ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE OF

POULTRY

Zoological classification:
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Chordata
Sub-Phylum : Vertebrata (Animal having spinal column)
Class : Aves (Feathered, warm blooded, vertebra with 4-chambered heart)

Sub-class Order Family Genus Species Common name

Carinatae Anseriformes Anseridae Cairina C. moschata Muscovy duck
(Flying (Duck and Anser A. anser Grey-legged goose
birds) Geese) Anatidae A. albiformis White- legged goose
Anas A. platyrhynchos Mallard duck
A. boscher Wild mallard
Galliformes Phasianidae Coturnix [Link] Japanese quail
(Chicken, Quail, Gallus japonica Red jungle fowl
Turkeys, Guinea [Link] Ceylon jungle fowl
fowl of African [Link] Grey jungle fowl
origin and [Link] Javan jungle fowl
Pheasants) [Link]
Phasianus [Link] Ring-necked pheasant
Numida [Link] Ring-wattle [Link]
Numitidae
[Link] Blue-wattled [Link]
[Link] Domestic turkey
Meleagrididae Meleagris
[Link]
Columbiformes Columbiformidae Columba [Link] Rock-pigeon
(Pigeons and Streptopelia [Link] Turtle dove
Doves)
Strunthiformes Strunthionidae Struthio [Link] North African ostrich
(Large running [Link] South African ostrich
birds)
Rheiformes Rheidae Rhea [Link] Rhea
abbscens
Ratitae Casuriformes Dromoiidae Dromauis [Link] Emu
(Running Casuriidae Casuarius [Link] Cassowary
birds) Apterygiformes Apterigidae Apterix [Link] Kiwi
[Link] owenii Kiwi
Source: Smith, 1992

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Nomenclature to denote various species of poultry

Description Chicken Ducks Turkeys Geese J. quails

Adult male Cock Drake Tom Gander Male quail
Adult female Hen Duck Hen Goose Female quail
Young male Cockerel Duckling Poult Gosling Chick
Young female Pullet Duckling Poult Gosling Chick
Newborn Chick Duckling Poult Gosling Chick
Collection/group Flock Band Flock Gaggle Covey
Genus Gallus Anas Meleagris Anser Coturnix
Call/Sound
Males Crow Belch Gobble Honk Call/Song
Females Cackle Whimper Gobble Honk Call/Song
Act of breeding Mating
Emergence of Hatching
newborn
Term used for castrated cock is Capon. Young ones of Guinea fowl, Pigeon and Swan are
referred to as Keets, Squabs and Cygnets, respectively.

****

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 TECHNICAL TERMS & DEFINITIONS

Ad lib (Latin): Ad libitum (full feeding) means as much as desired. It is commonly used to
express the availability of feed on a free choice basis. It is a labour saving system under which
poultry help themselves and eat as much as they wish.

Age at sexual maturity: It can be measured either as age at first egg (or) age at 5 per cent egg
production. Sexual maturity is the duration (number of days) between the date of hatch and the
date of first egg laid or date of 5% egg production as the case may be. The younger the bird
when she begins to produce eggs, greater the egg production will be during her laying year. Early
sexual maturity is advisable but too early sexual maturity is also not good because it produces
more number of small sized eggs (peewee eggs) which fetches lower price and more incidence of
prolapse (falling down or slipping out of place of an organ or part such as uterus). Light breeds
like Leghorn mature about a month earlier than heavy breeds.

Artificial Incubation: In this method, the mechanical equipment such as incubator is used for
hatching of eggs.

Artificial Insemination: is the technique by which seminal fluid (semen) of male is introduced
or deposited into the female reproductive tract by a pipette. One cock will yield about 0.5 to 1.0
ml of semen depending upon the body weight. About 0.05 to 0.10 ml of semen is enough to
inseminate one hen.

Automation: A process or system which operates by mechanical or electronic means which

replaces the human efforts and decisions.

Beak trimming (Debeaking): Removal of a part of upper and lower mandible (beak) by a sharp
knife and cauterizing by a soldering rod in order to minimize feed wastage and to reduce the risk
of feather pecking/cannibalism.

Bill: The beak of duck or geese.

Bio-security: relates to maintenance of flock (birds) free of pathogens (diseases). Bio-security is

the key element in the triangle of disease control. Bio-security is a term that includes all the
measures taken to prevent pathogens (bacteria, fungi, parasite, virus) insects, rodents and wild

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birds from entering or surviving and infecting the poultry flocks. Bio-security literally means
safety of living things, is a programme designed to prevent the exposure of birds to disease
causing organisms by reducing, introduction and spread of pathogens into and between the
farms.

Breed: Refers to an established group of birds within a species related by breeding, possessing a
distinctive shape, conformation, plumage colours, comb type, general body weight etc.

Broiler (Fryer): Immature young chicken of either sex with tender meat, soft, pliable, smooth
textured skin and flexible breast bone cartilage of about 6 weeks of age.

Brood: A group of (baby) chicks from one hatch.

Brooder: A metallic or wooden equipment used for artificial brooding of young chicks by
supplying the necessary heat.

Brooder chick: A young chick of 0 to 8 weeks of age.

Broodiness: is a condition in which hen stops laying and show tendency to sit on eggs to hatch
them.

Broody hen: A hen which tends to sit on the egg to hatch them.

Cages: A system of housing poultry made up of steel and welded wire netting in horizontal,
stepped or vertical configuration usually in two or three tiers. Example: Californian and Battery
Cages.

Candling: is the process of visual examination of an intact egg against a light emerging through
an aperture (opening) to determine the interior quality, shell soundness or stage of embryonic
development.

Cannibalism: Vice (Bad habit) that may occur in chickens of all ages. It is characterized by
pecking of head, feather, vent and wing due to over crowding, excess lighting, lack of exercise
and improper balanced ration. This vice may be overcome by identifying and correcting the
faulty management practices or by correcting feed, if it is unbalanced and debeaking.

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Capon: A surgically castrated (testes removed) male usually below 8 to 10 months of age that is
tender meated with soft, pliable, smooth textured skin and is good for table (meat) purpose.

Chick: A young one of poultry from day old to seven or eight weeks of age

Chicken: The most widely domesticated fowl.

Class: It is used to designate a group of birds (usually of the same species) developed in certain
regions or geographical area. e.g. American class, Asiatic class etc.

CLFMA: means Compounded Livestock Feed Manufacturers Association of India.

Clutch: Eggs laid by a hen on consecutive days without a break.

Coccidiosis: A disease caused by coccidia (micro-organism) with symptoms of anaemia, blood-

mixed dysentery and death.

Cock (Rooster): A mature male chicken (above one year of age) with coarse skin, toughened
and darkened meat and hardened breast bone cartilage usually kept for breeding.

Cockerel: An immature male fowl (obtained from the layer hatchery) less than one year of age
reared for meat purpose.

Comb: A fleshy protuberance (swelling) on the top of the fowl’s head varying in size and shape.

Coryza: An inflammation of membrane lining the upper part of respiratory tract that is eye,
nostrils and sinuses of head.

Croiler: is a colour feathered broiler. It is not a hybrid; but developed from crosses of Barred
Plymouth Rock, Dark Cornish, New Hampshire and Sussex breeds. In general, the croilers are
having lesser growth rate and poorer feed efficiency compared to broilers. Therefore, they are
more suitable for backyard or free range or semi-intensive system of rearing rather than intensive
system. Even though they grow at a slower rate, they attain a body weight of 1.5 kg at 8-10
weeks of age with FCR of 2.5-3.0; they fetch a higher price per kg compared to the broiler. Some
of the croiler varieties available in Indian Market are Giriraja, Nandanam Chicken II and
Vanaraja.

Culling: The elimination of unproductive or undesirable birds which when judged from their
physical characteristics are found to lack the qualities for which they were reared, whether it may

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be for egg production, table purposes or for show; an important and continuous operation for
profitable poultry farming.

Deep litter: Intensive type of rearing birds on floor covered with bedding material for the birds
like wood shavings, groundnut hulls, paddy husk etc.

Desi fowl: Fowl indigenous to India; Not a pure breed. Exhibits great variation in size, shape,
colour and conformation. Best mother and ideal sitter (Broody in nature).

Deworming: Act of removing or killing intestinal parasites through drug.

Disinfection: is the method of reducing the amount of infection in flocks after an outbreak. This
is accomplished by mechanical, physical or chemical means.

Downtime: Period between removal of one batch and introduction of new batch of birds in the
shed (or) is the period of time between two batches when the house is depopulated, disinfected,
kept closed and empty.

Drake: Adult male duck

Dressed bird: A slaughtered bird with feathers, feet and head removed. In other words, a ready-
to-cook chicken.

Dressing percentage: Dressed weight divided by live weight of the bird multiplied by one
hundred.
Dressing Percentage = Dressed weight in kg x 100
Live weight in kg

Dubbing: Process of removal of comb and wattles of large combed males to prevent frost-bite
and to enhance fertility. It is done on day one of bird’s life with the help of scissors.

