z4 Z ∗ 3 = (2.95 − j2)(4.53 − j2.11) = 9.16 − j14.6
Hence,
Z1 − Z5 Z2∗ (3 + j) − (9.75 + j18) (−6.75 − 𝑗17)
𝑍= = =
√Z4 Z ∗ 3 + jsin45o √(9.16 − j14.6) + j0.707 (3.63 − 𝑗2.01) + (𝑗0.707)

32
 𝑜
−6.75 − 𝑗17 18.29𝑒 𝑗248.34 𝑗268.09𝑜 𝑜
𝑍= = −𝑗19.75𝑜 = 4.74𝑒 = 4.74𝑒 −𝑗91.91
3.63 − 𝑗1.303 3.86𝑒

(c) Substitute for the given complex with 𝑍2∗ = 𝑗4.24, 𝑍4 = 2.95 − 𝑗2, and 𝑍2 𝑍2∗ = (4.24)2 ,
to yield

𝑍1 −5 (3+𝑗)−5
𝑍= + 𝑍4 + Z5 = ⁡ + (2.95 − 𝑗2) + (4.24 − 𝑗2.29) = (−0.11 + 𝑗0.055) +
𝑍2 𝑍2∗ (4.24)2
𝑜
7.19 − 𝑗4.29 = 7.08 − 𝑗4.235 = 8.25𝑒 𝑗−30.8
…………………………………….…………………………….…………………………….……
Exercise 9.8:
Given the following complex number expressions,
𝑍1 = 3 + 𝑗 𝑍2 = −𝑗6𝑠𝑖𝑛45𝑜
𝑜
𝑍3 = 5𝑒 𝑗25 𝑍4 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛80𝑜 − 2𝑗
Calculate the following complex operation and give results in both rectangular and polar forms:
1⁡
a) 𝑍 = 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 𝑍4 + 𝑍
3⁡
∗
b) 𝑍 = 𝑍1 √𝑍2 − 3𝑍3
Answer:
𝑜
(a) 𝑍 = 11.67 + 𝑗13.445 = 17.8𝑒 𝑗49.2
𝑜
(b) 𝑍 = 4.55 − 𝑗10.81 = 11.73𝑒 −𝑗67.2
…………………………………….…………………………….…………………………….……
Example 9.9 – Complex numbers
Find the constants “a” and “b” in the following complex number relationship,
𝑜 2.8
7.8𝑒 𝑗82 =
𝑎 − 𝑗𝑏
Solution:
Let us convert both sides into rectangular forms,
𝑜
7.8𝑒 𝑗82 = 7.8𝑐𝑜𝑠82𝑜 + 7.8⁡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑗82𝑜 = 1.1 + 𝑗7.7
2.8
1.1 + 𝑗7.7 =
𝑎 − 𝑗𝑏
Hence, the magnitude and phase must be equal,

33
 2.8
= 7.8
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
−𝑏
− tan−1 = 82𝑜
𝑎
The two equations yield,
𝑏
= 7.1
𝑎
𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 0.129
Solving for 𝑎 and 𝑏,
𝑎 = 0.05, 𝑏 ≈ 0.36.
Le us check,
𝑜 2.8 2.8 2.8 −𝑗82𝑜
7.8𝑒 𝑗82 = = = −𝑗82𝑜 = 7.8𝑒
𝑎 − 𝑗𝑏 0.05 − 𝑗0.36 0.36𝑒
………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
Example 9.10 – Complex numbers
Find the constants “𝜃” and “k” in the following complex number relationship,

5.2 + 𝑗2.8 = (4 + 𝑗𝑘)𝑒 𝑗𝜃

Solution:
Hence, the magnitude and phase must be equal,

√16 + 𝑘 2 = 5.91
2.8 𝑘
tan−1 = tan−1 + 𝜃
5.2 4
From the first equation we solve for 𝑘 = 4.34,
4.34
28.3𝑜 = tan−1 + 𝜃 = 47.7𝑜 + 𝜃
4
Solving for 𝜃 = −19.4𝑜
………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
9.3.2 Developing the Phasor Concept:

Recall that a time-domain sinusoidal signal, representing a voltage or current that varies with
time, is typically written as,

34
 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)

The transformation of this time-domain signal into its corresponding frequency-domain

representation is central to the phasor-domain concept discussed in this chapter. To understand
how a phasor representation is developed for a sinusoidal signal such as 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡), we begin with
Euler’s identity:
𝑒 𝑗𝜑 = cos⁡ 𝜑 + 𝑗sin⁡ 𝜑
Here, the phase angle 𝜑 may be a constant or a time-varying quantity expressed as a function
of 𝜔𝑡. This identity is powerful because it allows sine and cosine functions to be expressed in
exponential form by setting
𝜑 = 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃

Substituting into Euler’s identity gives:

𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜃) = cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) + 𝑗sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)

We observe that the time-domain voltage 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) is simply the real part of the
complex expression 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜃) . In other words,

𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= ℜ{𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜃) }
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= ℜ{𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 }

The term 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 is a constant complex number known as the phasor of 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡). It contains the key
information about the sinusoidal signal: its magnitude 𝑉𝑚 and its phase angle 𝜃.

In other words, the phasor 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 is a complex number that represents the frequency-domain
equivalent of the sinusoidal signal. Thus, the phasor representation of 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) is:

𝑽𝒊 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃

To distinguish between time-domain and phasor-domain quantities, we use different notation:

• 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡): time-domain representation

• 𝑽𝒊 : phasor (frequency-domain or complex) representation, typically in bold face.

When converting a sinusoidal voltage 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) from the time domain to the phasor domain 𝑽𝒊 , we
express the signal as a function of frequency 𝜔 rather than time 𝑡. As a result, the phasor 𝑽𝒊 =
𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 has a constant magnitude 𝑉𝑚 and a constant phase angle 𝜃 at a given frequency.

For simplicity, we will use the cosine function as the reference for all time-domain signals. For
example, if

𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡)

35
then the corresponding phasor is

𝑽𝒊 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗0 = 𝑉𝑚

which is a purely real number.

Table 9.3 provides additional examples of time-domain to frequency-domain transformations

based on this definition.

Table 9.3 Examples of time-domain to frequency-domain transformation

Time-Domain Representation Phasor-Domain Representation
𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡) 𝑽𝒊 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗0 = 𝑉𝑚
𝑣𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑝 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑖 ) 𝑽𝒔 = 𝑉𝑝 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑖 = 𝑉𝑝 ∠𝜃𝑖
𝑜
𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 90𝑜 ) 𝑽𝒊 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(−90 ) = −𝑗𝑉𝑚
𝑜
𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑖 ) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑖 − 90𝑜 ) 𝑰𝒔 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜃𝑖 −90 ) = −𝑗𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑖

A final observation is that the real and imaginary parts of the exponential
expression 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜃) are closely related. In fact, one can be obtained from the other by a phase
shift of 90∘ .

ℜe{𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜃) } = 𝑉𝑚 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)

⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= 𝑉𝑚 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 + 90∘ )

⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡ℑm{𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜃) } = 𝑉𝑚 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)

This shows that the real and imaginary parts have the same shape (sinusoidal), but are shifted in
phase by 90∘ .

A better understanding of this relationship can be obtained by examining both the phasor
representation and the time-domain signals. The expression

𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 = cos⁡(𝜔𝑡) + 𝑗sin⁡(𝜔𝑡)

represents a rotating phasor. This behavior is illustrated in Figure 9.11(a) (phasor diagram) and
Figure 9.11(b) (time-domain waveforms).

36
Figure 9.11 (a) Polar form of the phasor 𝒆𝒋𝝎𝒕 ⁡𝒂𝒏𝒅 (b) Time-domain sinusoids representing
the real and imaginary parts of the phasor 𝒆𝒋𝝎𝒕
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Example 9.11 – Phasor-domain representations
Determine the phasor-domain expressions corresponding to the following time-domain
sinusoidal signals.
a) 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) = −120 cos(1000𝑡) V
b) 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = −80 sin(2000𝑡) V
c) 𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) = 5 cos(100𝑡 − 165𝑜 ) A
d) 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) = −12 cos(40𝑡 − 65𝑜 ) A
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
e) 𝑖 𝑇 (𝑡) = 8 cos( 𝑡 + ) + 6 sin( 𝑡 + )
3 6 3 3

Solution:
a) The expression for 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) can be re-expressed as,

𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) = −120 cos(1000𝑡) = 120 cos(1000𝑡 + 𝜋)

Since it is expressed in cosine term, the corresponding phasor is given by,

𝑽𝒊 = 120𝑒 𝑗𝜋 = 120∠180𝑜 ⁡⁡𝑉

b) The expression for 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) can be re-expressed as,

37
 𝜋
𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = −80 sin(2000𝑡) = 80 sin(−2000𝑡) = 80 cos (−2000𝑡 − 2 )
𝜋
𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = 80 cos (2000𝑡 + 2 )

Since it is expressed in cosine term, the corresponding phasor is given by,

𝑽𝒙 = 80𝑒 𝑗𝜋/2 = 𝑗80 = 80∠90𝑜 ⁡⁡⁡𝑉

c) Since 𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) is already expressed in the standard cosine term, its corresponding phasor is
given by,

𝑜
𝑰𝒔 = 5𝑒 −𝑗165 = 5∠ − 165𝑜 ⁡⁡𝐴

d) The expression for 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) can be re-expressed as,

𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) = −12 cos(40𝑡 − 65𝑜 ) = 12 cos(40𝑡 − 65𝑜 + 180𝑜 ) = 12 cos(40𝑡 + 115𝑜 )

Since it is expressed in cosine term, the corresponding phasor is given by,

𝑜
𝑽𝒊 = 12𝑒 𝑗115 = 12∠115𝑜 ⁡⁡⁡𝑉

e) Since we have two added terms for 𝑖 𝑇 (𝑡), we simplify into one cosine term,

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
𝑖 𝑇 (𝑡) = 8 cos( 𝑡 + ) + 6 sin( 𝑡 + )
3 6 3 3
𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= 8 cos(𝜔𝑡) cos ( ) − 8 sin(𝜔𝑡) sin ( ) + 6 cos(𝜔𝑡)𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
6 6 3
2𝜋
+ 6 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) cos( )
3
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= 12.12 cos(𝜔𝑡) − 7 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) = 14 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 30𝑜 ) ⁡⁡𝐴
Hence, the corresponding phasor is 𝑰𝑻 = 14𝑒 𝑗30° = 14∠30𝑜 ⁡⁡⁡𝐴.
Answer:
(e) 𝑰𝑻 = 14∠30𝑜
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Example 9.12 - Phasor-domain representations

38
Given the following quantities in time-domain, determine their corresponding quantities in
phasor-domain. Assume

𝑖1 (𝑡) = 1.8 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2000𝑡 + 37.5𝑜 ) ⁡𝐴

𝑖2 (𝑡) = 7.2 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2000𝑡 + 103𝑜 ) ⁡𝐴
𝑖3 (𝑡) = 𝑖1 (𝑡) + 𝑖2 (𝑡)
Solution:
Since 𝑖1 (𝑡) and 𝑖2 (𝑡) are in a cosine form, their phasors are given by,
𝑰𝟏 = 1.8𝑒 𝑗37.5° ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴
𝑰𝟐 = 7.2𝑒 𝑗103° ⁡⁡𝐴
The corresponding phasor for 𝑖3 (𝑡) is given by,
𝑰𝟑 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 = 1.8𝑒 𝑗37.5° + 7.2𝑒 𝑗103° = (1.43 + 𝑗1.09) + (−1.619 + 𝑗7.015)
= −0.19 + 𝑗8.11 = 8.11𝑒 𝑗91.35°
In time-domain, 𝑖3 (𝑡) is given by,
𝑖3 (𝑡) = 8.11(𝑐𝑜𝑠2000𝑡 + 91.35°)⁡⁡𝐴
Students are invited to drive the time-domain expression for 𝑖3 (𝑡) directly by using the trig
identities of Table 9.1.
[Link]
=1.8*cos(2*x+0.654)+7.2*cos(2*x+1.798)&xh=6&xl=0&yh=10&yl=-8&a=1.2

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Exercise 9.9:
Determine the phasor equivalent of the following time domain sinusoidal signals.
2𝜋
a) 𝑖𝑥 (𝑡) = −5 sin (100𝑡 + )A
3
2𝜋 3𝜋
b) 𝑖𝑖𝑛 (𝑡) = 6 sin( 𝜔𝑡 + ) + 10 sin( 𝜔𝑡 + )A
3 5
c) 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) = 240 sin(100𝜋𝑡 + 240°) − 240 sin(100𝜋𝑡 + 120°) A
Answer:

(a) 𝑰𝒙 = 5𝑒 𝑗7𝜋/6 = 5∠210𝑜 ⁡𝐴

(b) 𝑰𝒊𝒏 = 12.7𝑒 𝑗80.5° = 12.7∠80.5𝑜 ⁡𝐴
(c) ⁡𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 415.5𝑒 𝑗180° ⁡𝑉

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

39
9.3.3 Phasor Impedance

Having introduced phasor representations for voltage and current, we now define another
important quantity called impedance, denoted by 𝑍. Impedance is defined as the ratio of the
phasor voltage to the phasor current:

Phasor Voltage 𝑉
𝑍= =
Phasor Current 𝐼

From this definition, impedance 𝑍 is, in general, a complex quantity characterized by both
magnitude and phase, and it is measured in ohms (Ω).

Mathematically, impedance can be expressed as:

𝑉 ∣ 𝑉 ∣ 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑣 ∣ 𝑉 ∣ 𝑗(𝜃 −𝜃 )
𝑍= = = 𝑒 𝑣 𝑖 =∣ 𝑍 ∣ 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑍 =∣ 𝑍 ∣ ∠𝜃𝑍 Ω
𝐼 ∣ 𝐼 ∣ 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑖 ∣𝐼∣

where:

∣𝑉∣
∣ 𝑍 ∣= , 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖
∣𝐼∣ 𝑍

Thus, the magnitude of impedance is the ratio of the voltage magnitude to the current
magnitude, while the phase of impedance is the difference between the voltage phase and the
current phase.

We now turn our attention to determining the impedance of the fundamental circuit elements: the
resistor (𝑅), inductor (𝐿), and capacitor (𝐶). To do this, we express the voltage–current
relationships for each element in phasor form.

When transforming from the time domain to the frequency (phasor) domain, these elements
are represented by their corresponding impedances, denoted as 𝑍𝑅 , 𝑍𝐿 , and 𝑍𝐶 , respectively.
Unlike in the time domain—where inductance and capacitance are measured in henrys
(H) and farads (F)—in the phasor domain all elements are represented by impedances measured
in ohms (Ω).

The application of phasor concepts to the steady-state analysis of sinusoidal circuits follows a
systematic procedure:

1. Establish the relationship between phasor voltage 𝑉 and phasor current 𝐼 for each element
(𝑅, 𝐿, and 𝐶).
2. Replace all circuit elements with their corresponding impedances.
3. Represent all voltages and currents as phasors.

40
The resulting circuit is called the phasor equivalent circuit, and the analysis is performed
entirely in the frequency domain. Standard circuit analysis techniques—such as Ohm’s
law, Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL), and Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)—are then
applied using complex algebra.

The phasor I-V relationships for circuit elements:

i) The resistor

Recall from Ohm’s law that the voltage across a resistor R,⁡𝑣𝑅 (𝑡), when a sinusoidal current,
𝑖𝑅 (𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) is flowing through it, is given by:
𝑣𝑅 (𝑡) = 𝑅𝑖𝑅 (𝑡)
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= 𝑅𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
Taking the phasor of 𝑣𝑅 (𝑡) to yield
𝑽𝑹 = 𝑅𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜃
= 𝑅𝑰𝑹
Where⁡𝑰𝑹 = 𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜃 is the phasor of⁡𝑖𝑅 (𝑡). Figure 9.12(a) and (b) show the corresponding
time- and phasor-domain of the resistor component, respectively.

(a) (b)
Figure 9.12(a) Time-domain and (b) phasor-domain notations for the resistor
The ratio of the phasor voltage, 𝑽𝑹 and the phasor current, 𝑰𝑹 is given by:
𝑽𝑹
=𝑅
𝑰𝑹
Since we defined the ratio between phasor voltage and phasor current as impedance denoted
by⁡𝑍, given in units of Ohm (Ω), then the resistor phasor domain impedance, 𝑍𝑅 is given by:
𝑽𝑹
𝑍𝑅 = =𝑅 Ω
𝑰𝑹

The impedance of the resistor is purely a real number. Hence, the terminal voltage and
current relationship for a resistor result in no phase shift since the imaginary part is zero. The
resistor is presented in phasor or frequency-domain and time-domain the same as R. As a
result the time-domain relationship between 𝑖𝑅 and 𝑣𝑅 signals are said to be in phase.

41
ii) The inductor

Let us assume the time-domain current in the inductor of Figure 9.13(a) is given by,
𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴
Then the corresponding voltage across the inductor, 𝑣𝐿 (𝑡) is given by:
𝑑𝑖𝐿
𝑣𝐿 (𝑡) = 𝐿 = −𝐿𝜔𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑉
𝑑𝑡

(a) (b)
Figure 9.13(a) Time-domain and (b) phasor-domain notations for the inductor
Using the standard cosine representation for the time-domain function, 𝑣𝐿 (𝑡) will be written
as:
𝑣𝐿 (𝑡) = −𝐿𝜔𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 − 90° ) ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑉
Taking the phasor for both sides of the equation to yield:
°
𝑽𝑳 = −𝐿𝜔𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜃−90 )
°
𝑽𝑳 = −𝐿𝜔𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 𝑒 −𝑗90
°
Replacing⁡𝑒 −𝑗90 = −𝑗, then the phasor expression 𝑽𝑳 becomes:

𝑽𝑳 ⁡ = +𝑗𝐿𝜔𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝑰𝑳 = 𝑍𝐿 𝑰𝑳
Where 𝑍𝐿 is defind as the impedance of the inductor for the given frequency 𝜔 as given by:
𝑽𝑳
𝑍𝐿 = = 𝑗𝜔𝐿 Ω
𝑰𝑳

Figure 9.14(a) and (b) show the corresponding time- and phasor-domain of the inductor
component, respectively.
The corresponding phasor-domain circuit for the inductor is shown in Table 9.4. The
relationship between the inductor current and the inductor voltage includes a time or phase
shift of T/4 s or⁡90° , respectively. This can be easily seen by rearranging the phasor equation
𝑉𝐿 as follows:
𝑽𝑳 = 𝜔𝐿∠90° 𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜃

42
 𝑽𝑳 = 𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 ∠(𝜃 + 90° )
The inductor voltage leads the inductor current by 90° , or the inductor current lags the
inductor voltage by 90° . Also, we can say that the inductor voltage leads the inductor current
by one-fourth of a cycle, i.e. T/4 s.
Another important observation to make is that 𝑍𝐿 is positive and a purely imaginary
component with zero real part. And as the frequency becomes smaller and smaller i.e. goes to
zero, the inductor impedance 𝑍𝐿 → 0 (inductor behaves like a short circuit), and as the
frequency increases to a very large value 𝑍𝐿 → ∞ (inductor behaves like an open circuit as
shown in Table 9.2)
iii) The capacitor

Again, to define the phasor relationship between the capacitor voltage and current as shown
in Figure 9.14(a), we assume the voltage across the capacitor is given by:
𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)

(a) (b)
Figure 9.14(a) Time-domain and (b) phasor-domain notations for the capacitor

Using the 𝑖𝐶 − 𝑣𝐶 time-domain relationship given by,

𝑑𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑖𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
Substituting for⁡𝑣𝐶 (𝑡), to yield,
𝑖𝐶 (𝑡) = −𝐶𝑉𝑚 𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= −𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= −𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 − 90° )
Taking the phasor of the two sides,
°
𝑰𝑪 = −𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜃−90 )
°
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= −𝜔𝐶𝑒 −𝑗90 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃

43
 °
Replacing⁡𝑒 −𝑗90 = −𝑗, we get,
𝑰𝑪 = +𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑽𝑪
Hence the capacitor impedance is given by,
𝑽𝑪 1
𝒁𝑪 = = 𝑗𝜔𝐶 Ω
𝑰𝑪

Figure 9.15(a) and (b) show the corresponding time- and phasor-domain of the inductor
component, respectively.
The corresponding phasor-domain circuit for the capacitor is shown in Table 9.2. The terminal
relationship between capacitor current and capacitor voltage experiences a time or phase shift of
T/4 s or⁡90° , respectively. This can be easily seen by rearranging the phasor 𝑰𝑪 as follows,
𝑰𝑪 = 𝜔𝐶∠90° 𝑽𝒎 ∠𝜃
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= 𝜔𝐶𝑽𝒎 ∠(𝜃 + 90° )
The capacitor current leads the capacitor voltage by⁡90° , or the capacitor voltage lags the
capacitor current by 90° . Also, we say that the capacitor current leads the capacitor voltage by
one-fourth of a cycle, i.e. T/4 s. *
*
(footnote: Students may use the mnemonic "ELI the ICE man" to help them remember that
“ELI” is when voltage (E) leads current (I) in the inductor (L), whereas “ICE” is when the
current (I) leads the voltage (E) in a capacitor).

A final observation can be made regarding the nature of the capacitor impedance, 𝑍𝐶 . Similar to
the inductor impedance, 𝑍𝐿 , the capacitor impedance is a purely imaginary complex
quantity with zero real part.

As the frequency decreases toward zero (𝜔 → 0), the capacitor impedance increases without
bound:

𝑍𝐶 → ∞

In this case, the capacitor behaves like an open circuit. Conversely, as the frequency increases to
a very large value (𝜔 → ∞), the capacitor impedance approaches zero:

𝑍𝐶 → 0

and the capacitor behaves like a short circuit.

The phasor relationships derived for the resistor, inductor, and capacitor demonstrate that the
complex amplitude of one variable (voltage or current) is related to the other through simple
algebraic expressions. These relationships are analogous to Ohm’s law but extended to the
phasor (frequency) domain.