Duckling: Young one of the duck

Eaves: The point at which the roof project out from the side of the building.

Egg tooth: Small horny protrusion on the tip of chick’s beak used to pip the egg shell during
hatching. It drops off soon after chick hatches out of egg.

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Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR): A ratio expressed in terms of kg feed consumed by the bird
divided by kg body weight gain in case of broiler and kg egg weight or dozen eggs laid in case of
layers.
Feed Conversion Efficiency (in layers) = __One kg feed consumed by the bird_
One kg egg weight or dozen eggs laid

Feed Conversion Efficiency (in broilers) = One kg feed consumed by the bird
One kg body weight gain

Feed Efficiency Ratio (FER): A ratio expressed in terms of kg body weight gain divided by kg
feed consumed in case of broiler and kg egg weight or dozen eggs laid divided by kg feed
consumed in case of layers.
Feed Efficiency Ratio (in layers) = One kg egg weight or dozen eggs laid
One kg feed consumed by the bird

Feed Efficiency Ratio (in broilers) = One kg body weight gain

One kg feed consumed

Fecundity: Producing many offspring (young ones).

Fertility: refers to capacity to reproduce. It is the factor which determines the successful
offspring that may be obtained from a given number of eggs.

Fertility per cent: Expressed as % of fertile eggs divided by total number of eggs set and
multiplied by one hundred.

Filler flats: A card board or plastic made tray used for collection, storage and transport of eggs.
Thirty eggs can be kept in one filler flat.

Flock: A group of birds or animals of one kind, esp. birds or sheep

Franchise: An agreement between a breeding organization, breeder and hatchery.

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Fumigation: A method of disinfection using disinfecting gases especially Formaldehyde gas
produced by mixing formalin and potassium permanganate. Normally used in hatcheries and in
poultry farms where there is a severe disease problem.

Gosling: Young one of the Goose

Gander: Adult male goose

Green Duck: is a duckling, which is grown rapidly and marketed from 9 to 16 weeks of age for
meat.

Grower: Pullets between 9 to 20 weeks of age or at the point of lay.

Hatchability: may be defined as % of fertile eggs hatched (or) % of chicks hatched from all eggs
placed in the incubator.
Hatchability % = % of fertile eggs or chicks hatched_
Number of eggs placed in the incubator

Hatcher: A machine or that portion of incubator that is used for the last 2 or 3 days of incubation
and hatching of eggs. No turning of the egg is required.

Hatchery: A building equipped with incubators used for hatching of day old chicks from fertile
eggs through artificial incubation.

Hen: The female of all classes of poultry, except goose, whose age can vary considerably
depending on the class of poultry. A chicken hen is of egg laying age, usually over 20 weeks old,
and raised for egg production purposes.

Hover: An equipment with incandescent bulbs for heating element to keep chicks warm
Incubate: To maintain favourable condition for developing and hatching fertile eggs.

Incubation: is the act of bringing an egg to hatching i.e. providing suitable warmth, humidity
and turning movement to facilitate growth and development of embryo inside the egg.

Incubation period: is the period between setting and hatching out of eggs which vary from
species to species.

Incubator: A machine developed to provide the proper environment for the development of the
fertile egg and embryo into a chick or poult.

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Keet: Young one of the Guinea fowl

Layer: A mature female fowl which has been kept for egg-laying purpose (21-72 weeks of age)
especially those are in current production (or) an adult commercial chicken of 21 – 72 weeks of
age and produces most of the eggs for consumption.

Line: It is the subclass of strain where the gene (of interest) responsible for particular trait is
fixed so as to utilize for production of commercial hybrids.

Leeward: A side sheltered from the wind.

Litter: An absorbent bedding material used to cover the floor in poultry houses.

Live weight: A term associated with the meat bird to indicate its weight before slaughter.

Liveability: Ability of individual bird to live and remain vigorous and productive.

Liveability = Number of birds alive at market age x 100

Number of chicks purchased

Natural Incubation: In this method, broody hens are made to sit over the hatching eggs to hatch
out chicks.

Nest Box: Boxes provided for layer or breeder hens inside their house to lay eggs.

Overhang: Outward projection of the roof at eaves.

Oviparous: Producing offspring from egg that hatch outside the body.

Pause: Any cessation (stoppage) of egg laying for a period of 7 days or more is called pause.

Pen: An enclosed area where birds are housed.

Photo-period: A period of illumination by both natural and artificial means.

Pipping: The act of pecking the shell and shell membranes by the chick in order to break and
hatch out of the shell.

Poult: After hatching, a young turkey of either sex that is between one day and a couple weeks
old.

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Poultry: Although the term poultry is very often used as synonymous to chicken, it includes a
number of avian species such as chicken, duck, geese, guinea fowl, quail, turkey, etc. that are
domesticated for economic (egg, meat or ornamental) purpose.

Poultry management: The science and art of organization and operation of poultry farms to
obtain the maximum returns or constant income.

Poultry Science: It is the branch of zoology which deals with detailed study of domestic birds.

OR The study of principles and practices involved in the production and marketing of poultry
and poultry products.

Pullet: A young domestic hen, usually one that is less than one year old. A female chicken that
has not yet started to lay eggs.

Ration: A measured amount of feed allowed to a bird during a particular period of time.

Roaster: A broiler grown up to the age of 9-11 weeks with a body weight of 2.5 to 3.0 kg.

Shank: Legs

Snood: A fleshy protuberance (swelling) hanging from the base of the beak in turkeys or a fleshy
wrinkled fold of skin that hangs down over a turkey's beak.

Spent Hen: A breeder or commercial type egg hen that no longer performs at desired production
levels.

Sterile: Not capable of reproducing or incapable of producing offspring (young ones); not
producing offspring.

Strain: It is the sub classification of breed denoting the population of birds within a breed which
were kept in isolation for a certain period of time and breed for certain economic traits.

Tom: Male turkey

Trap nest: A laying nest where the layer gets trapped when she enters to lay eggs. It is used to
identify the layer for the pedigree studies.

Variety: It is the sub classification of breed. There are many varieties within a breed
differentiated by plumage colour, pattern or comb type. e.g. White leghorn is a variety of leghorn
breed.

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 INDIAN POULTRY INDUSTRY – BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE DIFFERENT
SEGMENTS – POULTRY STATISTICS

Introduction
In India, Poultry is one of the fastest growing segments of livestock/agriculture industry
and contributes a major share in terms of protein supplementation from eggs and meat. Amongst
the animal products, which are by and large substitutable in the diet, it is found that input-output
ratio for poultry is most favourable. With 10 kg of similar feed in each case, chicken (both meat
& egg type) gives more protein than pig, cow (milk & beef) and sheep. Therefore, it is evident
that poultry contributes a major share in this revolutionary process.
Hybrid layers of today lay on an average of 310-320 eggs per year compared to 240-250
eggs 30 years back. During early eighties, broilers only achieved a mean body weight of 1.5 kg
at 8 weeks of age with feed conversion ratio (FCR) of around 3.0, whereas, now it attains 2.2 to
2.6 kg mean body weight with a FCR of 1.5 to 1.7 in only 38 days.
Development of Poultry Industry in India has made huge stride during the last three
decades evolving from backyard farming to a full-fledged commercial enterprise as a result of
research and development initiated by the Government and subsequently taken up by the
organized private sector.
History of Indian Poultry Industry
Historically, the base and origin of poultry birds is located in India and its nearby
countries in Asia. During those ancient days, they were known as Red Jungle fowl (Gallus
gallus), Javan Jungle fowl (Gallus varius), Grey Jungle fowl (Gallus sonnerati), Ceylone Jungle
fowl (Gallus lafayetti). Today’s modern chicken (Gallus domesticus) is descendents of the wild
species Red Jungle fowl (Gallus gallus) found in South East Asia.
Till beginning of 19th century, the fowls were maintained mainly for game of cock
fighting and scarifying to worship God and Goddess. It was in the early 19 th century that
chickens were raised for their fancy appearance, attractive body forms, plumage colour and
comb types. Least attention was paid to their growth and egg production potential.

The organized and scientific poultry keeping was started by Christian missionaries from
the World War II to meet the demand of meat and eggs of defense personnel. In 1930, Spencer

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Hatch started scientific poultry keeping in rural area around Marthandam in Kanyakumari district
of Tamil Nadu.