44
While resistance 𝑅 represents opposition to current flow in the time domain, the more general
quantity impedance 𝑍represents opposition in the phasor domain. Both are measured in ohms
(Ω), but impedance accounts for both magnitude and phase.

Table 9.4 summarizes the voltage–current relationships for the three basic circuit elements—
𝑅, 𝐿, and 𝐶—in both the time domain and the phasor domain.

Table 9.4 Summary of the time-domain, phasor-domain and I-V relationships for
linear circuit elements
Time domain Corresponding Phasor I-V Frequency response Time response
circuit element phasor domain
|𝒁𝑹 |

𝑽𝑹 = 𝑍𝑅 𝑰𝑹
𝑍𝑅 = 𝑅 𝑹 𝒗
𝒊

|𝒁𝑳 |
𝑽𝑳 = 𝑍𝐿 𝑰𝑳
𝑍𝐿 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝑳 𝒗

|𝒁𝑪 |
𝑽𝑪 = 𝑍𝐶 𝑰𝑪
1
𝑍𝐶 = 𝒗
𝑗𝜔𝐶
𝒊
𝝎

𝑽𝒔 = 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜃

45
 𝑰𝒔 = 𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜃

From the summary of Table 9.4. of the i-v relationship for the phasors of the passive elements R,
L, and C, we recognize that the phasor⁡𝑰 − 𝑽 relationship for the three elements is given by,
𝑽 = 𝒁𝑰
The impedance for the inductor is purely imaginary and positive, (𝑗𝜔𝐿), the impedance for the
1 1
capacitor is purely imaginary and negative (𝑗𝜔𝑐 = −𝑗 𝜔𝑐).

The impedance⁡𝒁 is measured in Ohm, and only the resistor impedance is not a function of
frequency.
Unlike the complex number representation for phasors⁡𝑰 and⁡𝑽, that are associated with
coefficient 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 of the phasor, the impedance number is not a phasor since it has no association
to time-domain cosine function. So, phasor variables refer only to complex numbers that are
associated with coefficient⁡𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 written in bold face capital letters.
………………………………………….……………….……………….……………….….……
Example 9.13 – Impedance calculations
(a) Determine the phasor-domain equivalent for the following time-domain components:
𝑅 = 200⁡Ω, 𝐿 = 0.75⁡𝑚𝐻, 𝐶 = 17.8⁡𝜇𝐹⁡and 𝜔 = 8,000⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠.
(b) Repeat (a) by doubling the frequency to 𝜔 = 16,000⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠.
(c) Repeat (a) by cutting the frequency to one-half so 𝜔 = 4,000⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠.

Solution:
For any given frequency the impedance for a resistor is always constant and equals R.
𝒁𝑹 = 𝑅 = 100⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω
The impedance of the inductor is given by:
𝒁𝑳 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 𝑗(8000⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠)0.75⁡𝑚𝐻 = 𝑗6⁡⁡Ω
The impedance of the capacitor is given by,

46
 1 1 1
𝒁𝑪 = = −𝑗 ⁡ = −𝑗 ⁡ = −𝑗7⁡⁡Ω
𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝜔𝐶 𝑟𝑎𝑑 −6
(8000 𝑠 ) 𝑥17.8𝑥10 𝐹

(b) For 𝜔 = 16,000⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠

𝒁𝑹 = 𝑅 = 100⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω
The impedance of the inductor is given by:
𝒁𝑳 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 𝑗(16000⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠)0.75⁡𝑥10−3 𝐻 = 𝑗12⁡⁡Ω
The impedance of the capacitor is given by,
1 1 1
𝒁𝑪 = = −𝑗 ⁡ = −𝑗 ⁡ = −𝑗3.5⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω
𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝜔𝐶 𝑟𝑎𝑑
(16000 𝑠 ) 𝑥17.8𝑥10−6 ⁡𝐹

(c) For 𝜔 = 4,000⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠

𝒁𝑹 = 𝑅 = 100⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω
The impedance of the inductor is given by:
𝒁𝑳 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 𝑗(4000⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠)0.75⁡𝑚𝐻 = 𝑗3⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω
The impedance of the capacitor is given by,
1 1 1
𝒁𝑪 = = −𝑗 ⁡ = −𝑗 ⁡ = −𝑗14⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω
𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝜔𝐶 𝑟𝑎𝑑
(4000 𝑠 ) 𝑥17.8𝑥10−6 𝐹

………………………………………….……………….……………….……………….….……
Exercise 9.10
For Example 9.13, at what frequency 𝜔 will 𝒁𝑳 = 𝒁𝑪 ? This means the capacitor and inductor
impedances become equal.
Answer:
𝜔 = 8,654.8⁡⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
………………………………………….……………….……………….……………….….……
Branch Impedances:
Based on the above discussion, we derived the impedance for single elements. However, the
definition of impedance also expands to include more than one element either connected in series
or parallel combinations. This results in a generalized circuit impedance. Like resistors in
resistive circuits, impedances in phasor circuits add in series where the addition is carried out in
complex numbers.

47
Examples of total impedances,⁡𝒁𝑻 , between terminals “a” and “b” connected in combination of
series and/or parallel are given in Figure 9.15,

a a
b

𝑍𝑇 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿

Figure 9.15(a) Series connected⁡𝑹 and⁡𝑳

a b

1
𝑍𝑇 = 𝑅 − 𝑗
𝜔𝐶

Figure 9.15(b) Series connected⁡𝑹 and⁡𝑪

𝑗𝑅𝜔𝐿
𝑍𝑇 = 𝑅//𝑗𝜔𝐿 =
𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿
Figure 9.15(c) Parallel connected⁡𝑹 and⁡𝑳

48
 𝑅 𝑅
𝑍𝑇 = 𝑅//(−𝑗 )=
𝜔𝐶 1 + 𝑗⁡𝜔𝑅𝐶

Figure 9.15(d) Parallel connected⁡𝑹 and⁡𝑪

1
𝑍𝑇 = 𝑗(𝜔𝐿 − )
𝜔𝐶
Figure 9.15(e) Series connected⁡𝑳 and⁡𝑪

1 𝜔𝐿
𝑍𝑇 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿//(−𝑗 )=𝑗
𝜔𝐶 1 − 𝜔 2 𝐿𝐶

Figure 9.15(f) Parallel connected⁡𝑳 and⁡𝑪

49
 1 𝜔𝐿
𝑍𝑇 = 𝑅 + (𝑗𝜔𝐿//−𝑗 )=𝑅+𝑗
𝜔𝐶 1 − 𝜔 2 𝐿𝐶

Figure 9.15(g) Series connected⁡𝑹 with Parallel connected⁡𝑳 and⁡𝑪

1 𝜔𝐿 + 𝑗𝑅(𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 − 1)
𝑍𝑇 = −𝑗 + (𝑗𝜔𝐿//𝑅) =
𝜔𝐶 𝜔𝐶(𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)

Figure 9.15(h) Series connected⁡𝑪 with Parallel connected⁡𝑹 and⁡𝑳

1
𝒁𝑻 = 𝑅 + 𝑗(𝜔𝐿 − )
𝜔𝐶
Figure 9.15(i) Series connected⁡𝑹,⁡𝑳 and⁡𝑪

1 𝜔𝐿𝑅
𝑍𝑇 = (−𝑗 )//𝑅//(𝑗𝜔𝐿) =
𝜔𝐶 𝜔𝐿 + 𝑗𝑅(𝜔 2 𝐿𝐶 − 1)

50
 Figure 9.15(j) Parallel connected⁡𝑹,⁡𝑳 and⁡𝑪
Figure 9.15 Examples of branch impedances consisting of combination of R, L and C
(Rotating images)
…………………………………….…………………………….…………………………….……
Example 9.14 – Impedance Calculation
(a) Determine the impedance 𝑍𝑇 of branch circuit of Figure 9.15(j) for the following circuit
values: 𝑅 = 200⁡Ω, 𝐿 = 0.75⁡𝑚𝐻, 𝐶 = 17.8⁡𝜇𝐹⁡and 𝜔 = 8,000⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠.
(b) At what frequency the branch impudence 𝑍𝑇 ⁡becomes purely resistive and equal to R, i.e.
𝑍𝑇 = 𝑹 = 200⁡⁡Ω⁡.
Solution:
(a) From the equivalent impedance for branch of Figure 9.15(j), we have
1 𝜔𝐿𝑅
𝑍𝑇 = (−𝑗 )//𝑅//(𝑗𝜔𝐿) =
𝜔𝐶 𝜔𝐿 + 𝑗𝑅(𝜔 2 𝐿𝐶 − 1)
8000𝑥0.75𝑥10−3 𝑥200
=
8000𝑥0.75𝑥10−3 + 𝑗200(80002 𝑥0.75𝑥10−3 𝑥17.8𝑥10−6 − 1)
1200 1200 1200(6 − 𝑗30)
= = = = 7.69 − 𝑗38.46⁡Ω
6 + 𝑗200(0.85 − 1) 6 + 𝑗30 936
(b) For 𝑍𝑇 = 𝑅 = 200⁡Ω,
𝜔𝐿𝑅
=𝑅
𝜔𝐿 + 𝑗𝑅(𝜔 2 𝐿𝐶 − 1)
By inspection, we have must have 𝜔2 𝐿𝐶 − 1 = 0, hence 𝑠olving for 𝜔,
1 1
𝜔= = = 8,654.8⁡⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
√𝐿𝐶 √0.75𝑥10−3 𝑥17.8𝑥10−6
Or
𝑓 = 1.38⁡𝑘𝐻𝑧.
…………………………………….…………………………….…………………………….……
Exercise 9.11:
(a) Determine the impedance 𝑍𝑇 of branch circuit of Figure 9.19(g) for the following
circuit values: 𝑅 = 200⁡Ω, 𝐿 = 0.75⁡𝑚𝐻, 𝐶 = 17.8⁡𝜇𝐹⁡and 𝜔 = 8,000⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠.
(b) At what frequency the branch impudence becomes 𝑍𝑇 = 200⁡⁡Ω⁡.

51
Answer:
𝑍𝑇 = 200 + 𝑗40⁡⁡Ω⁡
𝜔 = 0⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 (only under dc condition)
…………………………………….…………………………….…………………………….……
Generalized Impedance:

From the analysis of series and parallel combinations of 𝑅, 𝐿, and 𝐶 elements, the total
impedance in the phasor (frequency) domain, denoted by 𝑍𝑇 , is generally a complex quantity. It
consists of:

• a real part, 𝑅𝑇 , called the total resistance (in ohms), and

• an imaginary part, 𝑋𝑇 , called the total reactance (in ohms).

Thus, for a general AC circuit shown in Figure 9.16, the total impedance can be expressed as:

𝑍𝑇 = 𝑅𝑇 + 𝑗𝑋𝑇

where:

𝑉
𝑍𝑇 =
𝐼

𝑅𝑇 = total resistance⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑎𝑛𝑑.⁡⁡𝑋𝑇 = total reactance

Figure 9.16 Transformation from time-domain to phasor-domain and vice versa

For a given angular frequency 𝜔, any series or parallel RLC network can be replaced by a
single equivalent impedance⁡𝑍𝑇 in the phasor domain.

If expressed in polar (exponential) form, the total impedance becomes:

𝑍𝑇 = 𝑅𝑇 + 𝑗𝑋𝑇 =∣ 𝑍𝑇 ∣ 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 =∣ 𝑍𝑇 ∣ ∠𝜃

52
where the magnitude of the impedance is:

∣ 𝑍𝑇 ∣= √𝑅𝑇2 + 𝑋𝑇2

and the phase angle is:

𝑋𝑇
𝜃 = tan⁡−1 ( )
𝑅𝑇
Conversely, the rectangular form can be expressed in terms of magnitude and phase as:

𝑍𝑇 =∣ 𝑍𝑇 ∣ cos⁡ 𝜃 + 𝑗 ∣ 𝑍𝑇 ∣ sin⁡ 𝜃

An important observation is that the sign of 𝑋𝑇 determines the overall nature of the circuit:

• If 𝑋𝑇 > 0: the circuit is inductive (denoted 𝑋𝑇,𝐿 )

• If 𝑋𝑇 < 0: the circuit is capacitive (denoted 𝑋𝑇,𝐶 )

Physically:

• 𝑅𝑇 represents the resistive portion of the circuit where energy is dissipated (as heat),
• 𝑋𝑇 represents the reactive portion where energy is stored and released (in inductors and
capacitors).

Table 9.5 summarizes the different types of total impedance in RLC circuits and their
corresponding characteristics.

Table 9.5 Summary of the four types of impedance circuits

Resistive Reactance Impedance (𝒁𝑻 ) Type of Impedance Phase Angle
Part Part 𝑿
(𝜽 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝑹𝑻)
𝑻

𝑅𝑇 > 0 𝑋𝑇 > 0 𝑍𝑇 = 𝑅𝑇 + 𝑗𝑋𝑇,𝐿 Resistive-Inductive

𝑹𝑻 𝑿𝑻,𝑳
𝜃>0

𝑅𝑇 > 0 𝑋𝑇 < 0 𝑍𝑇 = 𝑅𝑇 − 𝑗𝑋𝑇,𝐶 Resistive-Capacitive

𝑿𝑻,𝑪
𝑹𝑻
𝜃<0

𝑅𝑇 > 0 𝑋𝑇 = 0 𝑍𝑇 = 𝑅𝑇 Pure Resistive

𝑹𝑻
𝜃=0
𝑅𝑇 = 0 𝑋𝑇 > 0 𝑍𝑇 = 𝑗𝑋𝑇,𝐿 Pure Inductive
𝑿𝑻,𝑳
𝜃 = +90
𝑅𝑇 = 0 𝑋𝑇 < 0 𝑍𝑇 = −𝑗𝑋𝑇,𝐶 Pure Capacitive

53
 𝑿𝑻,𝑪
𝜃 = −90

…………………………………….…………………………….…………………………….……
Generalized Admittance

The preceding discussion on impedance can be extended to its reciprocal. The reciprocal of
impedance is defined as admittance, denoted by 𝑌𝑇 .

1
𝑌𝑇 =
𝑍𝑇
1
Admittance is analogous to conductance in resistive circuits, where 𝐺 = 𝑅. While impedance
represents opposition to current flow, admittance represents the ease with which current
flows in a circuit.

𝑽
Using the impedance definition 𝑍𝑇 = 𝑰 , the admittance can also be written as, as shown in Figure
9.17.

𝑰
𝑌𝑇 =
𝑽

𝑽 𝟏 𝑽
𝒁𝑻 = ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝒀𝑻 = 𝒁 =
𝑰 𝑻 𝑰

Figure 9.17 Representation of Impedance and Admittance

When expressed in rectangular form, admittance is given by:

1 1
𝑌𝑇 = = = 𝐺𝑇 + 𝑗𝐵𝑇
𝑍𝑇 𝑅𝑇 + 𝑗𝑋𝑇
where:

• 𝐺𝑇 = Re{𝑌𝑇 } is the conductance,

• 𝐵𝑇 = Im{𝑌𝑇 } is the susceptance.

Both conductance and susceptance are measured in siemens (S), which is the reciprocal of ohms
(Ω).

54
Combining Impedances

Just as resistors can be combined into a single equivalent resistance, impedances can also be
combined into a single equivalent impedance.

• For series-connected impedances (sharing the same current), the equivalent impedance
is the algebraic sum:

𝑍eq = 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + ⋯ + 𝑍𝑛

• For parallel-connected impedances (sharing the same voltage), the equivalent

impedance is:

1 1 1 −1
𝑍eq = ( + + ⋯+ )
𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑍𝑛

This is illustrated in Fig. 9.19(a) and (b) for series and parallel configurations, respectively.

𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐

𝒁𝒆𝒒
𝒁𝒆𝒒 𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐 𝒁𝑻
𝒁𝑻

𝑍𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + ⋯ + 𝑍𝑇 𝑍𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍1 //𝑍2 //𝑍1 // …//𝑍𝑇

Fig. 9.18(a) Series connected and (b) parallel connected impedances

Similar to resistive circuits, these equivalent impedance relationships allow the application of:

• Voltage division in series circuits, and

• Current division in parallel circuits

Table 9.6 provides examples illustrating voltage and current division for two impedances
connected in series and in parallel, respectively.

Table 9.6 Examples of two series and parallel connected impedances

Z1
Is

+ V1 -

𝑽𝒔 𝑍1 𝑍2
+ V2 -

𝑍𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍1 + 𝑍2
Z2

Vs

𝑰𝒔 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽
𝑍𝑒𝑞 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝒔 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝒔

55
 I1 I2

+ VS -

Z1

Z2
Is
𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑽𝒔 𝑍2 𝑍1
𝑰𝒔 = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑍𝑒𝑞 = 𝑰𝒔 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝑍𝑒𝑞 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝒔
………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
Example 9.15 – Phasor Voltage across impedance branch
Given the time domain circuit of Figure 9.19 where the time-domain voltage 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) by
𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = 1.5 cos(1870𝑡 + 23°)⁡𝑉
Assume R = 16⁡Ω, 𝐿 = 213⁡𝑚𝐻, 𝐶 = 95⁡𝜇𝐹. Determine the corresponding phasor current 𝑰𝒙

Figure 9.19 A simple RLC branch

Solution:
Since 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) is given in a cosine form, its phasor value is,

𝑽𝒙 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑣 = 1.5𝑒 𝑗23° = 1.5∠23°⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑉

The phasor 𝑰𝒙 is given by,
𝑽𝒙 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑣 1.5𝑒 𝑗23° ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡
𝑰𝒙 = = = = 3.82∠ − 64.7°⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑚𝐴
𝒁𝑻 |𝒁𝑻 |𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑍 393𝑒 𝑗87.7°
Where,
1
𝒁𝑻 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 − 𝑗 = 16 + 𝑗392.7 = 393𝑒 𝑗87.7° ⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω
𝜔𝐶
………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
Interactive Example 9.2 –Total Circuit Impedance Calculation
………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
Example 9.16 – Design for desired in-phase response
The time-domain circuit of Figure 9.20 is using variable capacitor C that is gradually adjusted
(designated as an arrow going through it) so that the output current 𝑖𝑜 (𝑡) is designed to be in-
phase with the input voltage source 𝑣𝑠 (𝑡) = 28 cos(100𝜋𝑡) ⁡𝑉.
Determine the value of C that will accomplish this design goal. Assume R = 20⁡Ω⁡and⁡⁡𝐿 =
12⁡𝑚𝐻.

56
 𝑪 (𝑭)

𝟐𝜴
𝒊𝒐 (𝒕)

𝒗𝒔 (𝒕) 𝟏𝟐 𝒎𝑯

Figure 9.20 Circuit for Example 9.16

Solution:
First, let us find the total impedance 𝑍𝑇 that is seen by the voltage source so that the phasor
circuit is simplified as shown in Figure 9.21.

Figure 9.21 Simplified phasor-domain equivalent circuit of Figure 9.21

By inspection, 𝑍𝑇 is given by,
1 𝑅+𝑗(𝜔𝐿−𝜔𝑅 2 𝐶+𝜔3 𝑅 2 𝐿𝐶 2 )
𝑍𝑇 = (−𝑗 𝜔𝐶)//𝑅⁡ + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 1+(𝜔𝑅𝐶)2

The voltage-current relationship is obtained from Ohm’s Law as,

𝑽𝑺 28∠0°
= = ⁡ 𝑍𝑇
𝑰𝒐 |𝐼𝑚 |∠𝜃𝑖
For 𝑽𝑺 and 𝑰𝒐 to be in phase, then the phase of 𝑍𝑇 must be zero which occurs when 𝜃𝑍 = 0°.
Hence, the imaginary part of 𝑍𝑇 must be adjusted to zero. Hence, we must have
𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔𝑅 2 𝐶 + 𝜔3 𝑅 2 𝐿𝐶 2 = 0
Rearrange,

57
 1 1
𝐶2 − 2
𝐶+ 2 2=0
𝜔 𝐿 𝜔 𝑅
Solving for C,

1 1 −1 2 1
𝐶= ∓ √ ( ) − 4
2𝜔 2 𝐿 2 𝜔 2 𝐿 𝜔 2𝑅2

Substitute for R = 20⁡Ω, 𝜔 = 100𝜋, and 𝐿 = 12⁡𝑚𝐻,

2
1 1 −1 1
𝐶= 2 −3
± √( 2 −3
) −4
2(100𝜋) (12 × 10 ) 2 (100𝜋) (12 × 10 ) (100𝜋)2 (20)2

1
= 0.422𝑥10−3 ± √0.713𝑥10−6 − 0.101𝑥10−6
2
= 0.422 ∓ 0.391𝑥10−3
There are two solutions,
𝐶1 = 0.422𝑥10−3 + 0.391𝑥10−3 = ⁡0.813⁡𝑚𝐹
𝐶2 = 0.422𝑥10−3 − 0.391𝑥10−3 = 0.031⁡𝑚𝐹
………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
Exercise 9.12
Redesign C in Example 9.16 so that 𝑖𝑜 (𝑡) lags the input voltage by 15°.
Answer:
𝐶 = ⁡857⁡𝜇𝐹
………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
Example 9.17
a) Determine the equivalent impedance⁡𝒁𝒆𝒒 , seen between the terminals “ab” of the
circuit shown in Figure 9.22.
b) Draw the equivalent simplified circuit consisting of single R, L or C connected in
series.

Assume 𝑅1 = 10⁡Ω, 𝑅2 = 6⁡⁡⁡Ω, 𝐿 = 20⁡𝑚𝐻, 𝐶 = 180⁡𝜇𝐹, and 𝜔 = 1000⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠.

58
 Figure 9.22 A simple RLC circuit in time-domain
Solution:
a) First, we transfer the circuit to the phasor domain as shown in Figure E9.12(a),

Figure 9.23(a) The equivalent phasor-domain circuit

The equivalent impedance 𝑍𝑒𝑞 is equal to,

1 1
𝑍𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 − 𝑗 = (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) + 𝑗(𝜔𝐿 − )
𝜔𝐶 𝜔𝐶
1
= (10 + 6) + 𝑗(1000𝑥20𝑥10−3 − )
1000𝑥180𝑥10−6

= 16 + 𝑗14.44⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω

b) The equivalent simplified circuit is shown in Figure E9.12(b), where 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 16⁡Ω and
14.44
𝐿𝑒𝑞 = = 14.44⁡𝑚𝐻.
1000

59
 Figure 9.23(b) The equivalent simplified RLC circuit
………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
Exercise 9.13
(a) Redesign Example 9.17 by assuming 𝑅1 = 10⁡Ω, 𝑅2 = 6⁡⁡⁡Ω, 𝐿 = 5⁡𝑚𝐻, 𝐶 =
180⁡𝜇𝐹, and 𝜔 = 1000⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠.
(b) What should L be so that the equivalent impedance is purely resistive?

Answer:

(a) 𝑍𝑒𝑞 = 16 − 𝑗56⁡Ω, 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 1.78⁡𝑚𝐹

(b) 𝐿 = 5.56⁡𝑚𝐻
………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
Example 9.18: Impedance Calculations

Determine the equivalent impedance, seen between the terminals “ab” of the circuit shown in
Figure 9.24. Assume 𝑅 = 4⁡Ω, 𝐿 = 2⁡𝐻, 𝐶 = 0.25⁡𝐹, and 𝜔 = 2⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠.

Figure 9.24 RLC circuit in time-domain

Solution:

60
First, we transfer the circuit to the phasor domain shown in Figure 9.25(a),

Figure 9.25(a) The equivalent phasor-domain circuit

Let us define the following impedances so that Figure 9.25(a) becomes as shown in Figure
9.25(b):

𝒁𝟏 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 4 + 𝑗(2𝑥2) = 4 + 𝑗4⁡Ω⁡

1 1
𝒁𝟐 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿 − 𝑗 = 𝑗 (2𝑥2 − ) = 𝑗2⁡Ω
𝜔𝐶 2𝑥0.25
1 1
𝒁𝟑 = 𝑅 − 𝑗 =2−𝑗 = 4 − 𝑗2⁡Ω
𝜔𝐶 2𝑥0.25
𝒁𝟒 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 4 + 𝑗4⁡Ω⁡

Figure 9.25(b) The equivalent phasor-domain circuit

We further combine the impedances as shown in Figure E9.13(c), where,
𝒁𝟏𝟏 = 𝒁𝟐 + 𝒁𝟑 = 𝑗2 + (4 − 𝑗2) = 4⁡⁡Ω

𝒁𝟐𝟐 = 𝒁𝟏 + 𝒁𝟒 = (4 + 𝑗4) + (4 + 𝑗4) = 8 + 𝑗8⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω⁡

61
 Figure E9.13(c) The equivalent phasor-domain circuit
Hence, the equivalent impedance 𝒁𝒂𝒃 is equal to,
4(8 + 𝑗8) 32 + 𝑗32 45.255∠45°
𝒁𝒂𝒃 = 𝒁𝟏𝟏 //𝒁𝟐𝟐 = = = = 3.14∠11.31°
4 + 8 + 𝑗8 12 + 𝑗8 14.42∠33.69°
= 3.08 + 𝑗0.617⁡⁡⁡Ω⁡

a) The equivalent simplified circuit is shown in Figure 9.25(d), where 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 3.14⁡Ω and
0.63
𝐿𝑒𝑞 = ≈ 0.31𝐻.
2

Figure 9.25(d)

……………………………………………………………………………………………….........
Exercise 9.14
Repeat Example 9.18 for Figure E9.14

62
 Figure E9.14
Answer:

(a) 𝒁𝒂𝒃 = 3.31 + 𝑗2.46⁡⁡⁡Ω⁡

(b) 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 3.31⁡Ω and 𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 1.23⁡𝐻

……………………………………………………………………………………………….........
Admittance:
Like in the resistive case in time-domain where the reciprocal of ‘R’ is defined as the
conductance ‘G’, in phasor domain reciprocal of impedance is also defined and known as
admittance. Expressing the reciprocal of impedance is a more convenient quantity in certain
networks and analysis methods.
The admittance, ‘Y’ is the reciprocal of the impedance, hence it is defined as the ratio of phasor
current to phasor voltage,
𝟏 𝑰
𝒀= =
𝒁 𝑽
In rectangular format, where ‘Z’ is expressed as⁡𝒁 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋, where Y is expressed as
1 1
𝒀 = 𝒁 = 𝑅+𝑗𝑋 = 𝐺 + 𝑗𝐵 (9.15)

Where ‘G’ is known as the conductance and ‘B’ is the susceptance and both are measured in
Siemens (S).
Notice from Eq. (9.15) it can be shown that ‘G’ and ‘B’ can be expressed by,
𝑅
𝐺=
𝑅2
+ 𝑋2
𝑋
𝐵=− 2
𝑅 + 𝑋2

63
So, the real part of Z equals the reciprocal of the real part of Y only if X = 0 and similarly the
imaginary part of Z equals the reciprocal of the imaginary part of Y only if R = 0.
The convenience of using admittance is clearly seen when we algebraically sum the admittances
of a network consisting of parallel connected impedances as shown in Figure 9.26,

Figure 9.26 a network of parallel connected impedances

𝒀𝒆𝒒 = 𝒀𝟏 + 𝒀𝟐 + 𝒀𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝒀𝒏

Where,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒀𝟏 = , 𝒀𝟐 = , 𝒀𝟑 = , … , 𝒀𝒏 =
𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐 𝒁𝟑 𝒁𝒏
And the phasor current flowing through any of these individual impedance ‘𝑰𝒊 ’, as given by,
𝒀𝒊
𝑰𝒊 = 𝑰
𝒀𝟏 + 𝒀𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒀𝒏 𝑻
……………………………………………………………………………………………….........
Example 9.19 – Calculating Admittance
Determine the input impedance 𝒁𝒊𝒏 ⁡and admittance 𝒀𝒊𝒏 ⁡for each of the circuit of Figure 9.27.
𝑟𝑎𝑑
Assume the values are given as: 𝜔 = 105 𝑠 , 𝑅 = 6⁡Ω, 𝐶 = 5⁡𝜇𝐹.

64
 (a) (b)
Figure 9.30 A simple connection of components in time-domain
Solution:
First, we transfer the circuit to the phasor-domain as shown in Figure 9.31,

(b) (b)
Figure 9.31 A simple connection of components in phasor-domain
For circuit of Fig. 9.31(a), the input impedance is given by,
1 1
𝒁𝒊𝒏 = 𝑅 − 𝑗 ⁡= 6 − 𝑗 5 = 6 − 𝑗2⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω
𝜔𝐶 10 𝑥5𝑥10−6
While the input admittance is given by,
1 1 1
𝒀𝒊𝒏 = = = = 0.16∠18.4° = 151.8 + 𝑗50.5⁡𝑚𝑆⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡
𝒁𝒊𝒏 6 − 𝑗2 6.32∠ − 18.43°
For circuit of Fig. 9.26(b), the input impedance is given by,
1 𝑅 6 6 6
𝒁𝒊𝒏 = (𝑅//−𝑗 )= = 5 −6
= =
𝜔𝐶 1 + 𝑗⁡𝜔𝑅𝐶 1 + 𝑗⁡10 𝑥6𝑥5𝑥10 1 + 𝑗⁡3 3.16∠71.6°
= 1.9∠ − 71.6° = 0.6 − 𝑗1.8⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω
While the input admittance is given by,
1
𝒀𝒊𝒏 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 = 0.167 + 𝑗0.5 𝑆

Or we can take the reciprocal of ⁡𝒁𝒊𝒏 , as follows,

1 1
𝒁𝒊𝒏 = = = 0.6 − 𝑗1.8⁡⁡Ω
𝒀𝒊𝒏 0.167 + 𝑗0.5
……………………………………………………………………………………………….........
Exercise 9.15:
Determine the input impedance and admittance for each of the circuits of Figure E9.15.

65
Assume 𝐿 = 100𝜇𝐻, 𝜔 = 105 , 𝐶 = 5⁡𝜇𝐹.

(a) (b)

Figure E9.15 A simple connection of components in time-domain

Answer:
(a) 𝒁𝒊𝒏 = 𝑗8⁡⁡Ω, 𝒀𝒊𝒏 = −𝑗125⁡𝑚𝑆
(b) 𝒁𝒊𝒏 = −𝑗2.5⁡⁡Ω, 𝒀𝒊𝒏 = 𝑗0.4⁡𝑆
……………………………………………………………………………………………….........
Exercise 9.16:

Show that the admittance 𝒀𝒊𝒏 seen between terminals “ab” for the two circuits in Fig. E9.16(a)
are equal 𝑌𝑖𝑛 = 2⁡℧.

(a) (b)
Figure E9.16
Answer:
(a) 𝑌𝑖𝑛 = 0.5⁡℧
(b) 𝑌𝑖𝑛 = 2⁡℧

66
……………………………………………………………………………………………….........
Phasor of Derivative and Integral Functions*
(*this section may be skipped without deviating from the intended topic flow):
Recall in Chapter 8, we have introduced RLC circuits when switched under DC excitations to
obtain their time-domain transient responses. These responses were analyzed by reducing such
circuits into either parallel or series RLC circuits and dc sources and the differential equations
solved in special cases. However, if we consider a general RLC circuits of Figure 9.32 with a
sinusoidal AC voltage (or a current) excitation a of the form 𝑣𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 ), then the
differential-integral equation representing the network output voltage 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) will be in time-
domain with AC excitation function.

+
General RLC Circuit
Vi(t) in Vo(t)
Steady-state
-

Figure 9.32 General RLC Circuit in steady state (No switching action and no DC sources)
If we assume the general RLC circuit is a second order system (one capacitor and one inductor),
then its general differential-integral equation representing the network output voltage 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) can
be expressed as shown in Eq. (9.4).
𝑑2 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑣𝑜 (𝑡)
+ 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝑘3 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) (9.4)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

Where, 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 and 𝑘2 are constants as a function of RLC components of the general circuit of
Figure 9.25. In steady-state operation, the output voltage 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) will be the same as sinusoidal
form with the same frequency 𝜔, but different magnitude and phase-shift as shown by,
𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚,𝑜 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑜 )

Where, 𝑉𝑚,𝑜 is the peak output voltage and 𝜃𝑜 is its phase. Both parameters are unknown and wil
be function of constants 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 and 𝑘2 . The objective here is to solve for the time-domain 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡)
by finding the values 𝑉𝑚,𝑜 and 𝜃𝑜 .⁡If we work with the time domain equation, the solution for the
above second-order differential equation will require us to use complex mathematical tools we
learned in prior math courses. It will be shown shortly that this is not necessary since as
mentioned earlier, both 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) and 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) have the same frequency, then one could use the phasor-
domain approach to avoid solving second-order differential equations. So, let us find the phasor
equivalent representation for the above second order equation.
To do so, we will find the equivalent phasor representation of each term in the above time-
domain equation as follows.

67
We begin by finding the phasor representation of 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) and 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) as follows:

𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) 𝑽𝒊 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑣

𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) 𝑽𝒐 = 𝑉𝑚,𝑜 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑜

𝑑𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) 𝑑2 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡)
Next, we find the phasor for and . Since we know the general function of 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑉𝑚,𝑜 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑜 ), hence its first and second derivatives are given by,
𝑑𝑣𝑜 (𝑡)
= −𝜔𝑉𝑚,𝑜 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑜 ) = 𝜔𝑉𝑚,𝑜 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑜 + 90𝑜 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 2 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡)
= 𝜔2 𝑉𝑚,𝑜 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑜 + 180𝑜 )
𝑑𝑡 2
In terms of Euler’s identities, the above equations are expressed as follows,
𝑑𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) 𝑜 𝑜
= 𝑅𝑒⁡{𝜔𝑉𝑚,𝑜 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜃𝑜 +90 ) } = 𝑅𝑒{⁡𝜔𝑉𝑚,𝑜 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑒 𝑗(𝜃𝑜 +90 ) }
𝑑𝑡

⁡⁡⁡⁡= 𝑅𝑒{⁡𝑗𝜔𝑉𝑚,𝑜 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑜 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 }

Hence,
𝑑𝑣𝑜 (𝑡)
𝑗𝜔𝑽𝒐
𝑑𝑡

𝑑2 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) 𝑜
2
= 𝑅𝑒⁡{𝜔2 𝑉𝑚,𝑜 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑜 + 180𝑜 )} = 𝑅𝑒{⁡𝜔2 𝑉𝑚,𝑜 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑒 𝑗(𝜃𝑜 +180 ) }
𝑑𝑡

Hence,
𝑑2 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡)
−𝜔2 𝑽𝒐
𝑑𝑡 2

Students can follow the same steps to show that the time-domain and phasor-domain
relationships for the differential-integral expressions are given as shown in Table 9.7.
Table 9.7 – Summary of Time- and Phasor-domain differential-integral relationships
Time-Domain Representation Phasor-Domain Representation

68
 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑖 ) 𝑽𝒊 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑣
𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚,𝑜 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑜 ) 𝑽𝒐 = 𝑉𝑚,𝑜 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑜
𝑑𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) 𝑗𝜔𝑽𝒐
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 2 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) −𝜔2 𝑽𝒐
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑽𝒐
∫ 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑗𝜔
……………………………………………………………………………………………….........
Example 9.20 – Phasor representation of second-order differential equation:
Let us consider a given second-order RLC circuits of Figure 9.33 with a sinusoidal AC current
excitation 𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) = 50 cos(2𝑡 + 75𝑜 ) 𝐴 and its output current is governed by the following
differential equation:

𝑑2 𝑖𝑜 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑖𝑜 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑖𝑠 (𝑡)

3 2
−4 − 8⁡𝑖𝑜 (𝑡) = 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Figure 9.33 Second order RLC Circuit

Solve for 𝑖𝑜 (𝑡) for 𝑡 > 0.
Solution:
Let us denote 𝑰𝒔 and 𝑰𝒐 are the phasor notations for the time-domain input and output currents,
respectively. Next, we transfer each term of the above equation from its time domain to phasor
domain to yield,
3(−𝜔2 𝑰𝒐 ) − 4(𝑗𝜔𝑰𝒐 ) − 8⁡𝑰𝒐 = 2(𝑗𝜔𝑰𝒔 )
𝑜
Where, 𝑰𝒔 = 50𝑒 𝑗75 = 50∠75𝑜 A
Solving the above equation for 𝑰𝒐 to yield,
2(𝑗𝜔)(50∠75𝑜 )
𝑰𝒐 = ⁡⁡𝐴
−(3𝜔 2 + 8) − 𝑗4𝜔

69
Since both input and output currents have the same frequency 𝜔 = 2⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠, the above equation
gives,
𝑗200∠75𝑜
𝑰𝒐 = = 9.285∠−36.8𝑜 ⁡⁡𝐴
−20 − 𝑗8
Hence, the corresponding time-domain expression for 𝑡 > 0 of 𝑰𝒐 is given in the cosine term as
follows,
𝑖𝑜 (𝑡) = 9.285 cos(2𝑡 − 36.8𝑜 ) ⁡𝐴
……………………………………………………………………………………………….........
Exercise 9.17:
Repeat Example 9.20 for the following second order differential equation,
𝑑 2 𝑖𝑜 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑖𝑜 (𝑡)
+ 3 + 2⁡𝑖𝑜 (𝑡) = 12 sin(2𝑡 + ⁡ 30𝑜 ) ⁡⁡𝐴
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
Answer:
𝑖𝑜 (𝑡) = 1.89 cos(2𝑡 − 168.4𝑜 ) ⁡𝐴
…………………………………………………………………………...…………………………
Example 9.21 - Phasor representation of parallel RL circuit
Given the time-domain RL circuit of Figure 9.34. Find the voltage 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) and current 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) when
the circuit is in steady-state by first deriving the corresponding differential equation. Assume
1
𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) = 5 cos(1000𝑡 + 850 )𝐴, ⁡𝑔 = 0.5 Ω , 𝑅 = 10⁡Ω, L = 4⁡mH.

Figure 9.34
Solution:
Applying KCL at the upper node in the circuit yields,
1
𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝑅 𝑣𝑥 + 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) + 𝑔𝑣𝑥

Where 𝑣𝑥 is given by,

70
 𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡)
𝑣𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
Substitute 𝒗𝒙 into the above KCL equation, and rearrange the terms,
1 𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡)
𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) = (𝑔 + )𝐿 + 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡)
𝑅 𝑑𝑡
Let us denote 𝑰𝑳 as the phasor notation for the time-domain inductor current 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) and 𝑰𝒔 is the
phasor of 𝑖𝑠 (𝑡). Next, we transfer each term of the above equation from its time domain to
phasor domain to yield,
1
𝑰𝒔 = (𝑔 + ) 𝐿(𝑗𝜔𝑰𝑳 ) + 𝑰𝑳
𝑅
Solving for 𝑰𝑳 ,
𝐼𝑠 5∠850 5∠850
𝑰𝑳 = 1 = 1+(0.1+0.5)𝑗4 = 2.6∠67.40
1+( +𝑔)𝑗𝜔𝐿
𝑅

= 1.9∠17.60 = 1.8 + 𝑗0.6⁡𝐴

The corresponding the inductor current time domain,
𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = 1.9 cos(1000𝑡 + 17.60 ) ⁡𝐴
The voltage 𝑣𝑥 is obtained from,

𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡)
𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝐿 = −4𝑥10−3 (1.9𝑥1000) sin(1000𝑡 + 17.60 ) = −7.6 sin(1000𝑡 + 17.60 ) ⁡𝑉
𝑑𝑡
= 7.6 cos(1000𝑡 + 107.60 ) ⁡𝑉
…………………………………………………………………………...…………………………

71
Example 9.22 - Phasor representation of second order RLC Circuit:
Given the time-domain RLC circuit of Figure 9.35, find the steady-state current 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) for the
given source current,
𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) = 5 cos(1000𝑡 + 850 ) ⁡⁡𝐴
1
Assume 𝑔 = 0.5 Ω , 𝑅 = 10⁡Ω, L = 4⁡mH, C = 166.7⁡μF.

𝒊𝑳 (𝒕)
+

𝒊𝒔 (𝒕) R 𝒗𝒙 L C
𝒈𝒗𝒙

Figure 9.35
Solution:
Applying KCL at the upper node in the circuit yields,
1
𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝑅 𝑣𝑥 + 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) + 𝑔𝑣𝑥 + 𝑖𝐶 (𝑡)

Where 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) and 𝑖𝐶 (𝑡) may be expressed in terms of 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) as follows,

𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡)
𝑣𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑑2 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡)
𝑖𝐶 = 𝐶 = 𝐿𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
Substitute for 𝑣𝑥 and 𝑖𝐶 into the above KCL equation to yield,
1 𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) 𝑑 2 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡)
𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) = (𝑔 + ) 𝐿 + 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) + 𝐿𝐶
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
Let us denote 𝑰𝑳 as the phasor notation for the time-domain inductor current 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡). Next, we
transfer each term of the above equation from its time domain to phasor domain to yield,
1
𝑰𝒔 = (𝑔 + )𝐿(𝑗𝜔𝑰𝑳 ) + 𝑰𝑳 + 𝐿𝐶⁡(−𝜔2 𝑰𝑳 )
𝑅
Solving for 𝑰𝑳 ,

72
 𝐼𝑠 5∠850 5∠850
𝐼𝐿 = 1 = 1+(0.1+0.5)𝑗4−0.668 = 2.42∠82.0950
1+( +𝑔)𝑗𝜔𝐿−𝐿𝐶𝜔 2
𝑅

= 2.06∠2.90 = 2 + 𝑗0.1⁡𝐴
The corresponding the inductor current time domain,
𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = 2.06 cos(1000𝑡 + 2.90 ) ⁡𝐴
…………………………………………………………………………...…………………………
Exercise 9.18
Find the voltage 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) in Example 9.22.
Answer:
𝑣𝑥 = 8.24 cos(1000𝑡 + 92.90 ) ⁡𝑉
…………………………………………………………………………...…………………………
Exercise 9.19:
Consider a second order RLC circuit that is governed by the following second-order differential
equation when in steady state:
𝑑 2 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
2
+ 2𝛼 + 𝜔𝑜2 ⁡𝑖(𝑡) = 𝜔𝑜2 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + ⁡ 𝜃 𝑜 ) ⁡⁡𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜔𝑜
Show that when 𝜔𝑜2 = 𝜔2, the peak value of 𝑖(𝑡) is equal to 𝐼
2𝛼⁡⁡ 𝑚
.
…………………………………………………………………………...…………………………

9.4 Analysis of Phasor Circuits

In Chapter 4, we demonstrated the effectiveness of nodal and mesh analysis techniques for
solving DC resistive circuits. These same powerful methods can be extended to AC circuits to
determine steady-state voltages and currents using phasors.

To obtain time-domain voltage and current responses, we apply the circuit analysis techniques
developed earlier, such as nodal analysis, mesh analysis, network theorems, source
transformations, and circuit simplification. In this section, multiple solution methods are
presented to allow comparison of their relative complexity and efficiency.

When analyzing phasor circuits, the first step is to ensure that all voltage and current sources are
expressed in a cosine reference form. Next, all circuit elements are transformed from the time
domain to their phasor-domain equivalents, as summarized in Table 9.8.

73
 Table 9.8 Circuit Components in Time and Phasor Domain
Time-Domain Phasor-Domain
𝑅 𝑅
𝐿 𝒁𝑳 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿
1
𝐶 𝒁𝑪 = 𝑗
𝜔𝐶
𝑖(𝑡) 𝑰
𝑣(𝑡) 𝑽

After this transformation, the circuit is redrawn in the phasor domain. Standard circuit analysis
techniques are then applied to determine the unknown phasor voltages and currents. Once
obtained, these phasor quantities are converted back to the time domain.