Establishing different sections/ divisions/ institutes/organizations

Year of
Research Institutes/Division/Section/Projects
Establishment
Poultry Research Section at Indian Veterinary Research
1939
Institute (IVRI), Izatnagar
Poultry Research Division at IVRI, Izatnagar 1952
National Diploma in Poultry Husbandry at IVRI, Izatnagar 1960
Random sample laying test unit at Hessarghatta 1970
All India co-ordinated research project by ICAR, New Delhi 1970
Centre of excellence in Poultry Science at IVRI, Izatnagar 1972
Central Poultry Development Organization at Banglore,
1972
Bhubneshwar, Mumbai & Chandigarh
Central Training Institute for Poultry Produciton &
1972
Management, Hessarghatta
Central Avian Research Institute (CARI), Izatnagar 1979
Dr.B.V. Rao Institute of Poultry Production Management &
1987
Technology (IPMT), Pune
Directorate on Poultry Reserach (DPR), Hyderabad 1988

During first five year plan (1951-56), Extension centers i.e. farms for breeding exotic breed of
chicken and supplying to farmers were established under Poultry Development Programme.
Central Poultry Development organizations were started by central government at Chandigarh,
Mumbai, Banglore (Hessarghata) and Bhubaneshwar to acclimatize and propagate superior
genetic stock of birds from foreign countries. Under this programme 30,000 day old chicks of
White Leghorn and Rhode Island Red were imported from America with the help of “Technical
Co-operation Mission” (TCM) and were introduced in state government farms to improve
poultry production.
Franchise hatcheries in private sector with foreign collaboration were set up to supply
high yielding hybrid chicks to poultry keeper. Indian Council of Agricultural Research also
established an All India Co-ordinated Research Projects on Poultry (AICRPP) for propagating
improved exotic breeds in India.

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 The various types of breeds, varieties and strains of chicken are regularly tested for their
productive performance under independent government control and supervision called as
“Random Sample Laying Test” (RSLT). The first RSLT unit was eastablished in 1970 at
Hessarghatta near Banglore. Later on the “Central Training Institute for Poultry Production and
Management” (CTIPPM) was set up at Hessarghatta by Government of India with assistance
from United Nation.
Indian farmers have moved from rearing non-descript birds to today rearing hybrids,
which ensure faster growth, good liveability, excellent feed conversion and high profits to the
rearers. The industry has grown largely due to the initiative of private enterprise, minimal
government intervention, and considerable support from the complementary veterinary health,
poultry feed, poultry equipment, and poultry processing sectors. Today Indian poultry is one of
the fastest growing segments of the agricultural.
Different segements:
Indian poultry farming is typically classified into three different segments
1. Backyard poultry
Backyard poultry in India is characterized by small flock size consisting of 5-20
predominantly non descript birds maintained in extensive system under zero input conditions.
But fetch the owners much needed animal protein and supplementary income. The importance of
backyard poultry is well recognized by Government of India and special programmes are
formulated for its promotion. Maintaining small flock of local non descript fowls under free
range condition by landless poor, small and marginal farmers is a common sight in rural areas.
These birds are very popular due to their adaptability to local agro climatic conditions and
management practices with prominent brooding behaviour, mothering ability and disease
resistance. But these birds are small in size, poor in egg production (40-50 eggs/annum), with
small clutch size and prominent brooding behaviour. They are best suited to contribute to the
economic benefits of the farmers in their respective home tracts. They are good foragers,
efficient mothers, require less cost and special care to grow and thus have characteristics
essential for raising poultry under village conditions.

2. Rural Poultry Production

In this poultry keeping the improved types of birds are used by the farmers having better
production potential than the non-descript indigenous chicken. Improved chicken are partially
reared under semi-intensive or intensive system for initial brooding period and letter on shifted
to extensive system of poultry production with supplementary feeding to achieve the production
of 150 to 175 eggs per annum. This system requires minimum investment as compare to
commercial production but helps in reducing the malnutrition and provides continuous source of
income to the farmers. Small poultry holder are practically capable of more significant
contribution to alleviate malnutrition, poverty and unemployment. China's 76% of total egg
comes from rural backyard production. India requires both mass production as well as production

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by masses. The need for development of varieties suitable for rural poultry production in India
was visualized by poultry breeders during eighties.

3. Commercial Poultry Production

In this type of poultry production, high yielding strains are used which require scientific
management. This system requires high capital. The inputs are high as well as output from this
type of farming is high. This system characterised by mass production of egg or meat in very
small area as compare to earlier two segments. Intensive system of poultry production is
followed in commercial poultry production. In intensive system the birds are generally reared
under deep litter methods or in cages.
Poultry statistics
India has vast resource of livestock and poultry, which play a vital role in improving
the socio-economic conditions of rural masses. Eggs and chicken are accepted by all
communities and are available at the most reasonable prices. Within a span of 25 years, the egg
production has gone up to 70 billion from few millions and the broiler production has gone to 3.8
million tonne from nowhere. Poultry is the most organised sector in animal agriculture, worth
rupees one lakh crores. The growth is 6-8% in layers and 10-12% in broilers per year against the
growth of agriculture around 2.5%. Poultry industry contributes about Rs. 400 billion accounting
for about 0.8 per cent of the national GDP and provides employment to over five million people
in the Country.
India is the third-largest egg producer after China and USA and the fourth-largest chicken
producer after China, Brazil and USA. The per capita eggs consumption has gone up from 30 to
68 and the chicken from 400 gm to 2.8 kg. Human nutritionists recommend 180 eggs & 10.5 kg
chicken per year. Most of the countries consume over 240 eggs and 20 kg of chicken.
Regional variations

One important aspect of poultry development in India is the significant variations in production
across regions. Only 5 States of Telengana, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Maharashtra and
Punjab account for over 60% of total egg production. Maharashtra ranks 3rd in poultry
production in India. The per capita eggs and chicken meat availability is highest in southern
states, followed by Northern & Western States and lowest in Eastern & Central States.

 Per capita Consuption of Egg in India is 103.

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15
16
17
Strengths of Poultry Industry
You already know that India stands third and fourth in egg and poultry meat production,
respectively. This is achievable because of the developments brought about in the poultry
industry in India by the following ways:
1) Development of new high productive layer and broiler strains.
2) Development of low-cost vaccines.
3) Giving freedom to the poultry farmers for fixing prices for egg through organizations like
National Egg Co-ordination Committee (NECC).
4) Financing of poultry schemes.
Achievements of Poultry Industry
The achievements of Indian Poultry Industry are as follows:
 Improved FCR, quality control, upgraded management.
 New feed milling technologies.
 Purchase of feed raw materials and supply of better quality materials.
 Better breeding stocks.
 Rationalised pricing of breeder and commercial stocks.
 Pellet feeds are gaining increasing market share.
 Availability of feed additives viz. enzyme, pro-biotics.
 Positive role of integrators and corporates in industry.
 Distribution of feed in all regions.
 Increase in percentage of processed foods.
 Marketing of branded eggs.
 Tapping of export potentials.
 Advancement in disease diagnosis and screening procedures.

Threats and challenges:

(i) Regional Imbalances in Poultry Production:

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 Regional imbalances in poultry production are inevitable since both large commercial
egg and broiler production farms are mainly confined to the Southern states, apart from
Maharashtra, Punjab, Uttarakhand and Haryana in the North. More than 60% of eggs are
produced in Telengana, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Maharashtra, Punjab and Tamilnadu States,
whereas more than 60% of poultry meat is produced in 5 states namely, Telengana, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Punjab and Westbengal. However, poultry production,
particularly broiler farming is gradually catching up in some deficit Northern, Central and
Eastern regions of the Country in the recent years. The commercial poultry farming is yet to
make a dent in some of the most populous states like Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan
and Uttar Pradesh.
(ii) Diversity in Poultry:
Among poultry species, chicken production has already acquired large scale commercial
dimensions in India due to its better efficiency than other domesticated poultry species to convert
poultry feed into highly nutritious egg and meat. Chicken (including desi fowl) accounts for
about 95% of the total poultry population, followed by 3% ducks. The remaining 2% is
comprised of other domesticated poultry species such as quails, turkey, Guinea fowls, pigeons
and geese etc. Ducks are mostly reared in coastal states, Jammu and Kashmir and NE region of
our country. Although, commercial quail farming for meat and egg production is becoming
increasingly popular and this Institute has emerged as the focal point for evolving high yielding
quail germplasm and its spread in the Country, sincere efforts in terms of financial resources,
trained scientific manpower and Research & Development infrastructure are required to place the
diversified poultry species against chicken in the market as its commercially viable alternatives.
While commercial turkey, Guinea fowl farming is still in their infancy, emu and ostrich rearing
is a more recent and nascent development in the Country.
(iii)Rising Feed Cost:
Poultry feed accounts for about 60-70% of the total cost of production which is one of the
most serious challenges for the industry. Therefore, improving feed conversion efficiency would
be crucial to profitability apart from the feed cost itself. Over the past two decades, feed
conversion rates for poultry have improved by about 40 percent, partly due to improved
productivity and partly due to efficient feeding strategies. However, still only 25-35 percent of

19
the nutrients consumed are utilized. Hence, further understanding of digestive physiology and
biochemistry can be expected to improve nutrient utilization.
Growing human population along with that of livestock has strained the feed resources of
the Country. Cereal by-products and oilseed residues usually constitute about 50% of poultry
diet. Coarse cereals such as pearl millet, grain sorghum, corn, minor millets and ragi etc. also
form the staple diet of millions of marginal farmers and landless labourers. These coarse cereals
are the most important and most widely used poultry feed ingredients all over the world.
However, their domestic supply is marred by the vagaries of nature as they are grown on rainfed
/drought prone marginal lands with wide fluctuations in the yields and hence their total
production. Coarse cereals constitute about 22% of total food grain production and occupy about
38% of total acreage under cereals in India. The demand for coarse cereals is continuously
increasing at 4% per year due to ever increasing population and their use in livestock rations.
The yield of maize, the most important ingredient of poultry feed in India is just about
40% of the world’s average which is attributed to limited availability of quality seeds, pesticides
and fertilizers etc. The consumption of maize growing at 6% per annum has clearly outstripped
production growth due to stagnant productivity and acreage at about 6.6 million ha. Thus, the
consumption and production gap will keep rising due to growth of poultry sector as also due to
its increasing industrial use (for production of ethanol, maize starch and high fructose corn syrup
etc.)
Soybean is yet another important poultry feed ingredient used as protein source in poultry
rations. Instability in its production and indiscriminate exports result in its shortage for the
poultry industry leading to its high prices. The soybean production in the country is about 12.5
mmt which is likely to reach 18.9 mmt by 2030.
(iv) Declining Share of Backyard/Small Scale Poultry:
Rural poultry production constitutes important component of agricultural economy in
India, small poultry holders are practically capable of contributing more significantly to alleviate
malnutrition, poverty and unemployment. Although the population of small scale /backyard rural
poultry characterised by sub-optimal use of inputs has registered a growth of over 7.8% per year
during the last decade, its share in total poultry production has been consistently declining due to
faster growth in organized commercial poultry sector characterised by professional management

20
and highly efficient input use. India requires both mass production as well as production by the
masses to cater both its rural and urban population.
(v) Onslaught of Poultry Diseases:
In the recent past, Indian poultry sector has faced frequent onslaught of newer poultry
diseases like bird flu (Avian Influenza) leading to enormous losses to the poultry sector not only
in India but globally. Every reported case of outbreak of AI leads to distortions not only in the
domestic demand and consequently in prices but also in global trade. Therefore, scientific
interventions are urgently needed to curb the menace of such emerging poultry diseases in the
Country.
(vi) Poultry Waste Disposal and Environmental Concerns:
The magnitude of poultry wastes is constantly on increase due to growth of the poultry
industry. The problem of waste disposal is all the more grave due to concentration of poultry in
some well defined pockets or geographical boundaries. The poultry waste generation has been
estimated to the tune of about 22 mt at present which is like to increase manifold in conjunction
with the fast growing poultry population. There is a need, therefore, to devise cost effective ways
and means for proper disposal of wastes arising from dressing plants, hatchery and poultry
manure etc. to minimize environmental pollution and for putting them to alternative efficient use.
Some of the alternatives uses of poultry waste are production of pet foods, manure or bio-
fertilizers (vermi-compost), biogas and electricity etc. Although technologies are available for
utilization of poultry waste, there is much to be done on proper disposal of wastes including dead
birds by refining and up-scaling these technologies. Promotion of cost effective methods of
waste disposal has to be taken up to entice the commercial sector for putting the same into
practice.
Global warming projected to increase the earth’s temperature by 1.8°C to 4.0°C by the
end of this century, is likely to result in frequent extreme climates, floods, droughts, cyclones
and recession in glaciers with threatened coastal lines. Such massive changes are likely to alter
the entire food chain, ecological balance and consequent dynamics of pests and diseases in the
entire eco-system leading to instability in food production. Therefore, technology driven systems
need to be evolved to counter such environmental and climate associated threats.
(vii) Frail Poultry Marketing Infrastructure:

21
 Marketing of poultry products is the major issue faced by the industry. In the absence of
orderly marketing network, sufficient regulated markets, lack of adequate cold-chain and
warehousing facilities etc, the wholesale prices of poultry products suffer violent fluctuations
and often become unremunerative, due to cyclic boom-and-bust phenomena. The poultry
marketing is largely in the hands of commission agents and private traders. Procurement in
remote places receives low priority. Despite growing non-vegetarianism and demand potential
for poultry products, consumption growth has not been able to keep pace with the production
growth due to low purchasing power of people especially in rural areas. Fragmented and remote
rural markets also restrict reach of commercial poultry products to the far flung rural areas.
Strong marketing network covering the entire country is needed to set the industry free from the
clutches of middlemen.
Limited acceptance of processed poultry products in the domestic markets is yet another
constraint restricting capacity utilization of already established processing units and further
investments in this area. Only about 4-5 % of table eggs produced in the country are presently
processed. Wet marketing of broilers is still preferred and is widely prevalent in the
Country in the absence of general awareness about food safety and quality, and statutory
provisions to restrict the same. The product quality and safety issues are now of paramount
importance in the wake of WTO not only to promote poultry exports but also to save the
domestic markets from the onslaught of imported poultry products owing to open market access
and trade liberalization policies.

(viii) Institutional and Capital Constraints:

The support in the form of public funded institutional support is not adequate for the
Indian poultry sector worth Rs. 4000 crores. Support for Poultry Science Education and R&D is
meager in the National Agricultural Research System. Similarly, there is an urgent need to
establish Poultry Development Board on the lines of NDDB in the country, though National
Meat and Poultry Processing Board has recently been set up for addressing key issues related to
development of meat and poultry processing sector. Financial barriers prevent small farmers
from intensifying their production. The investment required often exceeds their net worth. It has
been observed that the financial institutions exhibit reluctance in supporting the projects aimed at

22
establishing small/medium poultry production units. Some of the institutions even put the poultry
activity in their negative list as far as financial support in the form of credit is concerned. The
facilities of micro credit must be extended to poultry sector as well in order to promote poultry
production by the masses.
*****

23
 CLASSIFICATION OF POULTRY WITH RESPECT TO PRODUCTION
CHARACTERS, AGE AND STANDARDS

Commercial Layer Chicken Production Parameters:

Day old layer chick weight : 32-35 g

Feed consumption
0-8 Weeks : 1.6-1.8 Kilogram
9-12 Weeks : 5.4-5.8 Kilogram
21-72 Weeks : 38-40 Kilogram
Body weight
8th week : 510 g
20th Week : 1250 g
72nd Week : 1450 g
Age at laying : 20-21 weeks
Feed consumption during laying : 110-112 g
Average egg production : 300-320/bird
Mortality
0-8 weeks : 4%
9-20 weeks : 3%
21-72 weeks : 8%
Manure production : 47 Kilogram/bird

Commercial Broiler Chicken Production Parameters:

Age in Days Body Weight Cumulative Feed Cumulative FCR

Consumption Pelleted Feed
7 190 204 1.07

14 500 620 1.24

21 920 1239 1.35

28 1400 2050 1.46

35 1850 2859 1.55

42 2300 3870 1.68

24
Rearing of Native Chicken

 Meat has characteristic flavour and taste

 Comparatively tough meat with less fat
 Fetches premium price
 Heavy market demand
 Requires minimum floor space
 Requires minimal care
 Suitable for both intensive and semi intensive system
Production system
1. Reared fully under deep litter system
2. Reared upto four weeks intensively and then allow for forage
3. Crude fibre in the feed is more critical factor
4. Top dressing with greens is essential
5. Debeaking is essential
6. Reared for meat purpose
Production system – Meat
 Marketing age : 12 -14 weeks
 Marketing weight : 1.0 – 1.1 kg
 Feed efficiency : 3.5 – 4.0
 Livability : 90 - 95 %
 Dressing yield : 60 – 65%
 Small scale production in rural areas
 Marketed in the farm door step itself
 Integrated system is followed in large scale production
 Coli bacillosis and coccidiosis are the major problem
Newly Improved Varieties/Strains of chicken
1. Interventions to improve backyard chicken rearing
2. Demand for day old desi chicks
3. Consumer preference in native / multi coloured chicken
4. Higher demand and preference for brown shelled eggs
5. Necessitates large scale colour feathered day old chicks
6. They are suitable for both intensive and back yard system
7. They are non broody and lays egg continuously

25
 8. Mostly reared for dual purpose
9. Managemental procedure are similar to that of commercials

Production System of Improved Varieties/Strain for Meat/ Egg -Intensive Rearing

 Mainly reared under deep litter system

 Care and management are similar to commercial chicken
 Marketing age : 3 – 4 months
 Marketing weight : 2 – 2.5 kg
 FCR :3–4
 Livability : 90 - 92%
 Fetches lesser price than native chicken but better than broilers
 Females are reared for egg purpose
 Care and management is similar to layer management
 Produce 150 -180 eggs in one year