For example, if the phasor current is given by,

𝑰 = 𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑖

then the corresponding time-domain current is obtained as,

𝑖(𝑡) = ℜ{𝑰𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑖 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 }

𝑖(𝑡) = ℜ{𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑖 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 }
𝑖(𝑡) = ℜ{𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜃𝑖 ) }
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑖 )
A similar procedure applies to all voltages and currents in the circuit.
It is important to note that, under sinusoidal steady-state conditions, all voltages and currents in
the circuit are sinusoidal and share the same frequency as the source. However, their amplitudes
and phase angles may differ from those of the excitation.
General Procedure for Phasor Analysis

Phasor analysis of linear sinusoidal circuits follows a systematic sequence of steps:

Step 1: Express all voltage and current sources in standard cosine form.

Step 2: Convert all circuit elements and variables from the time domain to the phasor domain
using Table 9.8. The resulting circuit is called the phasor-domain circuit.

Step 3: Apply circuit analysis techniques such as Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL), Kirchhoff’s
Current Law (KCL), Ohm’s law, and impedance combinations to the phasor-domain circuit.

Step 4: Solve for the unknown phasor quantities (magnitudes and phase angles).

74
Step 5: Convert the final phasor results back to the time domain.

Important Note

During analysis, all expressions must remain entirely within either the time domain or the phasor
domain. Mixing quantities from both domains within the same equation or circuit representation
is mathematically incorrect. Conversion between domains should only occur at the beginning or
end of the solution process.

Applying KCL and KVL in Phasor Circuits

Before proceeding with full phasor circuit analysis, we first illustrate—through simple
examples—how Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) are
applied directly in the phasor domain.

Recall that in sinusoidal steady-state analysis, we are concerned only with the long-term
behavior of the circuit. Any transient components are assumed to have decayed, leaving only the
steady-state response. Under these conditions, all voltages and currents are sinusoidal and share
the same frequency as the source; however, their amplitudes and phase angles may differ.

To simplify the analysis, time-domain sources such as

𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑖 )⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑣𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 )

are converted into their phasor equivalents 𝑰𝒔 and 𝑽𝒔 . At this stage, only magnitude and phase
are retained, while the common frequency is implicitly understood.

When transforming a circuit from the time domain to the phasor domain:

• The circuit topology remains unchanged.

• Voltage and current sources are replaced by their phasor equivalents.
• Circuit elements are replaced by their impedances.

This transformation greatly simplifies circuit analysis. In the time domain, applying KCL and
KVL often leads to differential equations due to inductors and capacitors. In contrast, phasor-
domain analysis converts these into algebraic equations.

For example, Figure 9.36(a) shows a time-domain circuit with two mesh currents 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡)
and 𝑖𝑏 (𝑡), and a branch current 𝑖𝑅 (𝑡), along with branch voltages 𝑣1 (𝑡) and 𝑣2 (𝑡). The
corresponding KCL and KVL equations in the time domain are given by

𝑖𝑅 (𝑡) = 𝑖𝑏 (𝑡) − 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡)

𝑣𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝑣1 (𝑡) + 𝑣2 (𝑡) + (𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) − 𝑖𝑏 (𝑡))𝑅

75
 Figure 9.36(a) Time domain circuits, (b) Phasor-domain circuit

When the circuit is transformed into the phasor domain, as shown in Figure 9.36(b), these
equations become the corresponding phasor KCL and KVL expressions:

𝑰𝑹 = 𝑰𝒃 − 𝑰𝒂
𝑽𝒔 = 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 + (𝑰𝒂 − 𝑰𝒃 )𝑅

Thus, the form of KCL and KVL remains the same; only the variables change from time-
dependent functions to complex phasor quantities.

This key advantage is when replacing differential equations with algebraic ones, that is what
makes phasor analysis a powerful tool for analyzing AC circuits. In the following section, we
apply these principles to perform complete circuit analysis and determine unknown currents and
voltages.

………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
Example 9.23 – Applying KVL & KCL to Phasor Circuits
Consider a portion of a steady-state circuit at node ‘a’ shown in Figure 9.37. By applying a KCL
equation at node ‘a’ to derive the expression for 𝑖(𝑡) by using:
(a) Trigonometric identities
(b) Phasor notations.
Assume that the source currents are given by,
𝑖𝑠1 (𝑡) = 2.5 cos(80𝑡 + 45𝑜 )⁡𝐴
𝑖𝑠2 (𝑡) = 4.2 sin(80𝑡 + 23𝑜 )⁡𝐴

76
 Figure 9.37 Part of a circuit showing a sum of sinusoids
Solution:
(a) Using the time domain approach.
From KCL at node ‘a’, we obtain:

𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑖𝑠2 (𝑡) − 𝑖𝑠1 (𝑡)

⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= 4.2 cos(800𝑡 − 67°) − 2.5 cos(800𝑡 + 45°)⁡
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= 4.2 cos(800𝑡 − 67°) − 2.5 cos(800𝑡 + 45°) A
By using trigonometric identities, we expand each term then combine the results as follows,
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑖(𝑡) = 5.63 cos(800𝑡 − 91.3°) ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴
(b) Using the phasors
Let us apply the phasor concept to the sum terms of the KCL equation in phasor domain is given
by,

𝑰 = 𝑰𝒔𝟐 − 𝑰𝒔𝟏
⁡⁡= 4.2∠(23° − 90° ) − 2.5∠45° = −0.126 − 𝑗5.63⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴
⁡⁡⁡= 5.63𝑒 −𝑗91.3° ⁡⁡𝐴
Hence, the corresponding time-domain current is obtained using the magnitude and phase of the
above phasor current 𝑰 to write the time domain expression as follows.
𝑖(𝑡) = 5.63 cos(80𝑡 − 91.3°) ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴
………………………………………………………………………………………………..........
Exercise 9.20:
Consider a portion of a steady-state circuit at node ‘a’ shown in Figure E9.20. By applying a
KCL equation at node ‘a’, derive the expression for 𝑖(𝑡) by using:

77
 (a) Trigonometric identities
(b) Phasor notations.

Assume that the source currents are given by,

𝑖𝑠1 (𝑡) = 7 cos(12𝑡 + 27° ) A

𝑖𝑠2 (𝑡) = 2.8 sin(12𝑡 + 19° )⁡𝐴
𝑖𝑠3 (𝑡) = 5 cos(12𝑡 + 81° )⁡𝐴

Figure E9.20
Answer:
𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) = 4.63 cos(12𝑡 − 169°) ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴
………………………………………………………………………………………………............
Example 9.24 – Applying KVL and KCL to calculate phasor responses.

Determine the voltage 𝑽 and output voltage 𝑽𝒐 for 𝑰𝒂 = 4∠ − 100° mA in the phasor circuit of
Figure 9.38. Assume 𝑅 = 2.5⁡𝑘Ω, 𝑍2 = 2 + 𝑗2⁡𝑘Ω, 𝑍3 = −𝑗2⁡𝑘Ω.

78
 Figure 9.38

Solution:

Voltage across Z3 and Z2 is equal to voltage V,

𝑽 = 𝑰𝒂 (𝑍2 + 𝑍3 ) = (4∠ − 100°)(2 + 𝑗2 − 𝑗2) = 8∠ − 100°⁡𝑉

To find⁡𝑽𝒐 ,

𝑽𝒐 = −𝑰𝒂 𝑍2

⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= (−4∠ − 100°)(2 + 𝑗2) = (4∠ − 100°)(2.83∠45°) = 11.3∠125°⁡𝑉

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Exercise 9.21
Repeat Example 9.24 for the circuit of E9.21.

79
 Figure E9.21
Answer:
𝑽 = 19.6∠ − 76.04°⁡𝑉, 𝑽𝒐 = 11.3∠125°⁡𝑉
…………………………………………………..…………………………………………………
9.4.1 Simple Phasor Circuit Analysis
Although phasor analysis is applicable to general circuits, it is helpful to begin with simpler
configurations, such as single-loop circuits, single-node-pair circuits, and circuits that can be
reduced using equivalent impedance. These cases provide useful insight into the method before
extending it to more complex networks
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Example 9.25: Phasor Analysis using current division formula
For the given RL circuit shown in Fig. 9.39, the input current is given below with R = 2 Ω, L =
0.5 H. Determine 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡).

𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) = 6 cos(3𝑡) A

Figure 9.39 Simple RL circuit in time-domain

Determine the expression for the current⁡ 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡).
Solution:
First, we transform the circuit into the phasor-domain as shown in Fig. 9.40.

80
 Figure 9.40 Phasor-domain circuit of Fig. 9.39
Apply current division,
𝑅 2 12∠0𝑜
𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝑺 = 6∠0𝑜 = = 4.8 ∠ − 36.87𝑜 𝐴
𝑅 + j𝜔𝐿 2 + 𝑗1.5 2.5∠36.87𝑜

Transforming the current⁡𝑰𝑳 back to the time-domain yields,

𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = 4.8 𝑐𝑜𝑠(3𝑡 − 36.87𝑜 ) 𝐴
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Exercise 9.22
The steady-state response for the current 𝑖(𝑡)⁡of the RL circuit of Fig. E9.22 is given by,
𝑖(𝑡) = 1.98 𝑐𝑜𝑠(3000𝑡 − 156.84𝑜 ) 𝐴
Assume 𝑅 = 5⁡Ω, 𝐿 = 0.2 𝑚𝐻.

Fig. E9.22
Find the input voltage 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) that produce the given circuit current 𝑖(𝑡).
Answer:
𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) = 9.98 𝑐𝑜𝑠(3000𝑡 − 150𝑜 ) 𝑉
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………

81
Interactive Example 9.3 Simple Circuit Analysis using Phasors
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Example 9.26 - Phasor analysis of single-loop RC circuit
For the given RC circuit with the dependent source shown in Figure 9.41. Determine the
expression for⁡𝑣𝑐 (𝑡)⁡𝑎𝑛𝑑⁡𝑖𝑥 (𝑡). Assume 𝑣𝑠 (𝑡) = 10 cos(3000𝑡 + 𝜋⁄3) 𝑉, 𝑟 = 4⁡Ω, 𝑅 =
5⁡Ω, C = 0.5⁡mF.

Figure 9.41 RC circuit with dependent source in time-domain

Solution:
Step 1 –Express the voltage source in cosine form
The voltage source⁡𝑣𝑠 (𝑡) is already in a cosine form,
Step 2 – Transfer the circuit from time-domain to phasor-domain
The equivalent phasor-domain circuit is shown in Fig. 9.42.

Figure 9.42 Phasor-domain circuit of Figure 9.41

82
Step 3 – Apply the desired network analysis techniques
Applying KVL around the circuit yields,
𝑽𝒔 = 𝑅𝑰𝒙 − 𝑟𝑰𝒙 + 𝑽𝑪
1
Where, 𝑽𝑪 = −𝑗 𝜔𝐶 𝑰𝒙 .

Step 4 – Solve for the phasor variables of interest

1
Substituting for 𝑽𝑪 = −𝑗 𝜔𝐶 𝑰𝒙 ⁡and⁡solving for 𝑰𝒙 ,

𝑽𝒔 𝑉𝑚 ∠ 𝜋⁄3
𝑰𝒙 = =
1 1
𝑅 − 𝑟 − 𝑗 𝜔𝐶 (𝑅 − 𝑟) − 𝑗
𝜔𝐶
10∠ 𝜋⁄3 10∠ 𝜋⁄3 10∠ 𝜋⁄3
= = = = 8.3∠93.69𝑜
1 1 − 𝑗0.67 1.2∠ − 33.69𝑜
(5 − 4) − 𝑗
3000𝑥0.5𝑥10−3
Step 5: Transform the desired expressions into the time-domain solution.
Transforming the current⁡𝑰𝒙 back to the time-domain yields,
𝑖𝑥 (𝑡) = 8.3 cos(3000𝑡 + 93.69𝑜 ) ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Exercise 9.23
Find the voltage 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡)⁡𝑖𝑛⁡Example 9.26.
Answer:
𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 5.53 cos(3000𝑡 + 3.69𝑜 ) ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑉
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Example 9.27 - Phasor analysis of parallel RL circuit
Given the time-domain RL circuit of Figure 9.43, find the voltage 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) and current 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) when
1
the circuit is in steady-state. Assume 𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) = 5 cos(1000𝑡 + 850 ) , 𝑔 = 0.5 Ω , 𝑅 =
10⁡Ω, and⁡L = 4⁡mH.

83
 Figure 9.43
Solution:
Step 1 –Express the voltage source in cosine form
The voltage source⁡𝑣𝑠 (𝑡) is already in a cosine form,
Step 2 – Transfer the circuit from time-domain to phasor-domain
The equivalent phasor-domain circuit is shown in Figure 9.44.

Figure 9.44 Phasor-domain circuit of Fig. 9.43

Step 3 – Apply the desired network analysis techniques
Applying KCL at the upper node in the circuit yields,
𝑰𝒔 = 𝑰𝑹 + 𝑰𝑳 + 𝑔𝑽𝑿
It can be seen that the voltage across all elements is 𝑽𝒙 are equal. Hence the above equation
becomes,
𝑽𝒙 𝒙𝑽
𝑰𝒔 = + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 + 𝑔𝑽𝒙
𝑅

1 1
𝑰𝒔 = 𝑽𝒙 (𝑅 − 𝑗 𝜔𝐿 + 𝑔)

Solving for 𝑽𝒙 ,
𝑰𝒔 5∠850 5∠850
𝑽𝒙 = 1 1 = (0.1+0.5)−𝑗0.25 = 𝟎.𝟔𝟓∠−22.60 = 7.7∠107.60 ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡
( +𝑔)−𝑗
𝑅 𝜔𝐿

Step 4 – Solve for the phasor variables of interest

Now applying Ohm’s Law for the inductor yields,
𝑽 7.7∠107.60 7.7∠107.60
𝒙
𝑰𝑳 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = = = 1.9∠17.60 ⁡⁡𝐴
𝑗4 4∠900

Step 5: Transform the desired expressions into the time-domain solution.

The corresponding voltage 𝑣𝑥 and 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) time domain,

84
 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = 7.7 cos(1000𝑡 + 107.60 ) ⁡𝑉
𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = 1.9 cos(1000𝑡 + 17.60 ) ⁡𝐴
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Exercise 9.24:
For the given RC circuit with the dependent source shown in Figure E9.24. Determine the
1
expression for⁡𝑣𝑐 (𝑡)⁡𝑎𝑛𝑑⁡𝑖𝑅 (𝑡). Assume 𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) = 6 cos(3000𝑡 + 𝜋⁄3) ⁡𝑉, 𝑔 = 0.25 Ω , 𝑅 =
18⁡Ω, C = 0.08⁡mF.

Figure E9.24
Answer:
𝑖𝑅 (𝑡) = 1.08 cos(3000𝑡−69.10 ) ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴
𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) = 19.6 cos(3000𝑡−69.10 ) ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑉
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Example 9.28 – Design for C
Consider the phasor circuit of Figure 9.45 consisting of a resistor R and Capacitance C with the
following relationship between its phasor input voltage 𝑽𝐢𝐧 and phasor output 𝑽𝟎 .

𝑽𝟎 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
=
𝑽𝒊𝒏 1 − (𝜔𝑅𝐶)2 + 𝑗3𝜔𝑅𝐶

+ +

𝑽𝒊𝒏 RC Network 𝑽𝒐

- -

Figure 9.45

85
For given 𝜔 = 105 rad/s, 𝑅 = 10⁡Ω,
(a) design the value of 𝐶 so that the phase shift between 𝑉0 and 𝑉𝑖𝑛 is −85∘ ⁡(𝑽𝟎 lags 𝑽𝒊𝒏 by 85∘ ).
(b) Find the magnitude 𝑽𝟎 at this phase-angle when |𝑽𝒊𝒏 | = 5⁡𝑉.
Solution:
𝑽
a) The phasor angle for the ration 𝑽 𝟎 must be set to −85∘ as follows,
𝒊𝒏

𝑽 1+𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
𝜃0 = ∠ 𝑽 𝟎 = tan−1 (1−(𝜔𝑅𝐶)2 +𝑗3𝜔𝑅𝐶 ) = −85∘
𝒊𝒏

Let us set 𝑥 = 𝜔𝑅𝐶,

Hence,
𝑽𝟎 1 + 𝑗𝑥 3𝑥
∠ = tan−1 ( 2
) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = −85∘
𝑽𝒊𝒏 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑗3𝑥 1 − 𝑥2
By applying tangent to both sides of the above equation, we have:
𝑽 3𝑥
∠ 𝑽 𝟎 = tan(tan−1 𝑥 − tan−1 1−x2) = tan(95)∘
𝒊𝒏

3𝑥
tan𝜃0 = tan(tan−1 𝑥 − tan−1 1−x2) = tan(95)∘

If we let,
𝜃1 = tan−1(𝑥)
3𝑥
𝜃2 = tan−1 ( )
1 − 𝑥2
Then we have,
𝑽
∠ 𝑽 𝟎 = tan⁡(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )
𝒊𝒏

By using difference of tangent formula, we have the following:

tan𝜃1 − tan𝜃2
tan⁡(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) =
1 + tan𝜃1 tan𝜃2
Apply the above to tan⁡(𝜃0 ),
3𝑥
𝑽 𝑥− −𝑥(𝑥 2 +2)
1−𝑥2
∠𝑽𝟎 = 3𝑥2
= = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(−85)∘
𝒊𝒏 1+ 1+2𝑥 2
1−𝑥2

By setting the equations equal to each other, we obtain:

𝑥(𝑥 2 +2)
= tan(85)∘ = 11.43
1+2𝑥 2

86
and we obtain the relationship:
𝑥 3 − 22.86𝑥 2 + 2x − 11.43 = 0
and we obtain the value 𝑥 = 22.79⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠. Since we have 𝑥 = 𝜔𝑅𝐶, solving for C for 𝜔 =
105 ⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠, and 𝑅 = 10⁡Ω,
𝑥 22.79
𝐶= = = 22.79⁡𝜇𝐹⁡
𝜔𝑅 (105 )10
𝑽
At these values, the magnitude of the ratio 𝑽 𝟎 is given by,
𝒊𝒏

𝑽𝟎 √1+𝑥 2 √1+(22.79)2
| |= = = 0.044
𝑽𝒊𝒏 √(1−𝑥 2 )2 +(3𝑥)2 √(1−(22.79)2 )2 +(3x22.79)2

(b) The magnitude 𝑽𝟎 at this phase angle when |𝑽𝒊𝒏 | = 5⁡𝑉 is given by,
𝑽𝟎
|𝑽𝟎 | = | | x|𝑽𝒊𝒏 | = 0.044x5 = 0.22 V
𝑽𝒊𝒏

…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Exercise 9.25:
Repeat Example 9.28 for a desired phase shift of between 𝑉0 and 𝑉𝑖𝑛 is 135∘ ⁡(𝑽𝟎 lags 𝑽𝒊𝒏 by
35∘ ). Assume 𝑅 = 25⁡Ω.
Answer:
(a) 𝐶 = 0.445⁡𝜇𝐹⁡
(b) |𝑽𝟎 | = 3.52⁡𝑉
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Analysis by Calculating the Total Impedances

Since all elements in a phasor circuit are represented either by phasor-domain sources or by
impedance quantities for the circuit components, we can apply analysis techniques similar to
those used in DC circuits. In Chapters 3–5, we introduced an intuitive method in which all
resistors were combined into a single equivalent resistance.

A similar approach can be applied to AC circuits. In this case, we combine all impedances into a
single equivalent impedance, allowing the circuit to be reduced to a simplified AC equivalent
consisting of one complex impedance with both real and imaginary components.

Recall from earlier discussions that the generalized impedance of any source-free RLC circuit
can be reduced to an equivalent impedance 𝑍eq , as illustrated in Figure 9.46.

87
 General Circuit
consisting of
𝒁𝒆𝒒
only RLC
Elements

Figure 9.46 Transformation from time-domain to phasor-domain and vice versa

Where the measured current entering the RLC network is given by,
𝑽
𝑰=
𝒁𝒆𝒒

Using the above concept of finding the total impedance allows us to carry out phasor-domain
analysis of AC circuits as illustrated the examples below.
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Example 9.29 - Analysis by Calculating the Total Impedances
Given the time-domain circuit of Figure 9.47 with its source voltage 𝑣𝑠 (𝑡) = 48 cos(106 𝑡) ⁡⁡𝑉,
determine the output voltage 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡). Assume 𝑅1 = 3⁡𝑘Ω, 𝑅2 = 5⁡𝑘Ω⁡⁡𝐶 = 0.5⁡𝑛𝐹, 𝐿 = 4⁡𝑚𝐻.