Duck

Ducks have been the second major alternate birds after chicken for meat and egg
production and have also become popular in certain parts of India. India has 5700 km of coastal
line and a vast area of low and marshy lands. The availability of huge snails, oysters, small
fishes, algae, fungi, waterweeds, earth warms, etc. favoured domestication of the ducks for the
first time in the world. Ducks comprise about 8.87% of total poultry population. Though the
ducks were originated in South-East Asia but today’s most of the modern egg and meat
producing breeds, have originated in Europe and America.
There are certain advantages of duck farming over chicken. Duck farming is easier since
ducks need little attention and less rearing space. Feeding procedures are also simple and the
ducks are more resistant to diseases. Duck farming is suitable in places where there are plenty of
ponds, lakes, backwaters, coastal areas and paddy fields. In India ducks are mainly kept by the
people belonging to lower strata of the society as a source of income but presently scenario has
changed. Even large farmers are adopting the duck farming as an alternative readymade source

26
of animal protein. Social inhibition also exists in rearing chickens, but no such inhibition exists
in duck farming.
The ducks have natural tendency for foraging hence they are widely reared in rice
growing area. They lay 40-50 eggs more than native chicken when reared under backyard. The
duck egg is also heavier and has fishy smell that has led to fetch more prices in some places,
while in some parts that limits its consumption. Ducks generally lay over a period of 2 nd year
(even in 3rd year) without any loss of production whereas in case of chicken the peak production
period is only 1 year. They do not require any elaborate house like chicken and management
practices are less hazardous. Ducks lay 95-98% of their eggs before 9 A.M. thus egg collection is
easier. Ducks are more hardy, easily brooded and resistant to common avian diseases. Ducks
move far for grazing/scavenging from the house of owner but they come back to their nest at
evening without any mistake. Cannibalism and agnostic behaviour, very common in chicken, are
not normally encountered in ducks.

PRODUCTION PERFORMANCE OF LAYER AND BROILER DUCK

Performance of egg type duck
Age at first egg: 120 days
Age at 50 percent production: 140 days
Annual egg production: 300 eggs
Egg weight at 40 weeks: 66 g
Body weight at 40 weeks: 1.8 kg
Daily feed consumption per bird: 120-150 g
Duckling mortality: 2-3 percent (0-8 weeks)
Grower mortality: 0.2-0.5 percent (0-20 weeks)
Adult mortality: 5-7 percent (20-72 weeks)
Performance of broiler duck
Day-old weight: 60 g
Body weight at 4 weeks: 1.2-1.4 kg
Body weight at 6 weeks: 2.0-2.2 kg
Feed consumption up to 6 weeks: 4.5-4.75 kg
Mortality (0-6 weeks): 2-3 percent

27
Turkey
Turkey farming is not as much commercialized as that of quail and emu farming. Turkey
meat production is alternative to reach the local consumers on small scale. Turkeys are native of
the North America and were first domesticated in Europe. They are now important source of
meat in many parts of the world. The turkey meat has commercial value because the meat has
low cholesterol and fat content. The hotels and restaurants catering the foreign tourists are in
great need of such meat. Seasonally, turkeys are in great demand as Christmas gift and fetch high
return. The bird is also suitable for free range and semi-intensive system of rearing. It requires
less investment for its rearing, housing and management. The turkey birds utilized under
commercial farming can be classified into three types namely small type, medium type and
heavy type. The live weights of small type male and female birds are 600 and 500 g at 4 weeks,
3300 and 2500 at 12 weeks and 6 kg and 4.5 kg at 20 weeks of age respectively. The cumulative
feed conversion ratio for the corresponding phases of male and female birds is about 2.5 and 2.75
kg at 12 weeks and 3.5 and 4.0, at 20 weeks of age respectively. The medium type male birds
achieve about 5.5 kg at 12 weeks and 8 kg at 16 weeks, while the female birds attain 4 kg and 6
kg at 12 and 16 weeks of age. The live weights of heavy type breeds are 11.5 kg for male and 8
kg for female with FCR 3.2 kg and 3.5 kg at 20 weeks of age. The turkeys available in India are
not hybrids. The Broad Breasted Bronze is large and meaty bird. The males and females achieve
about 18 kg and 9kg, respectively at maturity. The smaller variety (Beltsville Small White) was
developed, as many consumers did not want large birds. At maturity, the males weigh 7 kg and
the females 4.5 kg.

1. More disease resistant than chicken

2. Suitable for free range, semi intensive and intensive system
3. Grow well in all agro climatic conditions
4. Requires very limited critical care
5. Meat is tender, tastier with less fat
6. Meat as festive food fetches premium price
7. Good foragers – less production cost

28
PRODUCTION PERFORMANCE OF TURKEY
Meat Type
 Marketing age : 12 - 16 weeks
 Market weight : 3 – 4 kg
 Feed efficiency : 3.5 – 4.0
 Livability : 90- 92%
 Deep litter system is well suited
Breeder Turkey

 Age at sexual maturity at 28 - 30 weeks

 Sex ratio - 1 : 5
 Hatching egg production upto one year
 HHEP – 100-120
 Hatchability - 50-55%
 50-60 poults per hen
 Breeder house livability > 90%

Guinea fowl

The guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) is a native of tropical Africa. The species gained
popularity among landless and marginal farm families due to foraging behaviour, hardyness,
higher tolerance and sub-optimal management conditions. The bird is primarily reared for
meat production under foraging condition supplemented with grains, grain shorting, other by-
products and kitchen residues and normally slaughtered at 12 to 15 week of age and over one
kilogramme body weight. In intensive rearing on balanced feeding they need compounded
diets similar to that used for the feeding of broiler chickens. The feeding cost in intensive
rearing is usually higher in comparison to broilers due to lower growth rate and poor feed
conversion efficiency. Indeed, it is gaining ground due to high survival and easier
management.

1. Hardy bird
2. Suitable to any agro-climatic condition
3. Resistant to many common diseases of chicken
4. No requirement of elaborate and expensive housing

29
 5. Excellent foraging capabilities
6. Consumes all non-conventional feed not used in chicken feeding
7. More tolerant to mycotoxin and aflatoxin
8. Hard egg shell provides minimum breakage and long keeping quality
9. Guinea fowl meat is rich in vitamin and low in cholesterol
Production performance of Guinea fowl
Age at sexual maturity 36-38 weeks
Egg production 60-100eggs/season
Sex ratio 1:4-5
Varieties Pearl, White, Levander
Young one is called Keet
Body weight at 8 wks 500-560 g
Body weight at 12 wks 950-1000 g
Incubation period 28 days
Average egg weight 48 g
Breeding season March & September
Average fertility 70-75 %
Average hatchability 70-80 %

Japanese quail

Japanese quails are reared for meat and eggs; both in cage and deep litter system of
rearing. Most of Japanese quail farms are having their own hatchery and breeding stock. Such
farms will have total stock of 10000 and above. They obtain an average hatchability of 80%.
Large farms are preparing their own feed and others are purchasing quail feed crumbles from
feed manufacturers. Three types of feeds are given to J. quails; namely starter feed from 0-2 wks
of age, grower feed from 3-5 wks of age and layer/breeder feed from 6 wks of age. They are
ready for market at 25-30 days of age, with a body weight 130-180 g. They start laying eggs
from 6 wk of age and the hatching eggs are collected from 8 weeks of age. The egg weight is
around 10-12 g and sold at US$ 2.80/100 eggs for table purpose and US$ 4.5 to 5/100 hatching
eggs.
The mortality rate during 0-4 wks of age is around 6% in cages and 10% in deep litter
system. The major causes of mortality during growing period are chilling, drowning, stampeding,

30
huddling and starvation; which can be controlled by using right brooding temperature, right size
feeder and waterers, combine with proper management. Egg peritonitis and egg bound are the
major causes of mortality in laying quails and cannibalism in adult males. Under intergrated
quail operation, with own breeding stock, hatchery, feed mill, farm and dietct marketing, the
[Link] farming is highly economical in India.

1. Japanese quail rearing does not require specially designed house as they can be comfortably
reared even in vacant rooms meant for human habitation.
2. The required floor space is much less, and the capital requirement therefore is much less.
3. The quail are ready for the market as table birds at five weeks of age. Quail also start laying from
the seventh week. The return on invested capital is therefore realized much earlier.
4. Japanese quail are comparatively more resistant to diseases than chickens and do not normally
require any vaccination, deworming, etc. which means their management is easy.
5. Because of their smaller body size, the quail consume less feed and therefore maintenance and
recurring costs are also less.
6. Thus, Japanese quail farming can be undertaken with less capital investment and little skill, and
the returns will be realized earlier.

Production performance of layer quail

Age at sexual maturity - 41.3 days
Age at 50% egg production - 47.4 days
Peak egg production - 100 %
HDEP (Above 95%) - 10-33 wk
HDEP (90-94%) - 34-45 wk
Economical rearing period - up to 52 wk
Average egg weight - 11g
Ave feed consn/bird/day(during lay) - 33.4 g
Feed consumption per dozen egg produced - 416 g
Feed efficiency per kg egg produced - 2.63
Livability (From 6 to 52 wks of age) – 95.0 %

31
PRODUCTION PERFORMANCE BROILER QUAIL

Similar to that of broiler rearing

Marketed at the age between 25 and 28 days
Approximate market weight – 200 gram
No need of vaccines, Prone for coccidiosis when reared under Deep litter system

Cumulative
Body weight Feed conversion
Week Feed consumption
(g) ratio
(g)

1 – Week 40 53 1.7
2 – Week 95 163 1.9

3 – Week 157 311 2.1

4 – Week 212 487 2.4
5 – Week 263 737 2.9

*****

32
 DESCRIPTION OF INDIGENOUS FOWLS AND THEIR VALUE IN RURAL
FARMING, SPECIFIC STRAINS DEVELOPED FOR RURAL POULTRY
PRODUCTION, THEIR ACCEPTABILITY AND IMPORTANCE IN RURAL
ECOSYSTEM

Unimproved backyard system

• Use of low-input, low producing native birds
• Scavenging
• No regular water or feed supply
• Little or poor night shelter
• No vaccination and medication
Improved backyard system
• Use of genetically improved birds
• Scavenging
• Regular water, supplementary feeding,
• Improved shelter
• Care of chicks in the early age
• Vaccination against prevalent diseases and deworming.

Description of Indigenous fowls

Breed Breeds and distribution area Characteristics

Type
Heavy Aseel (Central India) Body weight
Type Chittgong (Eastern India) Male - >=3.0 kg
Daothigiri (Assam) Female - >=2.0 kg.
Danki (Andhra Egg Production : 30-60 eggs
Pradesh)
Ghagus (Karnataka)
Tellichary (Kerala)
Punjab Brown (Punjab)

33
 Breed Breeds and distribution area Characteristics
Type
Light Ankaleshwar (Gujrat) Body weight
Type Bursa (Gujrat, Maharashtra) Male - 1.6- 2.0 kg
Hirranghatta Black (West Bengal) Female - 0.9- 1.4 kg
Kadaknath (Madhya Pradesh) Egg Production : 40 - 90
Kashmir Faverrolla (Kashmir) eggs
Miri (Assam)
Naked neck (West Coast)
Nicobari (Andaman Nicobar)
Kalasathi (Andhra Pradesh)
Teni, Titri (Uttar Pradesh)

Morphological characteristics of Indigenous fowl

• Body weight - Three variants have been distinguished i.e. dwarf, normal and heavy body
weights.
• Plumage pigmentation - mainly blackish and brownish colours showing mixture of
colours.
• Plumage distribution - mainly normal with special forms such as naked neck, frizzle
type.
• Comb- single comb is common but rose, pea and walnut are also found.
• Shank and skin - pigmented showing green and blue variants. In addition to this melanin
deposition in skin, meat, internal organs and bones in some breeds (e.g. Kadakanath) are
also encountered.
Value of Indigenous fowl in rural areas
1. Provides subsidiary income to the rural families
2. Can be easily adapted even by resource poor families with very low investment.
3. Even illiterates can adopt it as it requires much less skill.
4. Native chicken are more sturdy and well adapted to local climatic conditions.
5. Can be sustained entirely on free range

34
 6. Both eggs and meat of native chicken fetch more price compared to those of commercial
hybrids, as they occupy specific market segment.
7. They help to improve the nutritional status of rural poor.
Rural people have a traditional affinity towards native chicken and are well versed with its
husbandry practices.
Indigenous fowl are superior over exotic birds due to its following distinguished
characteristics:
1. Acceptability of the coloured desi bird by local people.
2. Broodiness character for hatching the chicks.
3. Capability of self-defense from predators due to its alertness, light body weight, longer
shank length, camouflagic characters and aggressiveness.
4. Can thrive well under adverse environments like poor housing, poor management and
poor feeding.
5. Comparatively resistant to protozoon and ecto-parasites.
6. Better adaptability to extreme climatic conditions prevailing in the country.
7. Comparatively hardier and need less health care than exotic birds.
8. Meat from native fowl : higher A.A contents (arginine and lysine) than exotic birds meat
9. Brown-shelled eggs of native fowl are rich in threonine and valine than farm eggs and
fetch premium price.

• The major genes are virtually absent in the high yielding exotic breeds but available in
our indigenous breeds of chicken.

• Following are the important tropical oriented major genes identified in Indian native
chicken:
1. Slow feathering (K),
2. Non-inhibitor dermal melanin (id),
3. Fibromelanosis (Fm),
4. Naked neck (Na)
5. Frizzling (F)

35
Tropical relevant genes in local fowl

Gene Nature of Direct effect Side effect

Inheritance
dw (dwarf) Sex linked, Reduction in Reduced metabolism,
recessive, body size 10- improved fitness and
multiple allelic 30% disease tolerance
Na (Naked neck) Incomplete Loss of Neck Improved ability for
dominant feathers, convection, Improved
Reduction of adult fitness
secondary
feathers
F (Frizzle) Incomplete Curling of Improved ability for
dominant feathers, reduced convection
feathering
h (Silky) Recessive Lack of hamuli Improved ability for
on the barbules, convection
delicate shaft,
long barbs at the
contour feathers
K (Slow Dominant, sex Delay of Reduced protein
feathring) linked, feathering requirement, reduced
multiple allelic fat deposition during
juvenile life, increased
heat loss during early
growth, delayed
immune response
mechanism
id (Non Inhibitor Recessive, sex Dermal melanin Improved ability for
of dermal linked, deposition on radiation from shank
melanin) multiple allelic skin and shank and skin
Fm Dominant with Melanin Protection of skin
(Fibromelenosis) multifactorial deposition on all against UV radiation,
modifiers over body, improved radiation
muscles and from the skin,
nerves, tendons, increased pack cell
mesentery and volume and plasma
blood vessel protein
walls

36
Description of important indigenous chicken breed:
1. Aseel:
 Andhra Pradesh is said to be the home of this important breed.
 The literal meaning of Aseel is real or pure.
 Aseel is well known for its pugnacity, high stamina, majestic gait and dogged fighting
qualities.
 The name Aseel appears to have been given to this indigenous breed because of its
inherent qualities of fighting.
 The remarkable endurance of an Aseel even during the most critical stages of fight is
proverbial as it prefers death to dishonor. The Aseel is, therefore, known to every game
lovers all over the world for these specific characteristics.
 The best specimen of this breed, although rare, is encountered with the fanciers and the
people engaged in cock-fighting show throughout the country.
 Aseel is larger inbuilt with noble looking and dignified appearance.
 A good specimen of an Aseel cock usually measure 28 inches from back to toe.
 The standard weight varies from 3 to 4 kg for cocks and 2 to 3 kg for hens.
 Pea comb are also rarely encountered.
 The wattles are rudimentary and almost imperceptible.
 The beak is short and well curved.
 The face is long and not covered with feathers.
 The neck is long, uniformly thick but not fleshy.
 The general feathering is close, scanty and almost absent on the breast.
 The tail is small and the legs are strong, straight, clean and set well apart.
 The birds as a rule present upright material gait suggestive of strength and alertness.
Performance Profile
 Body weight at 20 weeks (g) 1220
 Age at sexual maturity (days) 196
 Annual egg production (number) 92
 Egg weight at 40 week (g) 50
 Fertility (%) 66
 Hatchability FES (%) 63
2. Kadaknath:
 This breed is native of Madhya Pradesh (Jhabua and Dhar Districts)
 This breed is also known as “Kalamasi” which means “fowl with black flesh”
 The colour of the day old chicks is bluish to black with irregular dark stripes over the
back.
 The adult plumage varies from silver to gold spangled to blue black without any
spangling.
 The skin, beak, shank, toes and soles of feet of males and females are dark gray colour.
Even the comb, wattles and tongue also show a purplish hue.