Figure 9.47
Solution:
Let us use the method of finding the total impedance seen by the source voltage as shown in the
phasor circuit of Figure 9.48,

88
 Figure 9.48
1 1
𝑍1 = 𝑅1 − 𝑗 =3−𝑗 6 = 3 − 𝑗2⁡⁡⁡𝑘Ω
𝜔𝐶 10 𝑥0.5𝑥10−9
𝑅2 𝑥𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝑅2 5 5
𝑍2 = 𝑅2 //𝑗𝜔𝐿 = = = =
𝑅2 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 1 − 𝑗 𝑅2 5𝑥103 1 − 𝑗1.25
𝜔𝐿 1 − 𝑗 106 𝑥4𝑥10−3
5(1 + 𝑗1.25)
= = 1.95 + 𝑗2.44 = 3.12∠51.34° ⁡𝑘Ω
1 + 1.56
And the total impedance seen by the source is given by,
𝑍𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 = (3 − 2𝑗) + (1.95 + 𝑗2.44)

⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= 4.95 + 𝑗0.44 = 4.97∠5.08𝑜 ⁡𝑘Ω

Now the total input current is given by,
𝑽𝒔 48∠0𝑜
𝑰𝒊𝒏 = = = 9.66∠−5.08𝑜 ⁡𝑚𝐴
𝑍𝑒𝑞 4.97∠5.08𝑜

Then the output voltage is given by,

𝑽𝒐 = 𝑰𝒊𝒏 𝑍2 = (9.66∠ − 5.08𝑜 ⁡)(3.12∠51.34° ⁡) = 30.14∠46.26𝑜 ⁡⁡𝑉
Hence, the time domain output voltage is given by,
𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) = 30.14 cos(106 𝑡 + 46.26𝑜 ) ⁡⁡𝑉
Note that the circuit reduction may not be possible when impedances are not connected directly
in series or/and parallel, then we look into the possibility to deploying ∆ Y transformation
when the circuit configurations permit that. This will be discussed in the following subsection.
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………

89
Exercise 9.26:
Find inductor current 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) in Example 9.29.
Answer:
𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) ≈ 7.55cos(106 𝑡 + 136.2𝑜 ) ⁡⁡𝑚𝐴
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Example 9.30
Find inductor current 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) in Example 9.29 by using time-domain relationship between the
inductor current and its voltage.
Solution:
From Example 9.24, the time domain for the output voltage 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) is given by,
𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) = 30.14 cos(106 𝑡 + 46.26𝑜 ) ⁡⁡𝑉
To find 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) in time-domain by using the following inductor curreny-voltage dynamic relation,
𝑑𝑖𝐿 (𝑡)
𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡
Hence, the 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) is obtained as follows

1 𝑡 1 𝑡
𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = − ∫ 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡)⁡𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖𝐿 (0) = − ∫ 30.14 cos(106 𝑡 + 46.26𝑜 ) ⁡𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖𝐿 (0)
𝐿 0 4𝑥10−3 0
Where, the initial value is given by,
𝑣𝑜 (𝑡)
𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = 𝑖𝑅 (𝑡) − 𝑖𝑖𝑛 (𝑡) = − 𝑖𝑖𝑛 (𝑡)
𝑅2
At t = 0,
𝑣𝑜 (0)
𝑖𝐿 (0) = − 𝑖𝑖𝑛 (0) = 4.17 − 9.62 = −5.45⁡𝑚𝐴
𝑅2

Where,
𝑖𝑖𝑛 (0) = 9.66 cos(−5.08𝑜 ) ⁡ = 9.62⁡𝑚𝐴
𝑣𝑜 (0) 30.14 cos(46.26𝑜 )
𝑖𝑅 (0) = = = 4.17⁡𝑚𝐴
𝑅 5
Hence,

90
 1 𝑡 1 𝑡
𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = − 𝐿 ∫0 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡)⁡𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖𝐿 (0) = − 4𝑥10−3 ∫0 30.14 cos(106 𝑡 + 56.42𝑜 ) ⁡𝑑𝑡 − 5.45 mA

1 30.41
=− −3 6
[sin(106 𝑡 + 46.26𝑜 )]|𝑡𝑜 − 5.45
4𝑥10 10
= −7.6[sin(106 𝑡 + 46.26𝑜 ) − sin(46.26𝑜 )] − 5.45
= −7.6[sin(106 𝑡 + 46.26𝑜 ) − 0.722] − 5.45
= −7.6 sin(106 𝑡 + 46.26𝑜 ) + 5.45 − 5.45
≈ −7.6 sin(106 𝑡 + 46.26𝑜 ) ⁡⁡𝑚𝐴
≈ −7.55 cos(106 𝑡 + 46.26𝑜 − 90𝑜 ) ⁡⁡𝑚𝐴
≈ 7.55 cos(106 𝑡 + 46.26𝑜 − 90𝑜 + 180𝑜 ) ⁡⁡𝑚𝐴
≈ 7.55 cos(106 𝑡 + 136.2𝑜 ) ⁡⁡𝑚𝐴
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Example 9.31 – Equivalent Circuit Impedance
Consider an AC network of Figure 9.49 driven by the current source 𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) = 20 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2000𝑡) ⁡𝐴.
If the measured voltage 𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) across the input terminal is given by⁡𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = 78.5 cos(2000t −
45o ) ⁡⁡V, determine the simplified equivalent network and its associated values

Figure 9.49 General AC Network

Solution:
The corresponding phasor values for are given by,
𝑽𝒙 = 78.5∠−35𝑜 V
𝑰𝒔 = 20∠0𝑜 A
Hence, the input impedance seen by the input terminal is given by,
𝑽𝒙 78.5∠−45𝑜
𝒁𝒆𝒒 = = = 3.9∠−45𝑜 = 2.77 − 𝑗2.77⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω⁡
𝑰𝒔 20∠0𝑜

91
It is clear that the network effectively a series-connected resistive-capacitive that can be
represented as follows,
𝒁𝒆𝒒 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 − 𝑗𝑋𝑒𝑞

Where, 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 2.77⁡⁡Ω⁡and 𝑋𝑒𝑞 = 2.77Ω. Hence, the effective capacitor value,
1 1
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = = = 0.18⁡𝑚𝐹
𝜔𝑋𝑒𝑞 2000𝑥2.77

Of course there are several possible RLC circuit configurations that results in 𝒁𝒆𝒒 =
3.9∠−45𝑜 ⁡Ω, we select the simplest RC representation consisting of series R-C as shown in
Figure 9.50.

Figure 9.50
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Delta-to-Wye Transformation
Similar to resistive circuits, where ∆–Y and Y–∆ transformations are used to simplify circuit
analysis, the same transformation principles apply to impedances in AC circuits. Figure 9.51
illustrates the Y–∆ and ∆–Y equivalent transformations along with their corresponding
impedance relationships, as given in Eqs. (9.5a) and (9.6).

Figure 9.51 ∆-to-Y and Y-to-∆ equivalent transformation

92
The Y-to-∆ transformation:
𝑍1 𝑍2 + 𝑍2 𝑍3 + 𝑍3 𝑍1
𝑍𝑎𝑏 =
𝑍1
𝑍1 𝑍2 + 𝑍2 𝑍3 + 𝑍3 𝑍1
𝑍𝑏𝑐 = (9.5)
𝑍2
𝑍1 𝑍2 + 𝑍2 𝑍3 + 𝑍3 𝑍1
𝑍𝑎𝑐 =
𝑍3
The ∆ -to-Y transformation:
𝑍𝑏𝑐 𝑍𝑎𝑐
𝑍1 =
𝑍𝑎𝑏 + 𝑍𝑏𝑐 + 𝑍𝑎𝑐
𝑍𝑎𝑏 𝑍𝑎𝑐
𝑍2 = (9.6)
𝑍𝑎𝑏 + 𝑍𝑏𝑐 + 𝑍𝑎𝑐
𝑍𝑎𝑏 𝑍𝑏𝑐
𝑍3 =
𝑍𝑎𝑏 + 𝑍𝑏𝑐 + 𝑍𝑎𝑐

These equations are identical to those derived for resistive circuits, except that impedances are
used instead of resistances.

The Y → ∆ transformation reduces the number of nodes from four to three by eliminating the
common node, while preserving the currents entering nodes 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐, as well as the voltages at
these nodes.

Balanced Circuits

A special case occurs when the impedances are equal, resulting in a balanced circuit, which
greatly simplifies the transformations:

• For Y → ∆:

𝑍1 = 𝑍2 = 𝑍3 ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡ ⇒ ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡ 𝑍𝑎𝑏 = 𝑍𝑏𝑐 = 𝑍𝑎𝑐 = 3𝑍1

• For ∆ → Y:

𝑍𝑎𝑏
𝑍𝑎𝑏 = 𝑍𝑏𝑐 = 𝑍𝑎𝑐 ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡ ⇒ ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡ 𝑍1 = 𝑍2 = 𝑍3 =
3

The above equations are the same equations we derived before for resistive circuits except for
using impedances connected between the nodes instead of resistances. We can see that the Y→∆
transformation reduces the number of nodes from four to three by eliminating the common node,

93
still all currents entering the nodes a, b and c remain the same and the voltage at these nodes
remain the same.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Example 9.32 - Total impedance with ∆-to-Y Transformation
Use ∆-to-Y Transformation to find the output voltage 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) of Figure 9.52. Assume 𝑣𝑠 (𝑡) =
100 cos(100,000𝑡 + 90𝑜 ) ⁡⁡𝑉, and ⁡𝑅1 = 10⁡Ω, 𝑅2 = 20⁡Ω, 𝑅3 = 12⁡Ω, 𝑅4 = 8⁡Ω, 𝑅5 =
15⁡Ω, 𝑎𝑛𝑑⁡𝐿 = 130⁡𝜇𝐻.

Figure 9.52
Solution:

Since none of the circuit elements are connected in a straightforward series or parallel
configuration, further simplification using basic reduction techniques is not possible. Therefore,
alternative analysis methods such as branch, mesh, nodal analysis, or Thevenin’s theorem must
be employed. Another effective approach is to use the ∆–Y transformation. In this circuit,
elements 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 , and 𝐿 form a ∆ configuration, while 𝑅4 , 𝑅5 , and 𝐿 form a second ∆
configuration. By replacing either of these ∆ networks with their equivalent Y configuration, the
circuit can be simplified, making further analysis more manageable.

Since both ∆ configurations have identical complexity, choosing either one for the
transformation yields the same level of simplification.

The phasor circuit equivalent is given in Figure 9.53.

94
 Figure 9.53(a) Equivalent phasor-domain circuit
Replacing ∆ circuit “abc” to Y equivalent circuit as follows:

Figure 9.53(b) the ∆-to-Y transformation approach

𝑅2 𝑅3 240
𝑍1 = = ≈ 6.44 − 𝑗2.62⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω
𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 32 + 𝑗13
𝑅2 (𝑗𝜔𝐿) (20)(𝑗13)
𝑍2 = = ≈ 2.83 + 𝑗6.97⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω
𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 32 + 𝑗13
𝑅3 (𝑗𝜔𝐿) (12)(𝑗13)
𝑍3 = = ≈ 1.7 + 𝑗4.18⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω
𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 32 + 𝑗13
The new equivalent after applying ∆→Y transformation is given in Figure 9.53(c).

95
 Figure 9.53(c) equivalent circuit after the ∆-to-Y transformation
Notice since node voltages b and c are still the same, the output voltage, 𝑽𝒐 remains the same. It
is clear now Figure E9.25(c) can be further simplified through series and parallel combinations
of its impedance elements. The simplified equivalent circuit is redrawn in Fig. 9.53(e).

Figure 9.53(d) simplified equivalent phasor-domain circuit

Where 𝑍1′ = 𝑍1 + 𝑅1 = 16.43 − 𝑗2.61⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω
𝑍4 = 𝑅4 = 8⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω
𝑍5 = 𝑅5 = 15⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω
To obtain the phasor current⁡𝑰𝑺 , we combine all impedances into total impedance,⁡𝑍𝑇 seen by the
source as shown in the simplified circuit in Figure 9.53(e)

96
 Figure 9.53(e) equivalent phasor-domain circuit

𝑍𝑇 = 𝑍1′ + (𝑍2 + 𝑍4 )//(𝑍3 + 𝑍5 )

(𝑍2 + 𝑍4 )(𝑍3 + 𝑍5 )
𝑍𝑇 = 𝑍1′ + = 23.206 + 𝑗0.51⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω
𝑍2 + 𝑍4 + 𝑍3 + 𝑍5
𝑍𝑇 = |𝑍𝑇 |∠𝜃𝑍𝑇 = 23.21∠1.25°⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω

Now we calculate the source current as follows:

𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜃
𝑰𝑺 = = 0.095 + 𝑗4.307⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴
𝑍𝑇
𝑰𝑺 = |𝐼𝑠 |∠𝜃𝐼𝑠 = 4.308∠88.73°⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴

Where,
𝑉𝑚
|𝐼𝑆 | =
|𝑍𝑇 |
, 𝜃𝐼𝑆 = 𝜃 − 𝜃𝑍𝑇

The branch currents 𝑰𝟏 and 𝑰𝟐 are given by

𝑍3 + 𝑍5
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰 = 0.40 + 𝑗2.46 = 2.49∠80.73°⁡⁡𝐴
𝑍2 + 𝑍4 + 𝑍3 + 𝑍5 𝒔
𝑍2 + 𝑍4
𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰 = −0.306 + 𝑗1.843 = 1.86∠99.43°⁡⁡𝐴
𝑍2 + 𝑍4 + 𝑍3 + 𝑍5 𝒔
The node voltage at “b” and “c” are given by,
𝑽𝒃 = 𝑍4 𝑰𝟏 = 3.208 + 𝑗19.659⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑉
𝑽𝒄 = 𝑍5 𝑰𝟐 = −4.57 + 𝑗27.52⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑉
And the output voltage is given by,
𝑽𝒐 = 𝑽𝒃 − 𝑽𝒄 = 7.77 − 𝑗7.83⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑉
𝑽𝒐 = |𝑉𝑜 |∠𝜃𝑉𝑜 = 11.03∠ − 45.19°⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑉

97
Transforming the voltage⁡𝑽𝒐 back to the time-domain yields,
𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) = |𝑉𝑜 |cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑉𝑜 )

𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) = 11.03 cos(105 𝑡 − 45.19°) ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑉

Transforming the current⁡𝑰𝑺 back to the time-domain yields,
𝑖𝑆 (𝑡) = |𝐼𝑆 |cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝐼𝑆 )

𝑖𝑆 (𝑡) = 4.308 cos(105 𝑡 + 88.73°) ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴

…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Exercise 9.27:
Repeat Example 9.32 by replacing the inductor by a capacitor of 𝐶 = 0.769⁡𝜇𝐻.
Answer:
𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) = 11.13 cos(105 𝑡 − 137.14°°) ⁡𝑉
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Source Transformation
Like the concept we introduced in Chapter 3 regarding source transformations in resistive
circuits, the same principle applies to phasor-domain as depicted in Figure 9.54.

Figure 9.54 Source transformation in phasor circuits

𝑽𝒔
Where 𝑰𝒔 = 𝑍𝑠

The two circuits shown above are equivalent because the remaining portions of both circuits are
identical. In particular, the left-hand side, as seen from terminals 𝑎–𝑏, is the same in both
configurations.

98
Recall that in resistive circuits, we applied source transformations and resistor combinations to
reduce a circuit to either a single loop or a single node pair, enabling the use of KVL or KCL,
respectively. The same approach is valid in the phasor domain. The key difference is that, in
resistive circuits, variables are expressed in the time domain, whereas in AC circuits, inductors
and capacitors are represented by their phasor impedances 𝑍𝐿 and 𝑍𝐶 , and all voltages and
currents are expressed as phasors.

Furthermore, circuit analysis techniques such as KVL, KCL, and branch (or mesh/nodal)
methods apply in exactly the same manner in the phasor domain.

It is important to note a limitation of source transformations:

• A voltage source can be converted to a current source only if an impedance is connected

in series with the voltage source.
• Conversely, a current source can be converted to a voltage source only if an impedance is
connected in parallel with the current source.

…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Example 9.33 – Phasor Analysis using Source Transformation
For the given circuit shown in Figure 9.55, use source transformation to find 𝑰𝒙 and⁡𝑽𝒙 .⁡

Figure 9.55 Phaser circuit

Solution:
Applying voltage to current source transformation to reduce the circuit to Figure 9.56,

5
𝑰𝒔 = ∠00 ⁡𝐴 6⁡Ω 8⁡Ω
6

99
 Figure 9.56 Circuit of Figure 9.55 after source transformation
Where,
5∠00 5 0
𝑰𝒔 = = ∠0 ⁡⁡𝐴
6 6
Calculating the equivalent impedance for 𝒁𝒆𝒒 of Figure 9.43,

3.24(𝑗4)
𝑍𝑒𝑞 = 6//𝑗4//8 = 3.24//𝑗4 = = 1.98 + 𝑗1.69 = 2.6∠40.6𝑜 ⁡⁡Ω
3.24 + 𝑗4
Calculating⁡𝑽𝒙 ,
5
𝑽𝒙 = 𝑍𝑒𝑞 𝑰𝑺 = (2.52∠40.6𝑜 ) ( ∠00 ) = 2.17∠40.6𝑜 ⁡⁡𝑉
6
Solving for 𝑰𝒙 by applying KCL at the node of the current source in terms of 𝑰𝒙 ,
𝑽𝒙 5 0 2.17∠40.6𝑜
𝑰𝒙 = 𝑰𝑺 − = ∠0 − = 0.56 − 𝑗0.235 = 0.61∠−22.8𝑜 ⁡⁡𝐴
6 6 6
Transforming the voltage⁡𝑽𝒙 back to the time-domain yields,
𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = 2.17 cos(3000𝑡 + 40.6𝑜 ) ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑉
Transforming the current⁡𝑰𝒙 back to the time-domain yields,
𝑖𝑥 (𝑡) = 0.61 cos(3000𝑡 − 22.8𝑜 ) ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Exercise 9.28:
Repeat Example 9.33 for the circuit of Figure E9.28.

Figure E9.28 Phaser circuit

Answer:
𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = 2.19 cos(3000𝑡 + 57.7𝑜 ) ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑉

100
𝑖𝑥 (𝑡) = 0.55 cos(3000𝑡−25.2𝑜 ) ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Example 9.34 Source Transformation with dependent source
For the given RLC circuit shown in Figure 9.57 with the input voltage 𝑣𝑠 (𝑡) =
108 cos(3000𝑡 − 𝜋⁄3) with the following circuit values:⁡𝑅 = 8⁡⁡Ω, 𝑔 = 0.78, 𝐿 = 0.2⁡𝑚𝐻.

Figure 9.57 Circuit with dependent source in time-domain

Determine the expression for⁡𝑖𝐿 (𝑡).
Solution:
First, we transform the circuit into the phasor-domain as shown in Figure 9.58(a).
𝑹

+ 𝑽𝒙 - 𝑰𝑳

𝑽𝒔 𝒋𝝎𝑳 𝒈𝑽𝒙

Figure 9.58(a)
Apply source transformation to the dependent current source and impedance 𝑗𝜔𝐿 to yield the
circuit of Figure 9.58(b):
𝑹 𝒋𝝎𝑳

+ 𝑽𝒙 -

𝑽𝒔 + 𝒋𝝎𝑳𝒈𝑽𝒙
-

101
 Figure 9.58(b) simple RC circuit in phasor-domain
Applying KVL to the circuit loop to yield,
𝑽
−𝑽𝒔 + 𝑽𝒙 + ( 𝑅𝒙 ) 𝑗𝜔𝐿 + 𝑗𝑔𝜔𝐿𝑽𝒙 = 𝟎

Solving for 𝑽𝒙
𝑽𝒔 108∠−60°
𝑽𝒙 = =
𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝑗 × 3000 × 0.2 × 10−3
(1 + 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑔𝜔𝐿) (1 + + 𝑗 × 0.78 × 3000 × 0.2 × 10−3 )
8
108∠−60° 108∠−60°
= = = 94.9∠−88.5° ⁡𝑉
(1 + 𝑗0.075 + 𝑗0.468) 1.13∠28.5°
Apply KCL to the original circuit of Fig. 9.58(a),
𝑉𝑥 94.9∠−88.5°
𝐼𝐿 = + 𝑔𝑉𝑥 = + (0.78 × 94.9∠−88.5° ) = 85.8∠−88.5° ⁡𝐴
𝑅 8

Transforming the current⁡𝑰𝑳 back to the time-domain yields,

𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = 85.8 cos(3000𝑡−88.5° ) ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Exercise 9.29:
For the given RLC circuit shown in Figure E9.29 with the input current 𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) = 13 cos(3000𝑡)
A with the following circuit values:⁡𝑅 = 8⁡⁡Ω, 𝑟 = 2.5, 𝐿 = 0.025⁡𝑚𝐻.

Figure E9.29
Determine the expression for⁡𝑖𝑥 (𝑡).
Answer:
𝑖𝑥 (𝑡) = 0.18 cos(3000𝑡 + 89.2° ) ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………

9.4.2 General Phasor Circuit Analysis

102
When none of the previously discussed simplification techniques are applicable, we revert to the
systematic use of nodal and mesh analysis methods. These same concepts extend naturally to
frequency-domain (phasor) circuits.

Unlike the special cases considered earlier, general circuit analysis techniques, such as nodal and
mesh analysis, are among the most powerful tools for analyzing AC circuits in the phasor
domain. They enable the analysis of more complex circuits by formulating systems of equations
based on Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL). Specifically, the
node-voltage method expresses circuit behavior in terms of node voltages using KCL, while the
mesh-current method uses mesh currents and KVL equations.

Formulating a set of linear phasor equations with complex coefficients follows the same
procedure introduced in Chapter 4. However, because these equations involve complex numbers,
their manipulation can become algebraically intensive. For systems involving more than three
simultaneous equations, it is often advantageous to use computational tools such
as MATLAB, Mathcad, or methods like Cramer’s rule and Gaussian elimination.

Computer-aided analysis tools are particularly effective when numerical values of circuit
parameters are known. However, when the objective is to obtain symbolic, closed-form
expressions for quantities such as voltage, current, power, or energy, analytical (hand) methods
remain essential.

In phasor-domain analysis, the frequency of the AC source is a critical parameter that

significantly influences circuit behavior. Understanding how circuit elements interact with
frequency provides valuable insight into the steady-state response. Such insight is especially
important for engineers and is best achieved through symbolic analysis, where the effect of
varying frequency can be clearly observed.

…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Example 9.35 - Phasor Analysis Using mesh-current Method
Using the mesh current method for circuit of Figure 9.59 and solve for 𝑰𝒙 .