37
  The shining blue tinge of the earlobes add to its unique features.
 The peculiarity of this breed is that most of the internal organs show the characteristic
black pigmentation which is more pronounced in trachea, thoracic and abdominal air
sacs, gonads, elastic arteries, at the base of the heart and mesentery.
 Varying degree of blackish colouration is also found in the skeletal muscles, tendons,
nerves, meninges, brain and bone marrow.
 The black colour of muscles and tissues is due to the deposition of melanin pigment, a
genetic condition called "Fibromelanosis".
Performance Profile
 Body weight at 20 weeks (g) 920
 Age at sexual maturity (days) 180
 Annual egg production (number) 105
 Egg weight at 40 week (g) 49
 Fertility (%) 55
 Hatchability FES (%) 52
3. Naked neck:
 Trivandrum region of Kerala is considered to be the hometract of Naked neck but it is
available throughout hot and humid coastal area including Andaman and Nicobar island
and North-Eastern states of the country in small numbers.
 Naked neck is relatively larger inbuilt with long cylindrical neck.
 As the name indicates, neck of the birds is fully naked or only a tuft of feathers is seen on
the front of the neck above crop.
 The resulting bare skin becomes reddish particularly in males as they approach sexual
maturity.
 General body feathering is also reduced.
 Various types of combs viz. pea, rose, walnut and single combs are seen.
 The beak is short and well curved.
 The face is long and not covered with feathers.
 The eyes are compact and well set.
 The skin is thin and pinkish in colour.
 The beak and shanks have no correlation with plumage colour.
 Main plumage colours are brown, black, white and mixture of brown and black.
 Due to the reduced feathering, the birds are capable to tolerate the tropical stress.
 It lays the biggest size eggs among all the Indian native breeds of chicken.
4. Frizzle:
 Frizzle fowls are found all over the hot and humid coastal areas including Andaman
Nicobar Islands. Good numbers of these birds are also available on high altitudes hilly
tracts of North-Eastern states.
 Frizzle fowls have oval body with well-developed comb and wattles.
 The skin is thin and pinkish pale in colour.

38
 The beak and shanks generally have no correlations with the plumage colour and are
creamish pale in colour.
 The birds have single comb and earlobes are well developed with white spots on them.
 The eyes are bright and well-developed.
 Plumage colours vary considerably among the birds but white, brown, black and mixed
colour is most common.
 It is said that birds have better adaptability to the hot and humid climatic conditions.

Newly developed strains/varieties of chicken for rural poultry production

Dual / Meat Type Strains Developed for Rural Poultry Production

Name of Type Feather Place of origin
hybrid pattern
Meat/ Dual type
Giriraja White Graded KVAFSU, Bidar, Karnataka
Plymouth Rock Brown
x
Red Cornish
x New
Hampshire
Vanraja Red Cornish Graded DPR, Hyderabad, Telengana
x Random Brown
bred meat
control
Srinidhi Selected Multi- DPR, Hyderabad, Telengana
from six test coloured
crosses for dual
purpose
Nandanam Developed Mixed TANUVAS, Chennai,
Chicken 1 from Rhode Brown Tamil Nadu
Island Red
Nandnam Breed cross Mixed
Broiler 2 Brown
Gramalakshmi Australop X white in KVASU, Pookot, Kerala
White Leghorn colour
with black
speckles

39
Name of Type Feather Place of origin
hybrid pattern
Meat/ Dual type
Caribro-Vishal Broiler cross White
Cari-Rainbro Broiler cross colourd broiler
Caribro- Broiler cross Multi-coloured
Dhanraja

Caribro- Broiler cross (with Multi-coloured

Mritunjay naked neck gene)
CARI, Izatnagar
Caribro- Broiler cross (with Multi-coloured
Tropicana naked and frizzle gene)

Cari-Debendra Coloured synthetic Bright plumage

broiler line X Rhode colour
Island Red

Krishipriya Breed cross Greaded Brown Kerala

Kuroiler Broiler cross Multi-coloured Kegg Farm Delhi

Name of Type Feather Place of origin

hybrid pattern
Egg Type

Cari-Nirbheek Aseel x Delhem Red Brownish

Cari-Shyama Kadaknath x Delhem Brown

Red

CARI, Izatnagar

Upcari Frizzel x Delhem Red Multi Colour

Hitcari Naked Neck x Delhem Brown

40
 Cari-Sonali WLH x RIR Whitish Brown

Cari-Priya Superior male and White

female
lines of White Leghorn
Grampriya Random bred control Whitish Brown DPR, Hyderabad,
population x White Andhra
Leghorn Pradesh

Gramsree WLH x RIR Whitish Brown KVASU, Pookot, Kerala

Name of Type Feather Place of origin

hybrid pattern
Replica of indigenous fowl
Krishna J Synthetic (Sex multi coloured JNKVV, Jabalpur
linked Dwarf gene)
Kalyani-DK Synthetic multi feathered CPDO, Mumbai
Kalyani-SPK Synthetic multi coloured CPDO, Mumbai

Importance of newly developed strains in rural ecosystem

1. Interventions to improve backyard chicken rearing leads to the development of improved
varieties / cross bred chicken production.
2. There is a considerable demand for such type of chicken because of its multi colored
plumage and brown shelled eggs.
3. Consumer preference in multi coloured chicken
4. Higher demand and preference for brown shelled eggs
5. They are suitable for both intensive and back yard system
6. They are non broody and lays egg more than native fowls
7. Mostly reared for dual purpose
8. Managemental procedure are similar to that of commercials

****

41
 HOUSING –TYPES OF POULTRY HOUSES – SPACE REQUIREMENTS.
RECENT ADVANCES IN HOUSING SYSTEMS AND REARING SYSTEMS

Classification of poultry housing systems

1) Free range or extensive system

2) Semi-intensive system
3) Intensive system
 Deep-litter system
 Slatted floor system
 Slat cum litter system
 Raised platform housing system
 Cage system
Free range/ extensive system
• Rearing of poultry by letting them loose on ground (field) called as range in limited area
(fenced).
• Adopted only when adequate land is available.
• A range should provide shelter, greens, feed, water etc.
• Foraging is major source of feeding for birds
• Shelter is usually provided by temporary roofing supported by ordinary poles
• All types and categories of birds can be reared in this system
• Stocking density: 250 birds per hector
• System is followed in India for backyard poultry keeping in villages.
(i) Advantages
 No need of a separate house for the birds.
 No need of looking after their feed and water because they graze and eat outside.
 Cost on feeding is virtually negligible since only left-over feed or grains will be given to
the birds.
 As the birds are exposed to sunshine, they can produce their own Vitamin D.

42
(ii) Disadvantages
 Birds are likely to be eaten away by predators like dogs, eagles etc.
 There can be losses due to theft.
 They are exposed to all diseases; some of them can spread to humans also.
 More likely to have parasites both inside (endo-parasite) and on the body (ecto-parasite).
 They may not get proper food.
 Due to above factors, they produce very few eggs; say about 50 to 60 in a year.
 They weigh very less; about 1.0 to 1.2 kg when they are sold after 4-6 months of age.
 Scientific management practices cannot be followed because there is no control over the
birds.
 Requires more land
Semi-extensive System
• Birds are half way reared in houses and half way on ground or range.
• Birds are confined to houses in night or as per the need they are also given access to runs.
• The houses are with solid floors while runs are fields only.
• Stocking density: 150-200 birds in a night shelter of 25 [Link]. and run area of 500 [Link].
• Generally growers and cocks, ducks are maintained
(i) Advantages
 Birds are given some care at least during the night.
 Even during the day, due to fencing, chances of theft are also minimized.
 Fencing also limits predator attacks and diseases.
 As the birds are exposed to sunshine, they can produce their own Vitamin D.
 More economical use of land compared to free range
(ii) Disadvantages
 Requires more land than intensive system
 Though reduced, predators are not totally restricted.
 Losses due to theft also are not eliminated due to fencing alone.
 Unless specific vaccination program is followed, the birds are also exposed to diseases.
They are also more likely to have parasites both inside and on the body.

43
  They may not get proper food, because only during night, some feed is given which need
not be a standard one.
 High cost of fencing.
 Need for routine cleaning and removal of litter material from pen
Intensive system
Due to improvements in the ability of birds to grow and produce, extensive and semi- extensive
systems are not commercially practiced in our country. The word “Intensive” means more
concentrated or more numbers per unit area or more intensity. Therefore, in all the systems under
this category, more birds can be reared in a given area than in semi-extensive or extensive
systems. There will be no area given outside the house. That means they are restricted into a
house where they are provided with food, water and all other requirements. Therefore, intensive
system can also be called ‘in-house system’. Since the birds are kept in-door always, they need to
be provided with vitamin D through feed or water.
Advantages:
• Most efficient, convenient and economical system for modern poultry production
• Production performance is higher
• Scientific management practices like breeding, feeding, medication, culling can be
applied easily.
• Sick birds can be detected, isolated and treated easily.
Disadvantages:
• Birds welfare is affected
• All nutrients should be provided in balanced manner

Deep litter, cage, slat and slat and litter are the intensive systems of rearing chicken. Of these, in
India, deep litter and cage systems are more popular.
(i) Deep litter system
In this system, birds are left free on the floor. To avoid cleaning of the floor every day, material
which can absorb moisture is spread on the floor before leaving the birds on it. The material
which is spread to absorb moisture is called as “Litter material”. Therefore, litter material with
faeces produced by the birds accumulates and bacteria in such material decompose and form
very good manure. Since the litter becomes deeper day by day, the system is referred to as “Deep