Figure 9.59
Solution:

103
Assigning two mesh phase currents 𝑰𝒂 and 𝑰𝒃 as shown in Figure 9.60,

Figure 9.50

Writing the two KVL mesh-current equations,

6𝑰𝒂 + 𝑗4(𝑰𝒂 − 𝑰𝒃 ) = 5∠0°
𝑗4(𝑰𝒃 − 𝑰𝒂 ) − 𝑗3𝑰𝒃 + 8𝑰𝒃 = 𝟎
Now we rearrange the above two equations as follows,
(6 + 𝑗4)𝑰𝒂 − 𝑗4𝑰𝒃 = 5
−𝑗4𝑰𝒂 + (8 + 𝑗)𝑰𝒃 = 0
Solving for 𝑰𝒂 and 𝑰𝒃 ,
𝑰𝒂 = 0.51 − 𝑗0.24 = 0.57∠ − 25.23°⁡⁡𝐴
𝑰𝒃 = 0.15 + 𝑗0.24 = 0.28∠57.65°⁡⁡𝐴

By inspection,
𝑰𝒙 = 𝑰𝒂 = 0.57∠ − 25.23°⁡⁡𝐴
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Exercise 9.30:
Find 𝑽𝒙 in Example 9.35.
Answer:
𝑽𝒙 = 2.24∠57.65°⁡⁡𝑉
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Example 9.36 – Phasor Analysis Using Node Voltage Method

104
Repeat Example 9.32 by using the Phasor Analysis Using Node Voltage Method. The circuit is
redrawn again in Figure 9.61

Figure 9.61
Solution:

Recall we have the circuits values given as:

𝑣𝑠 (𝑡) = 100 cos(100,000𝑡 + 90𝑜 ) ⁡⁡𝑉

And⁡𝑅1 = 10⁡Ω, 𝑅2 = 20⁡Ω, 𝑅3 = 12⁡Ω, 𝑅4 = 8⁡Ω, 𝑅5 = 15⁡Ω, 𝑎𝑛𝑑⁡𝐿 = 130⁡𝜇𝐻.
The phasor circuit equivalent is given in Figure 9.62 with three assigned node voltages "𝑉𝑎 ",
"𝑉𝑏 ", and "𝑉𝑐 ". With the ground at the bottom as shown.

𝑽𝒂

𝑽𝑺 𝑽𝒄 𝑽𝒃
𝑽𝒐

Figure 9.62 Equivalent phasor-domain circuit

Writing the three KCL and the three node equations,

105
 𝑽𝑺 − 𝑽𝒂 𝑽𝒂 − 𝑽𝒄 𝑽𝒂 − 𝑽𝒃
= +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑽𝒂 − 𝑽𝒄 𝑽𝒄 − 𝑽𝒃 𝑽𝒄
= +
𝑅2 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝑅4
𝑽𝒂 − 𝑽𝒃 𝑽𝒃 − 𝑽𝒄 𝑽𝒃
= +
𝑅3 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝑅5
Now we rearrange the above three equations as follows,
1 1 1 𝑽𝒃 1 𝑽𝑺
( + + ) 𝑽𝒂 − − 𝑽𝒄 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅3 𝑅2 𝑅1
1 1 1 1 1
−( ) 𝑽𝒂 − 𝑽𝒃 + ( + + ) 𝑽𝒄 = 0
𝑅2 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝑅2 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝑅4
1 1 1 1 𝑽𝒄
−( ) 𝑽𝒂 + ( + + ) 𝑽𝒃 − =0
𝑅3 𝑅3 𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝑅5 𝑗𝜔𝐿

Now we solve the following three node voltages by suing the given values above.
0.23𝑽𝒂 − 0.083𝑽𝒃 − 0.05𝑽𝒄 = 𝑗10
23.3𝑽𝒂 − 8.33𝑽𝒃 − 50𝑽𝒄 = 0

−0.05𝑽𝒂 + 𝑗0.0769𝑽𝒃 + (0.175 − 𝑗0.0769)𝑽𝒄 = 0

−50𝑽𝒂 + 𝑗7.69𝑽𝒃 + (17.5 − 𝑗7.69)𝑽𝒄 = 0

−0.0833𝑽𝒂 + (0.15 − 𝑗0.0769)𝑽𝒃 + 𝑗0.0769𝑽𝒄 = 0

−8.33𝑽𝒂 + (15 − 𝑗7.69)𝑽𝒃 + 𝑗7.69𝑽𝒄 = 0
Solving the three simultaneous equations,
𝑽𝒂 = −0.953 + 𝑗56.95⁡ = 56.96∠90.96°⁡⁡𝑉⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡
𝑽𝒃 = −4.596 + 𝑗27.63⁡⁡ = 28.01∠99.44°⁡⁡𝑉
𝑽𝒄 = 3.21 + 𝑗19.70⁡⁡ = 19.96∠80.74°⁡⁡𝑉
And the output voltage is given by,
𝑽𝒐 = 𝑽𝒄 − 𝑽𝒃 = (3.21 + 𝑗19.70) − (−4.596 + 𝑗27.63) = 7.81 − 𝑗7.93
= 11.13∠ − 45.4°⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑉

106
Transforming the voltage⁡𝑽𝒐 back to the time-domain yields,
𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) = 11.13 cos(105 𝑡 − 45.4°) ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑉
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Exercise 9.31:
What is the total impedance seen by the voltage source 𝑽𝑺 in Example 9.36.
Answer:
𝑍𝑒𝑞 = 23.2∠2.3°⁡⁡Ω⁡

…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Interactive Example 9.4 Phasor analysis of two-loop circuits
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Phasor Analysis Using Superposition Principle
As we discussed in Chapter 5, the use of superposition principle is useful analysis technique to
simplify circuit analysis. The same approach can be used in the phasor analysis of AC circuits as
shown in the examples below.
Example 9.37 – Using the Superposition Principle
For the given phasor circuit of Figure 9.63, determine the output voltage 𝑉𝑜 by using
superposition principle. Assume 𝑰𝒔𝟏 = 4∠0°⁡𝐴 and 𝑰𝒔𝟐 = 8∠45°⁡𝐴, with 𝑿𝑳 = 𝑗5⁡Ω, 𝑿𝑪 =
−𝑗3⁡Ω and 𝑅 = 4Ω.

Figure 9.63 RLC circuit in time-domain

Solution:
Since the circuit contains more than one source, we apply superposition.
First, we apply 𝑰𝑺𝟏 and we kill⁡𝑰𝑺𝟐 to find⁡𝑽𝑶𝟏 as shown in Figure 9.64(a).

107
 Figure 9.64(a) Equivalent circuit with applying 𝑰𝑺𝟏 and⁡𝑰𝑺𝟐 = 𝟎.
Since no current passes through⁡𝐶 and⁡𝐿2 , then voltage⁡𝑽𝑶𝟏 should be zero,
𝑽𝑶𝟏 = 0⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡
Next, we apply 𝑰𝑺𝟐 and we kill⁡𝑰𝑺𝟏 to find⁡𝑽𝑶𝟐 as shown in Figure 9.64(b).

Figure 9.64(b) Equivalent circuit with applying 𝑰𝑺𝟐 and⁡𝑰𝑺𝟐 = 𝟎.

The voltage⁡𝑽𝑶𝟐 is given by,
𝑽𝑶𝟐 = (𝑿𝑳 + 𝑿𝑪 )𝑰𝑺𝟐 = (𝑗5 − 𝑗3) × 8∠45° = 2∠90°𝑥8∠45° = 16∠135°⁡⁡𝑉
Hence, the total solution is given by,
𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽𝑶𝟏 + 𝑽𝑶𝟐 = 0 + 16∠135° = 16∠135°⁡⁡𝑉
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Example 9.38
For the given phasor circuit shown in Figure 9.65, determine the phasor voltage 𝑽𝒙 by using
superposition.

108
 Figure 9.65
Solution:
Since the circuit contains more than one source, we apply superposition,
First, we kill the current source to find⁡𝑽𝒙𝟏 as shown in Figure 9.66(a).

Figure 9.66(a)
Let us simplify the circuit as shown in Figure 9.66(b).

109
 Figure 9.66(b)
Where,
𝒁𝟏 = 𝑗2 − 𝑗4 + 2 = 2 − 𝑗2⁡⁡Ω
The output voltage 𝑽𝒙𝟏 is obtained by applying voltage divider as follows,
𝟐
𝑽𝒙𝟏 = ( ) (−24∠20°) = 9.6∠ − 160° = −9.02 − 𝑗3.28⁡𝑉⁡⁡
2+3
Next, we kill⁡the⁡voltage⁡source⁡and⁡apply⁡the⁡current⁡source⁡ to find⁡𝑽𝒙𝟐 as shown in Figure
9.66(c),

Figure 9.66(c)
Let us simplify the circuit as shown in Figure 9.66(d).

110
 Figure 9.66(d)
Where,
(2 − 𝑗4)𝑗2 4 + 𝑗4
𝑍2 = (2 − 𝑗4)//𝑗2 = = = 1 + 𝑗3⁡⁡Ω
(2 − 𝑗4) + 𝑗2 2 − 𝑗2
6⁡
𝑍3 = 3//2⁡ = = 1.2⁡Ω
5
Calculating the voltage⁡𝑽𝒙𝟐,
𝑽𝒙𝟐 = 10∠50°𝑥𝑍3 = 10∠50°𝑥1.2 = 12∠50°⁡𝑉 = 7.713 + 𝑗9.19⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑉
According to the superposition principle,
𝑽𝒙 = 𝑽𝒙𝟏 + 𝑽𝒙𝟐
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= (−9.02 − 𝑗3.28) + (7.713 + 𝑗9.19) = −1.31 + 𝑗5.91 = 6.05∠⁡102.4⁡𝑉
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………
Exercise 9.32:
Find 𝑰𝒙 in Example 9.38.
Answer,
𝑰𝒙 = 9.88 + 𝑗0.58 = 9.90∠3.38°⁡𝐴
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Example 9.39 - Superposition Principle

For the given RLC circuit shown in Figure 9.67 with 𝑣𝑠 (𝑡) = 108 cos(3000𝑡 − 𝜋⁄3) and
𝑖𝑠 (𝑡) = 13 cos(3000𝑡) A with the following circuit values:⁡𝑅 = 8⁡⁡Ω, 𝑔 = 0.78, 𝐿 = 0.2⁡𝑚𝐻.

111
 Figure 9.67 Circuit with dependent source in time-domain
Use superposition to determine the expression for⁡𝑖𝐿 (𝑡).
Solution:
After transforming the circuit into the phasor-domain, we set the current source to zero and apply
the voltage source as shown in Figure 9.68(a),
𝑹

+ 𝑽𝒙 - 𝑰𝑳

𝑽𝒔 𝒋𝝎𝑳 𝒈𝑽𝒙

Figure 9.68(a)
Apply source transformation to the dependent current source and impedance 𝑗𝜔𝐿 to yield the
circuit of Figure 9.68(b):
𝑹 𝒋𝝎𝑳

+ 𝑽𝒙 -

𝑽𝒔 + 𝒋𝝎𝑳𝒈𝑽𝒙
-

Figure 9.68(b) simple RC circuit in phasor-domain

112
Applying KVL to the circuit loop to yield,
𝑽
−𝑽𝒔 + 𝑽𝒙 + ( 𝑅𝒙 ) 𝑗𝜔𝐿 + 𝑗𝑔𝜔𝐿𝑽𝒙 = 𝟎

Solving for 𝑽𝒙
𝑽𝒔 𝑽𝒔 108∠−60°
𝑽𝒙 = = =
𝑗𝜔𝐿 1 1
(1 + 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑔𝜔𝐿) 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿(𝑅 + 𝑔) 1 + 𝑗3000 × 0.2 × 10−3 (8 + 0.78)
108∠−60° 108∠−60°
= = °
≈ 94.9∠−88.5°
1 + 𝑗0.543 1.13∠28.5
Apply KCL to the original circuit of Fig. 9.x,
𝑽𝒙 94.9∠−88.5°
𝑰𝑳𝟏 = + 𝑔𝑽𝒙 = + (0.78 × 94.9∠−88.5° ) ≈ 85.8∠−88.5° ⁡𝐴
𝑅 8

Next, we apply the current source and set the voltage source to zero as shown in Figure 9.68(c)

Figure 9.68(c)
Applying KCL to yield,
𝑉𝑥 𝑉𝑥
−𝐼𝑠 − − − 𝑔𝑉𝑥 = 0
𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝑅
We substitute for 𝑉𝑥 = −𝑗𝜔𝐿𝑰𝑳𝟐 and solve for 𝑰𝑳𝟐 ,
𝑗𝜔𝐿
−𝐼𝑠 + 𝑰𝑳𝟐 + 𝑰 + 𝑗𝑔𝜔𝐿𝑰𝑳𝟐 = 0
𝑅 𝑳𝟐
𝑰𝒔 𝑰𝒔 13∠0° 13∠0° 13∠0°
𝑰𝑳𝟐 = 1 = 1 = 1 = 1+𝑗0.54 = 1.14∠28.37° = 10.03 −
1+𝑗𝜔𝐿( +𝑔) 1+𝑗𝜔𝐿( +𝑔) 1+𝑗3000×0.2×10−3 ( +0.78)
𝑅 𝑅 8
𝑗5.42 = 11.4∠−28.37° A
Now we add the two currents,

113
 𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝑳𝟏 + 𝑰𝑳𝟐 = 85.8∠−88.5° + 11.4∠−28.37° = 2.25 − 𝑗85.77 + 10.03 − 𝑗5.42
= 12.55 − 𝑗91.19 = 92.05∠−82.16° ⁡⁡𝐴
Transforming the current⁡𝑰𝑳 back to the time-domain yields,
𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) = 92.19 cos(3000𝑡−82.16° ) ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴
…………………………………..……………………………………………………..……………

9.5 Thevenin-Norton Equivalent phasor circuits

Similar to the resistive circuits discussed in Chapter 5, circuit analysis techniques such
as Thevenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem, and the Superposition principle can be directly
applied to phasor-domain circuits. The analysis procedures remain the same, with the primary
difference being the use of impedances instead of resistances.

In phasor-domain analysis, circuit elements are represented by their equivalent impedances, and
quantities such as open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current are expressed as phasors rather
than time-domain functions. Consequently, all circuit manipulations are performed using
complex numbers.

It is important to note that this approach requires first transforming the circuit from the time
domain into the phasor (frequency) domain. As a result, applying Thevenin’s theorem in AC
circuits generally involves more computational effort compared to DC circuit analysis due to the
added complexity of complex arithmetic.

Figures 9.69(a) and 9.69(b) illustrate the phasor-domain representations of the Thevenin and
Norton equivalent circuits, respectively.

Figure 9.69(a) Phasor-domain of Thevenin equivalent circuit

114
 Figure 9.69(b) Phasor-domain of Norton equivalent circuit

Any linear circuit, whether it contains independent sources, dependent sources, or both, can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a single source and an equivalent impedance. As
in DC circuit analysis, the objective is to determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit, which
consists of a voltage source in series with an impedance.

The Thevenin voltage, 𝑉𝑇ℎ , is defined as the open-circuit voltage across terminals 𝑎 and 𝑏. The
Norton current, 𝐼𝑁 , is the short-circuit current between the same terminals. The equivalent
impedance satisfies

𝑍𝑇ℎ = 𝑍𝑁

and represents the impedance seen looking into terminals "𝑎𝑏".

The voltage 𝑽𝑻𝒉 is measured with the terminals "𝑎𝑏" open-circuited, provided that the circuit to
the left of these terminals is linear and may include both independent and dependent sources.
However, the method used to determine 𝑍𝑇ℎ depends on whether dependent sources are present.

When the circuit contains only independent sources, 𝑍𝑇ℎ is obtained by deactivating all
independent sources: independent voltage sources are replaced by short circuits, and independent
current sources are replaced by open circuits, as illustrated in Figure 9.70.

Figure 9.70 Equivalent impedance with no dependent sources

When dependent sources are present, 𝑍𝑇ℎ must be determined using alternative methods, such as
applying a test source or using open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current, as discussed
previously in Chapter 4 for DC circuits.

115
Method #1: Short-Circuit Current:
In this case, we short terminal “ab” and measure the short circuit current⁡𝑰𝒔𝒄 as shown in Figure
9.71(a). Then the equivalent impedance is given by,
𝑽𝑻𝒉
𝑍𝑇ℎ =
𝑰𝒔𝒄

Figure 9.71(a) Equivalent impedance using short circuit current method

Method #2: External Test Voltage:
As alternative approach is to apply external test voltage,⁡𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 , with all independent sources are
set to zero, and the resulting current,⁡𝐼𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 , drawn from it is used to calculate the equivalent
impedance as shown in Figure 9.71(b).
𝑽𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒕
𝑍𝑡ℎ =
𝑰𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒕

Figure 9.71(b) Equivalent impedance using external test voltage method

We should note that once the Thevenin’s equivalent⁡𝑽𝑻𝒉 and⁡𝑍𝑇ℎ are obtained, then it is always
possible to transform it to a Norton equivalent circuit or vice versa using source transformation.
In summary, any linear DC or AC circuit with dependent and independent current and voltage
sources, can be represented at any of two terminals by a single phasor voltage in series with a
single impedance.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….………
Example 9.40 – Thevenin’s Equivalent Phase Circuit

116
For the given circuit shown in Figure 9.72, determine the equivalent Thevenin phasor circuit
seen between terminals “ab” by finding 𝑽𝑻𝒉 and 𝑍𝑇ℎ . Assume 𝑋𝐿 = 0.8⁡Ω, 𝑅 = 10⁡Ω, 𝑋𝐶 =
1.5⁡Ω⁡and 𝑽𝒔𝟏 = 24∠00 V and 𝑽𝒔𝟐 = 12∠300 V.

Figure 9.72 Determining the Thevenin’s Equivalent RLC circuit in frequency-

domain

Solution:
First, we determine the total impedance,⁡𝑍𝑒𝑞 seen between terminals “ab” with the independent
source set to zero as shown in Figure 9.73(a),

Figure 9.73(a) Determining the total impedance

By inspection,⁡𝒁𝑻𝒉 is calculated from the following relationship:
𝑗𝑅𝑋 𝑗8 𝑗8 10−𝑗0.5
𝑍𝑇ℎ = 𝑅//𝑗𝑋𝐿 ⁡ − 𝑗𝑋𝐶 = 𝑅+𝑗𝑋𝐿 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶 = 10+𝑗0.8 − 𝑗1.5 = (10+𝑗0.8) (10−𝑗0.5) − 𝑗1.5
𝐿

𝑗80 + 4
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= − 𝑗1.5 = 0.0636 + 𝑗0.705⁡Ω
100.64
𝑍𝑇ℎ = 0.707∠−84.8𝑜 ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω

117
The Thevenin’s open circuit voltage,⁡𝑽𝑻𝒉 , is given by applying voltage divider in series with to
𝑽𝒔𝟐 yield,
𝑅 10 × 24∠0𝑜
𝑽𝑻𝒉 = 𝑽𝒔𝟏 + 𝑽𝒔𝟐 = + 12∠300 = 23.92∠−4.57𝑜 + 10.39 + 𝑗6
𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 10 + 𝑗0.8
= 23.85 − 𝑗1.91 + 10.39 + 𝑗6 = 34.24 + 𝑗4.09 = 34.5∠6.8𝑜 ⁡𝑉
The equivalent Thevenin’s phasor circuit seen between terminals “a” and “b” is shown in Figure
9.73(b).

Figure 9.73(b) Equivalent Thevenin’s phasor circuit of Figure 9.72

…………………………………………………………………………………………….………
Interactive Example 9.5 – Thevenin’s equivalent Using phasors
…………………………………………………………………………………………….………
Example 9.41 - Load Impedance across Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

Consider a given Thevenin equivalent circuit as shown in Figure 9.74 with a load of 𝑍𝐿
connected across its terminals “ab”. Determine the load current 𝑰𝑳 under the following load
conditions:
a) 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍𝑇ℎ
b) 𝑍𝐿 = |𝑍𝑇ℎ |𝑐𝑜𝑠∠𝑍𝑇ℎ
c) 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑗|𝑍𝑇ℎ |𝑠𝑖𝑛∠𝑍𝑇ℎ
∗
d) 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍𝑇ℎ

When did the load carry the maximum magnitude current?

118
 𝒂
𝒁𝒕𝒉 = 𝟏. 𝟗∠𝟕𝟏. 𝟔° 𝛀

𝒁𝑳
𝟐𝟎. 𝟓∠−𝟓𝟐. 𝟒° 𝑽

𝑰𝑳
𝒃

Figure 9.74 Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit with load impedance 𝒁𝑳

Solution:

a) For 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍𝑇ℎ = 1.9∠71.6𝑜 ⁡Ω, the load current⁡𝑰𝑳 is given by,

1 1
𝑰𝑳 = 𝑽𝑻𝒉 = 20.5∠−52.4𝑜 = 5.4∠−124𝑜 ⁡𝐴
1.9∠71.6𝑜 + 1.9∠71.6𝑜 3.8∠71.6𝑜

b) For 𝑍𝐿 = |𝑍𝑇ℎ |𝑐𝑜𝑠∠𝑍𝑇ℎ = 1.9 cos 71.6𝑜 = 0.6⁡Ω, the load current⁡𝑰𝑳 is given by,

1 1 𝑜
1
𝑰𝑳 = 𝑜
𝑽 𝑻𝒉 = 20.5∠−52.4 = 𝑜
20.5∠−52.4𝑜
1.9∠71.6 + 0.6 0.6 + 𝑗1.8 + 0.6⁡ 2.2∠56.3 ⁡
= 9.3∠−108.7𝑜 ⁡𝐴
c) For 𝒁𝑳 = 𝑗|𝒁𝑻𝒉 |𝑠𝑖𝑛∠𝒁𝑻𝒉 = 𝑗1.9 sin 71.6𝑜 = 𝑗1.8⁡Ω, the load current⁡𝑰𝑳 is given by,

1 1 𝑜
1
𝑰𝑳 = 𝑜
𝑽 𝑻𝒉 = 20.5∠−52.4 = 𝑜
20.5∠−52.4𝑜
1.9∠71.6 + 𝑗1.9 0.6 + 𝑗1.8 + 𝑗1.8⁡ 3.65∠80.5 ⁡
= 5.6∠−132.9𝑜 ⁡𝐴
d) For where 𝒁𝑳 = 𝒁∗𝑻𝒉 = 1.9∠−71.6𝑜 ⁡Ω, the load current⁡𝑰𝑳 is given by,

1 1
𝑰𝑳 = 𝑽 𝑻𝒉 = 20.5∠−52.4𝑜 = 17.09∠−52.4⁡𝑜 ⁡𝐴
1.9∠71.6𝑜 + 1.9∠−71.6𝑜 1.199

It will be shown in Chapter 10 that the maximum average power delivered to the load occurs
∗
when 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍𝑇ℎ

…………………………………………………………………………………………….………
Exercise 9.33:

119
Show that the 𝑍𝑇ℎ and the open circuit voltage 𝑽𝑻𝒉 seen between terminals “ab” in Figure E9.33
is given by,
𝑍𝑇ℎ = 2∠90𝑜 ⁡Ω
𝑽𝑻𝒉 = 8∠1350 ⁡⁡𝑉

Figure E9.33

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Example 9.42 - Load Impedance across Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
For the given circuit shown in Figure 9.75. Assume 𝑋𝐿 = 5⁡Ω, 𝑅 = 10⁡Ω,⁡and 𝑽𝑺 = 6∠60𝑜 ⁡⁡𝑉.
Determine the:
a) Norton phasor equivalent circuit seen between terminals “ab”.
b) Load current 𝑰𝑳 when resistive-inductive load 𝒁𝑳 = 2 + 𝑗4⁡Ω is connected between
terminals “ab” as shown.

Figure 9.75

Solution:
(a) By inspection,⁡𝑍𝑇ℎ is calculated from the following relationship:
𝑗𝑅𝑋 𝑗10𝑥5 𝑗50(10−𝑗5) 250+𝑗500
𝑍𝑇ℎ = 𝑅//𝑗𝑋𝐿 ⁡ = 𝑅+𝑗𝑋𝐿 = 10+𝑗5 = = = 2 + 𝑗4 Ω
𝐿 125 125

120
 𝑍𝑇ℎ = 4.47∠63.43𝑜 ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω
The Thevenin’s open circuit voltage,⁡𝑽𝑻𝒉 , is given by applying voltage divider to yield,
𝑅 10 60∠60𝑜
𝑽𝑻𝒉 = 𝑽𝒔 = 6∠60𝑜 = = 5.37∠33.43𝑜 ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑉
𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 10 + 𝑗5 11.18∠26.57𝑜
Hence, the Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalent circuits of Fig. 9.75 are shown in Figure 9.76(a)
and (b), respectively.

𝒁𝑻𝒉 𝒂
𝒂

𝑰𝑵 𝒁𝑻𝒉
𝑽𝑻𝒉

𝒃
𝒃

(a) (b)
Figure 9.76(a) Thevenin’s and (b) Norton’s equivalent circuits for Figure 9.75

Where the Norton current 𝑰𝑵 is given by,

𝑽𝑻𝒉 5.37∠33.43𝑜
𝑰𝑵 = = = 1.2∠−30𝑜 ⁡⁡𝐴
𝒁𝑻𝒉 4.47∠63.43𝑜

b) Calculating the load current⁡𝑰𝑳 ⁡when⁡𝑍𝐿 = 2 + 𝑗4⁡Ω⁡ is connected as shown in Figure 9.76(c),

Figure 9.76(c) Thevenin’s equivalent circuit for Fig. 9.75 with load impedance 𝒁𝑳

𝑽𝑻𝒉 5.37∠33.43𝑜 ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡

𝑰𝑳 = =
𝑍𝑇ℎ + 𝑍𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑1 2 + 𝑗4 + 2 + 𝑗4
5.37∠33.43𝑜 5.37∠33.43𝑜
= = = 0.6∠−30𝑜 ⁡⁡𝐴
4 + 𝑗8 8.94∠63.43𝑜

121
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Exercise 9.34
Calculate the load current in Example 9.42 for the following loads: 𝑍𝐿 = 2 − 𝑗4⁡Ω and 𝑍𝐿 =
2⁡Ω is connected between terminals “ab”.

Solution:

Answer:

𝑰𝑳 = 1.34∠33.43𝑜 ⁡⁡𝐴,
𝑰𝑳 = 0.95∠−11.57𝑜 ⁡⁡𝐴

…………………………………………………………………………………………….………
Example 9.43 - Thevenin’s equivalent for phasor with dependent source
For the given circuit shown in Figure 9.77, by using the external test method to determine the
Thevenin’s impedance, 𝑍𝑇ℎ seen by terminals “ab”. Consider the following values: 𝜔 =
𝑟𝑎𝑑
3000 , 𝑅 = 2⁡Ω, 𝐿 = 1⁡𝑚𝐻, 𝑎𝑛𝑑⁡𝛽 = 3.
𝑠

Figure 9.77 Thevenin’s equivalent circuit seen by terminals “ab”

Solution:
Let us use the external test voltage method as shown in Figure 9.78(a),

122
 Figure 9.78(a) Finding 𝒁𝑻𝒉 by applying external text voltage
Then the 𝑍𝑇ℎ is given by,
𝑽𝒕
𝑍𝑇ℎ =
𝑰𝒕
Using mesh current method with⁡𝑰𝟏 and⁡𝑰𝟐 assigned to loops 1 and 2, respectively, of Figure
9.78(b),

Figure 9.78(b)
Applying KVL around the outer loop to yield,
𝑽𝒕 = 𝑅𝑰𝟏 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝑰𝟐
And the two mesh currents are given by,
𝛽𝑰𝒙 = 𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟏
Since 𝑰𝒙 = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝒕 , by substituting for 𝑰𝟐 = (𝟏 + 𝛽)𝑰𝒕, the above equation gives,
𝑽𝒕
𝑍𝑇ℎ = = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿(1 + 𝛽) = 2 + 𝑗3000𝑥1𝑥10−3 (1 + 3) = 2 + 𝑗12⁡⁡⁡Ω
𝑰𝒕
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= 12.2∠80.5𝑜 ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω
…………………………………………………………………………………………….………
Exercise 9.35:

123
Repeat Example 9.43 by using the short circuit current method.
…………...………………………………………………………………………………….………
Exercise 9.36:
For the given circuit shown in Figure E9.36, by using the external test method to determine the
Thevenin’s impedance, 𝑍𝑇ℎ seen by terminals “ab”. Consider the following values: 𝜔 =
𝑟𝑎𝑑
3000 , 𝑅1 = 2⁡Ω, 𝐿 = 1⁡𝑚𝐻, 𝑎𝑛𝑑⁡𝛽 = 3.
𝑠

Figure E9.36
Answer:
𝑍𝑇ℎ = 3.04∠260.5𝑜 ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω
…………………………………………………………………………………………….………
Interactive Example 9.5 – Thevenin’s equivalent Using phasors with dependent source
…………………………………………………………………………………………….………

9.6 Phasor Diagrams

Complex numbers consist of real and imaginary components and can be expressed in either
rectangular or polar form. As a result, they can be represented graphically on a two-
dimensional 𝑥 -𝑦 plane, where the real part lies along the horizontal (x-axis) and the imaginary
part lies along the vertical (y-axis). Figure 9.79 shows the diagram for a complex number 𝐶 =
𝑏
𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 = |𝐶|𝑒 𝑗𝜃 consisting of magnitude |𝐶| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 and phase angle 𝜃 = tan−1 . This
𝑎
representation clearly displays all the quantities required to express 𝐶 in any form. Consequently,
the graphical visualization of complex numbers serves as a useful tool for performing and
interpreting computations

124
 Figure 9.79 Phasor Diagram for complex number 𝑪 = 𝒂 + 𝒋𝒃

The usefulness of this graphical tool becomes evident when several complex numbers are
represented simultaneously on the same complex plane. In such cases, the relative phase angles
between any two complex numbers can be observed clearly and directly. For example, the
graphical representation of the complex numbers 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, and 𝐷 is shown in Figure 9.80. From
the diagram, one can easily determine—without converting to rectangular form—that the
complex number with the largest magnitude is 𝐵. In addition, the phase angle
between 𝐵 and 𝐷 is 𝜃2 + 𝜃4 , while 𝐷 leads 𝐴 by an angle of 𝜃4 − 𝜃1 , and 𝐶 lags 𝐵 by (𝜃3 −𝜃2 ).

If these complex numbers represent phasor voltages or currents, this graphical approach provides
valuable insight into their relative magnitudes and phase relationships. Such visualization makes
it much easier to interpret circuit behavior without extensive algebraic computation.

Figure 9.80 Example of a phasor diagram for complex numbers

Similarly, since phasor voltages and currents, and impedances are also complex numbers, it is
possible to present all such phasor values graphically in a complex plane. Recall, that the phasor
representation of a time-domain sinusoidal function,⁡𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 ), is given by

125
𝑽 = 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑣

⁡⁡⁡⁡= 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑣
⁡⁡⁡= 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜃𝑣 + 𝑗𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜃𝑣

Figure 9.81 Representation for⁡𝑽 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑣

The phasor 𝑽 is a complex quantity in the frequency domain, determined by the

amplitude 𝑉𝑚 and phase angle 𝜃𝑣 of the sinusoidal function 𝑣(𝑡). Graphically, 𝑽 can be
represented in the complex plane using a phasor diagram, as shown in Figure 9.81.

When both voltage and current phasors are depicted, the phasor diagram provides valuable
insight into the behavior of time-domain circuits by visually illustrating the relationships
between currents and voltages. The primary objective of a phasor diagram is to examine the
relative magnitudes and phase angles of these quantities in an AC circuit, rather than their
instantaneous time-domain values.

The phase angle 𝜃𝑣 is measured counterclockwise from the positive real axis, while the
magnitude 𝑉𝑚 is measured from the origin of the complex plane.

The real part of the product of the phasor 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑣 and the rotating exponential 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 corresponds
to the time-domain sinusoidal function:

𝑣(𝑡) = Re{𝑉𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 } = Re{𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑣 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 } = 𝑉𝑚 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑣 )

The phasor (𝑉𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ) can be interpreted geometrically as a rotating vector of magnitude 𝑉𝑚 ,
rotating counterclockwise with an angular velocity 𝜔 rad/s. The phasor 𝑽 represents the value of
this rotating vector at 𝑡 = 0, as illustrated in Figure 9.82.

Snapshots of this rotation at different time instants, such as 𝑡 = 0, 𝑡 = 0.25𝑇, 𝑡 = 0.5𝑇, and 𝑡 =
𝜃
𝑇 (1− 2𝜋𝑣 ), help visualize the relationship between the rotating phasor and the corresponding
sinusoidal waveform in the time domain.

126
 Figure 9.82 Rotating complex 𝑽 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜃𝑣 )

Although the angular frequency 𝜔 of the source does not appear explicitly in the phasor current
expression, it is inherently included in the complex exponential term 𝑉𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 and is therefore
implied in the solution. This is because the impedances of the capacitor and inductor, 𝑍𝐶 and 𝑍𝐿 ,
are functions of 𝜔. Consequently, variations in 𝜔 can significantly influence the behavior of AC
steady-state responses. This effect will be examined in greater detail in later chapters.

Phasor diagrams provide additional insight into the steady-state behavior of sinusoidal time-
domain circuits. Their usefulness becomes particularly evident when analyzing the relationships
between voltages and currents in phasor-domain circuits, as discussed in the following sections.

Before applying phasor diagrams to general RLC circuits, it is instructive to first consider the
phasor relationships for the individual circuit elements 𝑅, 𝐿, and 𝐶. Figures 9.83(a), (b), and (c)
illustrate the corresponding phasor diagrams for these elements.

In each case, the element is excited by a phasor voltage

𝑽 = 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑣

with magnitude 𝑉𝑚 and phase angle 𝜃𝑣 . The resulting phasor currents 𝐼𝑅 , 𝐼𝐿 , and 𝐼𝐶 for the
resistor, inductor, and capacitor, respectively, are also shown in Figures 9.83(a), (b), and (c),
along with their relative magnitudes and phase relationships.

127
……………………………………...……………………………………………………….………

𝑰𝑹 𝑅

+ 𝑽 −

⁡𝑽 = 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑣 (a)

𝑽 𝑉𝑚
𝑰𝑹 = ⁡ = ∠𝜃𝑣
𝑅 𝑅

……………………………………...……………………………………………………….………

𝑰𝑳 ⁡𝑗𝜔𝐿

+ 𝑽 −

𝜃𝑣 − 90°
⁡𝑽 = 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑣

1 𝑉𝑚
𝑰𝑳 = ( )𝑽 = ∠(𝜃𝑣 − 90° ) 𝑰𝑳
𝑗𝜔𝐿 𝜔𝐿

(b)
……………………………………...……………………………………………………….………

1
⁡
𝑰𝑪 𝑗𝜔𝐶

𝑰𝑪

+ 𝑽 − 𝜃𝑣 + 90°

⁡𝑽 = 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑣

𝑰𝑪 = (𝑗𝜔𝐶⁡)𝑽 = 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 ∠(𝜃𝑣 + 90° )

(c)

128
 Figure 9.83 Phaser Diagrams for (a) Impedance Resistor 𝒁𝑹 , (b) Reactance 𝒁𝑳 and (c) 𝒁𝑪
……………………………………………………………………………………………….........
Example 9.44 – Phase Diagram for Series RC Circuit
Consider the 𝑅𝐶 circuit given in Figure 9.84 with 𝑣𝑆 (𝑡) given by,
𝑣𝑆 (𝑡) = 28 cos(105 𝑡 + 43°)
Assume 𝑅 = 18⁡Ω, 𝐶 = 750⁡𝑛𝐹. Draw the phasor diagram for⁡𝑽𝑺 ,⁡𝑽𝑹 ,⁡𝑽𝑪 and⁡𝑰.

Figure 9.84 Time-domain RC circuit

Solution:
First, we transform the circuit into the phasor-domain as shown in Figure 9.85(a),

Figure 9.85(a) Phasor-domain RC circuit

The phasor source voltage of 𝑣𝑆 (𝑡) is,

𝑽𝑺 = 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑖 ⁡ = 28∠43°⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑉

129
Calculating the phasor voltages by voltage division,

𝑅 18 18
𝑽𝑹 = 𝑽𝑺 = 28∠43°⁡ = 28∠43°
1 1 18 − 𝑗13.3
𝑅 − 𝑗 𝜔𝐶 18 − 𝑗
105 𝑥750𝑥10−9
18(18 + 𝑗13.3)
= 28∠43°⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡
501

⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= (0.65 + 𝑗0.48)18 = 22.6∠79.5°⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑉

1
−𝑗 𝜔𝐶 1 1
𝑽𝑪 = 𝑽𝑺 = 𝑽𝑺 = 28∠43°⁡
1 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶 1 + 𝑗18𝑥105 𝑥750𝑥10−9
𝑅 − 𝑗 𝜔𝐶
1
= 28∠43° = 9.9 − 𝑗13.39 = 16.65∠ − 10.5°⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑉
1 + 𝑗1.35

The current passing through the circuit can also be calculated as,

𝑽𝑹 22.5∠79.5°⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡
𝑰= = = 0.23 + 1.23⁡
𝑅 18

⁡⁡⁡= 1.25∠79.5°⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴

The phasor diagrams for the voltages 𝑽𝑺 , 𝑽𝑹 , and 𝑽𝑪 ⁡and the current⁡𝑰 are given in Figure 9.85(b),
and (c), respectively.

(b) (c)

Figure 9.85(b) Phasor Diagram for (a) the phasor voltages, and (b) current

130
……………………………………………………………………………………………….........
Example 9.45 – Phase Diagram for RLC Circuit
Consider the 𝑅𝐿𝐶 circuit given in Figure 9.86 with 𝑖𝑆 (𝑡) given by,
𝑖𝑆 (𝑡) = 2 cos(10000𝑡 + 60°) ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴
𝑟𝑎𝑑
Assume 𝐼𝑚 = 2⁡𝐴, 𝜔 = 104 , 𝜃𝑖 = ⁡60°, 𝑅 = 2⁡Ω, 𝐿 = 0.4⁡𝑚𝐻, 𝐶 = 9.75⁡𝜇𝐹.⁡ Draw the
𝑠
phasor diagram for⁡𝑰𝑺 ,⁡𝑰𝑹 ,⁡𝑰𝑪 and⁡𝑽.

Figure 9.86 Time-domain RLC circuit

Solution:
First, we transform the circuit into the phasor-domain as shown in Figure 9.87(a),

Figure 9.87(a) Phasor-domain RLC circuit

The phasor source current of 𝑖𝑆 (𝑡) is,

𝑰𝑺 = 2.0∠60°⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴

Calculating the phasor currents by current division,

131
 −𝑗𝑋𝐶 −𝑗10.26
𝑰𝑹 = 𝑰𝑺 = (2.0∠60°)
𝑅 + 𝑗(𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 ) 2 + 𝑗(4 − 10.26)

⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= 2.3 + 𝑗2.1⁡ = 3.1∠42.3°⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴⁡

Where, 𝑋𝐶 = 10.26⁡⁡Ω, 𝑋𝐿 = 4⁡⁡Ω,

𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 𝟐 + 𝑗4
𝑰𝑪 = 𝑰𝑺 = (2.0∠60°)
𝑅 + 𝑗(𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 ) 2 + 𝑗(4 − 10.26)

⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= −1.3 − 𝑗0.37 ≈ 1.4∠ − 164.3°⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴

It can be seen that the current passing through the resistor is equal to the current passing through
the inductor,

𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝑹

⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= 2.3 + 𝑗2.1⁡ = 3.1∠42.3°⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴⁡

Calculating the voltage,

𝑽 = 𝑅𝑰𝑹

⁡⁡⁡⁡= 2(3.1∠42.3°) = 6.25∠42.3°⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑉

Check,

𝑰𝑺 = 𝑰𝑹 + 𝑰𝑪 = (2.3 + 𝑗2.1⁡) + (−1.3 − 𝑗0.37)

⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= 1 + 𝑗1.73 = 2∠60°⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴

The phasor diagrams for the currents 𝑰𝑹 , 𝑰𝑳 , 𝑰𝑺 , and 𝑰𝑪 ⁡are given in Figure 9.87(b),

132
 Figure 9.87(b) Phasor Diagram for circuit phase currents
……………………………………………………………………………………………….........
Exercise 9.38:
Consider the 𝐿𝐶 circuit given in Figure E9.38 with 𝑣𝑆 (𝑡) given by,
𝑣𝑆 (𝑡) = 28 cos(105 𝑡 + 43°)
Assume 𝐶 = 750⁡𝑛𝐹, 𝐿 = 1.8⁡𝑚𝐻. Draw the phasor diagram for⁡𝑽𝑺 ,⁡𝑽𝑳 ,⁡𝑽𝑪 and⁡𝑰.

Figure E9.38 Time-domain series LC circuit

Solution:
First, we transform the circuit into the phasor-domain as shown in Figure E9.37(a),

Figure E9.38(a) Phasor-domain LC circuit

The phasor source voltage of 𝑣𝑆 (𝑡) is,

𝑽𝑺 = 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑖 = 28∠43°⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑉

Calculating the phasor voltages by voltage division,

133
 𝑗𝜔𝐿 1
𝑽𝑳 = 𝑽𝑺 = 𝑽𝑺 = 22.12 + 𝑗20.62 = 30.24∠43.0°⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑉
1 1
𝑗𝜔𝐿 − 𝑗 𝜔𝐶 1−𝑗 2
𝜔 𝐿𝐶

1
−𝑗 𝜔𝐶 1
𝑽𝑪 = 𝑽𝑺 = 𝑽 = −1.64 − 𝑗1.5 = 2.24∠ − 137.0°⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝑉
1
𝑗𝜔𝐿 − 𝑗 𝜔𝐶 1 − 𝜔 2 𝐿𝐶 𝑺

The current passing through the circuit can also be calculated as,

𝑽𝑺
𝑰= = 0.114 − 𝑗0.122 = 0.168∠ − 47.0°⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴
1
𝑗𝜔𝐿 − 𝑗 𝜔𝐶

The phasor diagrams for the voltages and current⁡𝑰 are given in Figure E9.38(b), respectively.

𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓𝒚

𝟑𝟎. 𝟐𝟒
𝟐𝟖 𝑽𝑳
𝑽𝑺
𝑽𝑪 𝟒𝟑𝒐
𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍
−𝟒𝟕𝒐
𝟐. 𝟐𝟒
𝑰

Figure E9.38(b) Phasor Diagram for the phasor voltages and current
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Example 9.46 – Phase Diagram for Parallel RLC Circuit
Consider the 𝑅𝐶 circuit given in Figure 9.88 with 𝑖𝑆 (𝑡) given by,
𝑖𝑆 (𝑡) = 2 cos(103 𝑡 + 60°) ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴
Draw the phasor diagram for phasor quantities⁡𝑰𝑺 ,⁡𝑰𝑹 , 𝑰𝑳 , and⁡𝑰𝑪 . Assuming⁡⁡𝑅 = 1⁡Ω,⁡𝐿 =
1⁡𝑚𝐻, and⁡𝐶 = 0.5⁡𝑚𝐹.

134
 Figure 9.88 Time-domain Parallel RLC circuit
Solution:
First, we transform the circuit into the phasor-domain as shown in Figure 9.89(a),

Figure 9.89(a) Phasor-domain RLC circuit

The phasor source current of 𝑖𝑆 (𝑡) is,

𝑰𝑺 = 𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑖 = 2.0∠60°⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡𝐴

Applying Ohm’s law to 𝑽 and 𝑰𝑺 to yield

⁡𝑰𝑺 (2∠60°)
𝑽= = = 1.78∠86.56°⁡⁡𝑉
𝒀𝑻 (1.118∠−26.565°⁡⁡ )

Where,

𝟏 1 1 1
= + + = 1.118∠−26.565°⁡⁡
𝒁𝑻 1 𝑗 −2𝑗

𝒀𝑻 = 1 − 𝑗0.5 = 1.118∠−26.565°⁡⁡ ⁡Ω
1 1
𝜔𝐶 = = = 2⁡Ω
1,000𝑥0.5𝑚𝐹 0.5

𝜔𝐿 = 1000𝑥1𝑚𝐻 = 1⁡Ω

135
And the currents are given by,

𝑽 1.78∠86.56°⁡
𝑰𝑹 = = = 1.78∠86.56°⁡⁡𝐴⁡⁡
1 1

𝑽 1.78∠86.56°⁡ 1.78∠86.56°⁡⁡
𝑰𝑪 = = = = 0.89∠176.56°⁡⁡𝐴
−𝑗2 −𝑗2 2∠ − 90°

𝑽 1.78∠86.56°⁡⁡ 1.78∠86.56°⁡
𝑰𝑳 = = = = 1.78∠ − 3.4°⁡⁡𝐴
𝑗 𝑗 1∠90°

𝑰𝑺 = 𝑰𝑹 + 𝑰𝑪 + 𝑰𝑳 = 1.78∠86.56° + 0.89∠176.56°⁡ + 1.78∠ − 3.4°

= (0.106 + 𝑗1.77) + (−0.888 + 𝑗0.0534) + (1.776 − 𝑗0.1068)
= 0.995 + 𝑗1.723⁡𝐴 = 1.99∠60°⁡⁡𝐴

The phasor diagrams for the currents are given in Figure 9.89(b)

𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓𝒚

𝑰𝑹 + 𝑰𝑪
𝑰𝑹 𝑰𝑺

𝑰𝑪
𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍

𝑰𝑳

Figure 9.89(b) Phasor Diagram for the phasor currents

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Exercise 9.39:
Consider the time-domain RLC circuit in Figure E9.39 with the source current given by ⁡𝑰𝑺 =
10∠00 ⁡𝑚𝐴 and the corresponding branch currents are given by 𝑰𝟏 = 8∠𝜃1 ⁡𝑚𝐴 and 𝑰𝟐 =
4∠𝜃2 ⁡𝑚𝐴. By sketching the phasor diagram for 𝑰𝑺 , 𝑰𝟏 and 𝑰𝟐 , determine the phase angles
𝜃1 ⁡𝑎𝑛𝑑⁡𝜃2 ⁡.

136
 Figure E9.39 Time-domain RLC circuit
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Example 9.47 – Phase Diagram of an AC power transmission line
Figure 9.90(a) shows a typical circuit model of utility power transmission line between that
power being generated from the source 𝑽𝑺 then transmitted through power lines represented by
line inductance and line losses 𝒁𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆 ⁡then delivered load impedance 𝒁𝑳 . The objective is to
deliver power to the load with constant load voltage 𝑽𝑳 . Assume 𝑽𝑺 is the refence voltage with
zero phase shift and given as 𝑽𝑺 = 220∠0𝑜 V, and the line and load impedances are given as:
𝒁𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆 = 2.5 − 𝑗3.5⁡Ω, 𝒁𝑳 = 4.5 + 𝑗7.5⁡Ω.

(a) (b)

Figure 9.90 Equivalent circuit for an AC power transmission line circuit

(a) Construct the phase diagram for 𝑽𝑺 , 𝑽𝑳 , 𝑽𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆 ⁡and 𝑰𝑳 for Figure 9.73(a).

137
(b) If the utility desires to add a capacitor impedance across the load 𝒁𝑪 = −𝑗4⁡Ω⁡ to improve
what is called power factor (to be studied in Chapter 10) as shown in Fig. 9.90(b), redraw the
phase diagram for the revised circuit.
(c) If it is desired that that load voltage 𝑽𝑳 remains constant after adding the capacitive load
𝒁𝑪 = −𝑗4⁡Ω, determine the required new total supplied voltage 𝑽𝑺 to achieve this goal.

Solution:

(a) For Figure 9.73(a), the load current 𝐼𝐿 is given by,

1 1 1
𝑰𝑳 = 𝑽𝒔 = 220∠0𝑜 = 220∠0𝑜
𝒁𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 + 𝒁𝑳 ⁡ 2.5 − 𝑗3.5 + 4.5 + 𝑗7.5⁡ 7 + 𝑗4⁡
1
= 220∠0𝑜 = 27.28∠ − 29.74𝑜 ⁡𝐴
8.06∠29.74𝑜 ⁡

The load voltage 𝑉𝐿 is given by,

𝑽𝑳 = 𝒁𝑳 𝑰𝑳 = (4.5 + 𝑗7.5⁡)(27.28∠ − 29.74𝑜 ) = 238.66∠29.29𝑜 ⁡𝑉

The voltage across the line,

𝑽𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆 = 𝒁𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝑰𝑳 = (2.5 − 𝑗3.5⁡)(27.28∠ − 29.74𝑜 ) = 117.33∠−84.2𝑜 ⁡𝑉

The plot for the phase diagram is shown in Figure 9.91(a).

𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓𝒚

𝑽𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅

𝑽𝑺 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎∠𝟎𝒐
𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍
𝑰𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆

−𝑽𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅
𝑽𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆

Figure 9.91(a) Phasor Diagram for Figure 9.73(a)

b) Now, we add the capacitive load as shown in Figure 9.73(b).

138
 𝒁𝑳 (−4𝑗) 4(−𝑗4.5 + 7.5)
𝒁𝑳,𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒁𝑳 //(−4𝑗) = = = 2.2 − 𝑗5.7 = 6.1∠ − 68.9𝑜 ⁡Ω
𝒁𝑳 − 4𝑗⁡ 4.5 + 𝑗(7.6 − 4)⁡
1 1
𝑰𝑳,𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝑽𝒔 = 220∠0𝑜 = 21.29∠62.9𝑜 ⁡𝐴
𝒁𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 + 𝒁𝑳.𝒏𝒆𝒘 ⁡ 2.5 − 𝑗3.5 + 2.2 − 𝑗5.7⁡

The load voltage 𝑉𝐿 is given by,

𝑽𝑳.𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒁𝑳,𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝑰𝑳,𝒏𝒆𝒘 = (6.1∠ − 68.9𝑜 ⁡)(21.29∠62.9𝑜 ) = 129.8∠−5.9𝑜 ⁡𝑉

The voltage across the line

𝑽𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆,𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝒁𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝑰𝑳,𝒏𝒆𝒘 = (2.5 − 𝑗3.5⁡)(21.29∠62.9𝑜 ) = 91.5∠8.43𝑜 ⁡𝑉

The new phase diagram with the added capacitive load is shown in Figure 9.74(b).

𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓𝒚

𝑰𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆,𝑵𝒆𝒘
𝑽𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆,𝑵𝒆𝒘
𝑽𝑺 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎∠𝟎𝒐
𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍

𝑽𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅,𝑵𝒆𝒘

Figure 9.91(b) Phasor Diagram for Figure 9.73(b)

c) Now, if it is desired that that load voltage 𝑽𝑳 remains constant after adding the capacitive load,
the new total supplied voltage 𝑽𝑺 required is given by,

𝑽𝒔 = 𝑽𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆,𝒏𝒆𝒘 + 𝑽𝑳

To calculate 𝑽𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆,𝒏𝒆𝒘 , we should find the current across the line impedance:

𝑰𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆,𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝑰𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 + 𝑰𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒐𝒓

𝑽𝑳 238.66∠29.29𝑜 238.66∠29.29𝑜
𝑰𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 = = = = 27.27∠−29.7𝑜 ⁡𝐴
𝒁𝑳 4.5 + 𝑗7.5 8.74∠59.03𝑜
238.66∠29.29𝑜 238.66∠29.29𝑜
𝑰𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒐𝒓 = = = 59.65∠119.29𝑜 ⁡𝐴
−𝑗4 4∠−90𝑜

139
𝑰𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆,𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 27.27∠−29.7𝑜 + 59.65∠119.29𝑜 = 38.9∠98.1𝑜 ⁡𝐴

Now, we calculate 𝑽𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆,𝒏𝒆𝒘 :

𝑽𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆,𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝑰𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆,𝒏𝒆𝒘 × 𝒁𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆 = (38.9∠98.1𝑜 )(⁡2.5 − 𝑗3.5) = 167.27∠43.6𝑜 ⁡𝑉

Finally, we find 𝑽𝒔
𝑽𝒔 = 𝑽𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆,𝒏𝒆𝒘 + 𝑽𝑳 = 167.27∠43.6𝑜 + 238.66∠29.29𝑜 = 402.7∠35.2𝑜 ⁡𝑉

The new phase diagram for the required 𝑽𝒔 with the added capacitive load is shown in Figure
9.74(c).

𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓𝒚

𝑽𝑺 = 𝟒𝟎𝟐. 𝟕∠𝟑𝟓. 𝟐𝟎𝟖𝒐

𝑽𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆,𝑵𝒆𝒘
𝑰𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆,𝑵𝒆𝒘

𝑽𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅
𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍

Figure 9.91(c) Phasor Diagram for Figure 9.73(b) with constant 𝑽𝑳

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

9.7 Practical Relevance - Frequency Response of the Transistor Voltage Amplifier

One of the most widely used electronic devices is the transistor voltage amplifier. Since its
invention, the transistor has revolutionized modern electronics and digital systems. A common
voltage-amplifier configuration is the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor
(MOSFET) amplifier. Figure 9.92 shows the MOSFET common-source voltage amplifier*.

[* There are three fundamental types of amplifiers: voltage amplifiers (e.g., common-source and common-emitter
amplifiers), current amplifiers (e.g., common-base amplifiers), and power amplifiers (e.g., Class A, Class B, and Class AB
amplifiers), each designed to amplify voltage, current, or power, respectively.]

140
 + VDD

RD

RG1
RS Co

Cin RL Vo

Vs RG2

Fig. 9.92 MOSFET Common Source Voltage Amplifier

When an AC input signal is applied, as shown in Fig. 9.92, the output voltage is amplified by a factor
called the voltage gain, defined by

𝑣𝑜 (𝑡)
𝐴𝑣 =
𝑣𝑠 (𝑡)

The input signal 𝑣𝑠 (𝑡) is typically sinusoidal, and the corresponding output signal is 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡). The DC
source 𝑉𝐷𝐷 is used to bias the amplifier so that the transistor operates in the desired region and the output
remains undistorted.

An important observation is that the magnitude of the output voltage depends on the frequency of the
input signal. This variation is caused by external and internal capacitors in the amplifier. Figure 9.93
shows a block diagram of a simple voltage amplifier, and Fig. 9.94 shows a typical frequency response.

Fig. 9.93 Block diagram of a voltage amplifier

141
 Voltage Gain, Av

Maximum
A
Voltage Gain, vmax

fl fH Frequency, f
Low Corner Bandwidth High Corner
Frequency Frequency

Fig. 9.94 Frequency Response of a Voltage Amplifier.

The bandwidth (𝐵𝑊) is the range of frequencies over which the voltage gain remains
approximately constant at its maximum value. The two corner frequencies are defined at the points
where the voltage gain drops to 1/√2 of its maximum value. Since output power is proportional
to the square of voltage, this corresponds to the point where the output power drops to 50% of its
maximum value. Thus, the amplifier has a low corner frequency 𝑓𝐿 and a high corner frequency 𝑓𝐻 ,
and the bandwidth is
B. W. = ⁡ 𝑓𝐻 − ⁡ 𝑓𝐿 ⁡⁡
The gain reduction at low frequencies is mainly caused by the external coupling capacitor 𝐶𝑖𝑛 ,
which blocks DC components from the source. Such capacitors typically have values in
the 𝜇F range. The gain reduction at high frequencies is caused primarily by the internal transistor
capacitances, such as 𝐶𝑔𝑠 , whose values are typically in the picofarad range.

To determine the voltage gain, the amplifier is replaced by its small-signal equivalent circuit. A
simplified MOSFET amplifier model is shown in Fig. 9.95, where 𝑟𝑜 is the transistor output
resistance. For simplicity, only one external coupling capacitor, 𝐶𝑖𝑛 , and one internal
capacitance, 𝐶𝑔𝑠 , are included. The objective is to determine the transfer function.

Fig. 9.95 Small signal model of MOSFET voltage amplifier

𝑣𝑜 (ω)⁡
𝐴𝑣 (ω) = ⁡
𝑣𝑠 (ω)⁡

142
and its magnitude

𝑣𝑜 (ω)
|𝐴𝑣 (ω)| = | |
𝑣𝑠 (ω)

Since 𝜔𝐿 and 𝜔𝐻 are usually far apart, the frequency response is commonly plotted on a logarithmic
frequency scale.

Fig. 9.96 Small signal model of MOSFET voltage amplifier

If the impedances 𝑍1 and 𝑍2 are defined as in Fig. 9.97, then

1
𝑣𝑔𝑠 𝑅𝐺 // 𝑗𝜔𝐶
𝑔𝑠
=
𝑣𝑠 1 1
𝑅𝐺 // + 𝑅𝑆 + ⁡
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑔𝑠 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑖𝑛

and,
𝑣𝑜
= −𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿 //𝑟𝑜
𝑣𝑔𝑠

Therefore,

1
𝑅𝐺 // 𝑗𝜔𝐶
𝑣𝑜 (𝜔) 𝑔𝑠
𝐴𝑣 (𝜔) = = −𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿 //𝑟𝑜 ⁡
𝑣𝑠 (𝜔) 1 1
𝑅𝐺 // 𝑗𝜔𝐶 + 𝑅𝑆 + ⁡ 𝑗𝜔𝐶
𝑔𝑠 𝑖𝑛

which can be written as

𝑗𝑅𝐺 𝐶𝑖𝑛 𝜔
𝐴𝑣 (𝜔) = −𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿 ||𝑟𝑜
(1 − 𝑅𝑆 𝑅𝐺 𝐶𝑔𝑠 𝐶𝑖𝑛 𝜔 2 ) + 𝑗𝜔[𝑅𝐺 𝐶𝑔𝑠 + (𝑅𝐺 + 𝑅𝑆 )𝐶𝑖𝑛 ]

1 1
Define 𝜔𝐿 = and 𝜔𝐻 = 𝑅 ,
𝑅𝐺 𝐶𝑖𝑛 𝑆 𝐶𝑔𝑠

Then the transfer function may be expressed as

143
 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿 ||𝑟𝑜
𝐴𝑣 (𝜔) = −
𝜔 𝜔 𝑅 𝜔 𝑅
( 𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔 ) + 𝑗[ 𝑅𝐺 𝜔 𝐿 + (1 + 𝑅 𝑠 )]
𝐻 𝑠 𝐻 𝐺

and its magnitude is

𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿 //𝑟𝑜
|𝐴𝑣 (𝜔)| ⁡ =
2 2
√(𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔 ) + [𝑅𝐺 𝜔𝐿 + (1+ 𝑅𝑆 )]
𝜔 𝜔 𝐻𝑅 𝜔 𝑆𝑅 𝐻 𝐺

Low-Frequency Approximation

For 𝜔 ≪ 𝜔𝐻 and neglecting the very small term 𝜔𝐿 /𝜔𝐻 ,

𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿 //𝑟𝑜
𝐴𝑣 (𝜔) ≈ −
𝜔𝐿 𝑅𝑠
𝜔 + 𝑗 (1 + 𝑅𝐺 )

Thus,

𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿 //𝑟𝑜
|𝐴𝑣 (𝜔)| ≈ ⁡⁡
2 2
√(𝜔𝐿 ) + (1 + 𝑅𝑠 )
𝜔 𝑅 𝐺

𝜔𝐿
The maximum gain occurs when 𝜔 ≫ 𝜔𝐿 , so ≈ 0,
𝜔

𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿 ||𝑟𝑜
𝐴𝑣,𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≈ ≈ 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿 ||𝑟𝑜 ⁡
𝑅
1 + 𝑅𝑠
𝐺

At 𝜔 = 𝜔𝐿 ,

𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿 ||𝑟𝑜 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿 ||𝑟𝑜 𝐴𝑣,𝑚𝑎𝑥

|𝐴𝑣 ||𝜔=𝜔 = ⁡⁡ ≈ ≈
𝐿 𝑅𝑠 2 √2 √2
√1 + (1 +
𝑅𝐺 )

Figure 9.97 shows a plot of 𝐴𝑣 vs frequency,

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 Voltage Gain, Av

Maximum
Voltage Gain, Avmax
Avmax

ωL
Low Corner
Frequency, ω
Frequency

Fig. 9.97 Low frequency gain of a Voltage Amplifier.

High-Frequency Approximation

For 𝜔 ≫ 𝜔𝐿 and neglecting 𝜔𝐿 /𝜔,

𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿 //𝑟𝑜
𝐴𝑣 (𝜔) ≈ −
𝜔 𝑅
− 𝜔 + 𝑗(1 + 𝑅 𝑠 )
𝐻 𝐺

and

𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿 //𝑟𝑜
|𝐴𝑣 (𝜔)| ≈ ⁡⁡
2 2
√( 𝜔 ) + (1 + 𝑅𝑠 )
𝜔𝐻 𝑅𝐺

𝜔𝐻
Where the maximum gain value, 𝐴𝑣,𝑚𝑎𝑥 , occurs for 𝜔 ≪ 𝜔𝐻 , and where we assume ≈ 0,
𝜔

𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿 //𝑟𝑜
𝐴𝑣,𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≈ ≈ 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿 //𝑟𝑜 ⁡
𝑅
1 + 𝑅𝑠
𝐺

Notice at 𝜔 = 𝜔𝐻 , the magnitude of the voltage gain is given by,

𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿 //𝑟𝑜 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿 //𝑟𝑜 𝐴𝑣,𝑚𝑎𝑥
|𝐴𝑣 ||𝜔=𝜔 = ⁡⁡ ≈ ≈
𝐿 𝑅𝑠 2 √2 √2
√1 + (1 + )
𝑅𝐺

Figure 9.98 shows a plot of 𝐴𝑣 vs frequency,

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 Voltage Gain, Av

Maximum
Voltage Gain, Avmax
Avmax

ωH
Frequency, ω
High Corner
Frequency

Fig. 9.98 High frequency gain of a Voltage Amplifier

Numerical Example

Consider the amplifier with

𝑅𝑆 = 1 kΩ, 𝑅𝐺 = 50 kΩ, 𝑔𝑚 = 0.8 × 10−3 S,

𝑟𝑜 = 100 kΩ, 𝑅𝐿 = 20 kΩ, 𝐶𝑖𝑛 = 0.2 × 10−6 F, 𝐶𝑔𝑠 = 15 pF

The low and high corner frequencies are given by,

1 1 𝜔𝐿
𝜔𝐿 = 𝑅 = 50𝑋103 𝑥0.2×10−6 = 100⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 or ⁡𝑓𝐿 = 2𝜋
= 15.9⁡𝐻𝑧
𝐺 𝐶𝑖𝑛

1 1 𝜔𝐿
𝜔𝐻 = 𝑅 = 1𝑋103 𝑥15×10−12 𝜔𝐻 = 66.6 × 106 ⁡𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 or 𝑓𝐻 =
2𝜋
= 10.6⁡𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝑆 𝐶𝑔𝑠

Also,

𝑅𝐿 ∥ 𝑟𝑜 = 20 kΩ ∥ 100 kΩ = 16.67 kΩ

Hence,

𝑔𝑚 (𝑅𝐿 //𝑟𝑜 ) (0.8 × 10−3 )(16.67 × 103 )

𝐴𝑣,𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≈ = ≈ 13.07
𝑅 1
1+ 𝑆 1+
𝑅𝐺 50

The low frequency response of 𝐴𝑣 is given by,

𝐴𝑣,𝑚𝑎𝑥 13.3
𝐴𝑣 ≈ ⁡ =
2 2
2 2 √1002 + (1 + 1 )
√𝜔𝐿2 + (1 + 𝑅𝑠 ) 𝜔 50
𝜔 𝑅𝐺

The plot for 𝐴𝑣 vs. 𝜔 in the low frequency range is shown in Fig. 9.99.

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 Fig. 9.99 𝐴𝑣 vs. 𝜔 in the low frequency range

The high frequency response of 𝐴𝑣 can be found by,

𝐴𝑣,𝑚𝑎𝑥 13.3
𝐴𝑣 ⁡ ≈ =
2 2 √( 𝜔 2 1 2
√( 𝜔 ) + (1 + 𝑅𝑠 ) 66.6 × 106
) + (1 +
50
)
𝜔𝐻 𝑅𝐺

The plot for 𝐴𝑣 vs. 𝜔 in the high frequency range is shown in Fig. 9.100,

Fig. 9.100 𝐴𝑣 vs. 𝜔 in the high frequency range

The exact magnitude of the voltage gain is given by,

𝜔
𝑣𝑜 (𝜔) 𝜔𝐿
𝐴𝑣 = | | ⁡ = 𝐴𝑣,𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑣𝑖𝑛 (𝜔) 2
2
√(1 − 𝜔 ) + [𝑅𝐺 1 + (1 + 𝑅𝑠 ) 1 ]2 𝜔 2
𝜔𝐿 𝜔𝐻 𝑅𝑠 𝜔𝐻 𝑅𝐺 𝜔𝐿

𝐴𝑣,𝑚𝑎𝑥
=
𝜔𝐿 𝜔 2 𝑅𝐺 𝜔𝐿 𝑅𝑠 2
√(
𝜔 𝜔𝐻 ) + [ 𝑅𝑠 𝜔𝐻 + (1 + 𝑅𝐺 )]
−

The plot for 𝐴𝑣 vs. 𝜔 for the entire frequency range is shown in Fig. 9.101.

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 Voltage Gain, Av

13.3
13.3

16 Hz 207 kHz Frequency, f

Fig. 9.101 𝐴𝑣 vs. 𝜔 for the entire frequency range

General Notes:

1. When the frequency is very small, or at DC ( 𝜔 = 0 ), the magnitude of the voltage gain
approaches zero. Therefore, the amplifier rejects DC input signals. This occurs because the
coupling capacitor 𝐶𝑖𝑛 behaves as an open circuit at DC.
2. At 𝜔 = 𝜔𝐿 , the output voltage gain is approximately 1/√2 of its maximum value.
3. The maximum gain occurs over the midband region,

𝜔𝐿 < 𝜔 < 𝜔𝐻

and is approximately
𝐴𝑣,max⁡ ≈ 𝑔𝑚 (𝑅𝐿 //𝑟𝑜 )

or, more accurately,

𝑔𝑚 (𝑅𝐿 //𝑟𝑜 )
𝐴𝑣,max⁡ ≈
𝑅
1 + 𝑅𝑆
𝐺

4. When the frequency becomes very large ( 𝜔 ≫ 𝜔𝐻 ), the gain again decreases toward zero. Thus,
the amplifier also attenuates sufficiently high-frequency signals.

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