44
litter system”. Birds do scratch and peck in the litter and even get certain vitamins and unknown
growth factors while doing so! Most of the broilers in India are being reared under this system.
Commonly used litter material
Paddy husk, ground nut shells, saw dust, wood shavings, maize cobs, maize straw etc. can be
used as litter material and paddy husk is by far the most commonly employed one.
• Depth of litter: chicks- 5 cm
• Growers and layers - 7-10 cm
Advantages:
• Litter material absorb moisture
• Welfare of birds is maintained to some extent
• Easy removal of dropping
• Vit. B2and B12 are made available to birds from litter.
• Built up litter- good organic manure
Disadvantages:
• Litter born diseases
• Respiratory problems
• More expensive than semi-intensive system
All-Slat system
A system in which the birds are reared on raised floor (made of mesh work) allowing faecal
matter to collect in a pit underneath was developed. This system is called “Slat system of
housing”.
Slats can be made of wire or wood or high-impact plastic or any other strong material. They must
be 2.50 to 5.00 cm wide and 2.50 cm apart running lengthwise of the building. They are fixed at
2.5-3.0 feet above the floor to allow collection of manure over a period of one year for which the
birds are grown. The slats should be strong enough not to sag due to weight of the birds and
their own.
Advantages:
• Bedding is eliminated
• Manure handling is avoided
• No chance of litter born diseases
• Easy collection of dropping

45
Disadvantages:
• Higher initial cost
• Spilled feed lost through the slots
• More fly problem
Slat and litter system
This system is a combination of all-slat and deep litter systems. This is especially useful for
breeding birds because increased fertility is noticed in this system.
• 60% slat area and 40% litter area
• Feeders and drinkers arranged on both slat and litter
• Slats on either side of house against each side wall leaving central portion for litter floor.
• Used for meat type breeders, growers
Advantages:
• More eggs per unit floor space than solid floor
• Fertility is better than all slat houses
Disadvantage:
• Higher housing investment
(ii) Cage system
Increase in cost of land and availability and wages of labour has made litter system costly.
Therefore, alternate systems in which birds are totally restricted to meshwork compartments
(cages) were introduced. This saves the cost of litter material, reduces labour requirement and
building cost. Most of the layers are grown in cages all over the world.

Cages suitable for all age and types of chicken are available. But, in our country, cages are
popularly used for layers, whereas, others are generally reared on deep litter. Even in cages for
layers, 3- bird cages are more popular than 1, 2, 4, 15 or 30-bird cages. Cages housing 15 or 30
hens are popularly called “Community or Colony cages”.
Advantages:
 This system can accommodate more number of birds in a given space than any other
system.
 Movement of birds is restricted and hence they consume less feed when compared to
other systems.
 There will be less wastage of feed because movement is restricted.

46
  No problem of litter-borne diseases, especially coccidiosis.
 Spread of disease is slower than other systems.
 Incidence of cannibalism is minimum.
 Birds lay more and heavier eggs.
 Consume less feed per dozen eggs produced.
 Eggs will be cleaner than in other systems.
 Broodiness is avoided.
 Labour requirement is minimum.
Disadvantages:
 Welfare is affected because they are not able to move freely.
 High initial investment,
 Fly problem,
 Cage layer fatigue

TYPES OF CAGES
Based on number of birds in cage
1. Single bird cage: only 1 bird/cage
2. Multiple bird cages: 2-10 birds per cage (3-4 birds/cage common)
3. Colony cages: more than 11 birds /cage
Based on number of rows
Single deck, double deck, triple deck, four deck and flat deck

Based on arrangement of cages

Stair step cages: M type and L type
Battery cages (Vertical cages)
Based on type of birds housed:
Brooder cage, Grower cage, Layer cage, Breeder cage, broiler cage

47
 CAGE SPECIFICATIONS
Specifications for brooder cage (0-8 weeks)
• Front feeding length : 60”
• Front and Back Height : 12”
• Depth: 36”
• Fabricated in single and double deck
• No. of chicks accommodated : 60
• Feeder provision inside cage, use of paper on floor of cage
Specifications grower cage (9-18weeks)
• Front feeding length : 30”
• Front and Back Height : 15”
• Depth: 18”
No. of growers accommodated: 10
Specifications for layer cage (19-72 weeks)
Two types of stair step cages are used:
1. Conventional cage
• Front feeding length : 15”
• Front Height : 18”
• Back Height : 15”
• Depth: 18”
• No of layers accommodated : 3-4 layers
• Arranged in two or four tire
• Slope of 1/6 is provided for cage
2. Reverse cage
• Front feeding length : 18”
• Front Height : 18”
• Back Height : 15”
• Depth: 15”
• No of layers accommodated : 3-4 layers
• Arranged in two or four tire
• Slope of 1/5 is provided for cage

48
Advantages of reverse cage over conventional cage :
• More feeding space is available in reverse cage. All 4 birds take feed at a time. In conventional
cage 3 birds take feed and 1 takes rest at the time.
• Number of cracked eggs is less due to lesser rolling distance.
• Better ventilation in reverse cage
Elevated cage layer house :
• Height of shed raised by 6-7 feet using concrete pillars. Distance between two pillars 10feet. 2
feet wide concrete platforms are made over pillars.
• For 3 M type cage arrangement : 4 platforms are required
• For 2M and 2 L cage arrangement : 3 platforms are required
• Inter-platform distance : 6-7 feet
• Total height of house : 20-25 feet
• Width of house : 30 to 33 feet

49
50
 Environmentally Controlled Housing (ECH) System

• A controlled environmental house is one in which inside condition are maintained as near
as possible to the birds requirements.
• For this completely enclosed insulated house with no window is preferred.
• Air is removed by exhaust fans and fresh air brought in through intake opening.
• Inside temperature is controlled by suitable devices. Artificial light is used to illuminate
the interior.
• Much of the structural design of environmentally controlled houses are similar to open
sided houses, but for the following modifications.
– Insulation is mandatory-both onside and top.
– No need of lengthy overhang.
– The width of the house can be greater than open sided houses since mechanical
devices are used for ventilating the house.
ADVANTAGES OF ECH:
1. Per square feet yield can be improved up to 24 kg per annum as compared to 12 kg per
annum in conventional system.
2. The mortality can be reduced from 8-10% to 2% in environmentally controlled house.
3. Feed conversion ratio is substantially improved.
4. Number of birds that can be housed in environmentally controlled houses is three times
more than that of conventional houses.
5. The production cycle in environmentally controlled houses is quite regular throughout the
year without break whereas in open shed there is break during summer month.
6. Better quality meat
7. Less labour and more efficient working atmosphere
8. Less feed wastage
9. Less cost of medication

51
Rearing system of broilers
ALL IN ALL OUT
• Used for broiler rearing
• All chicks placed in the houses at one time, later all are removed out at one time
• The farm will have only one batch of broilers, belonging to the same hatch at any time
• Another group of chicks is not to be placed in the house until all older birds removed out
and premises cleaned.
Advantages
• More sanitary and hygienic
• Easy to control and break disease cycle during down time
• Due to lesser disease problem there will be low mortality
• Faster growth rate, better feed efficiency and higher net income
Disadvantages
• Work load, type of work and farm routine are not uniform
• Need more equipments
• Different sized feeders and waterers are used and equipments unsuitable for particular
age group.
• Less efficient use of houses and equipments
MULTIPLE BATCH SYSTEM
• Chicks of several ages on the same farm
• Rearing of more than one batch of chicks at any time, with a batch interval of 1 to 4
weeks.
• Farmers will buy day old broiler chicks and selling grown up broiler at weekly,
fortnightly, once in three weeks or at monthly interval.
Advantages
• Need lesser equipments
• Better utilization of space
• More suitable and economical for cage rearing and large size farm also
Disadvantages
• Lesser sanitary
• Difficult to break the disease cycle
• Infection, leading to poor growth, feed efficiency
• Higher mortality due to disease problem
• Lower net income

52
 All-in-all-out system (Single batch) system Multiple batch system

Difficult to break the disease cycle, unless

Easy to control and break the disease cycle during down
different batches of chicks are maintained in
time
different houses.

Due to lesser disease problems, there will be low Due to more disease problems, there will be
mortality, higher mortality,

Marketing will be easier since only a portion of

Marketing all birds in a single lot is problematic unless birds in the farm, will be sold at time. Moreover,
there is an organized market it is suitable for farmers engaged in retail
marketing.

Needs lesser equipment because, the brooders,

Needs more equipment, since 2 to 3 different sized
chick guards and small sized equipment used for
feeders and waterers are used and all birds will be brood
the earlier batch can be used for the new batch,
in a single lot. Moreover, the equipment unsuitable for the
and the older batches will be utilizing medium
particular age group.
and larger sized equipment of any size.

Since there is only one batch; which does not need the Better utilization of space Broilers reared in
entire space at the beginning and different sized smaller sized brooder houses, can be later moved
equipment at a time there will be less efficient utilization to bigger sized finished houses and there will be
of house and equipment. More investment on housing and about 25% saving in the housing cost and about
equipment. 50% savings in the equipment cost.

More suitable and economical for cage rearing

Not economical for cage rearing and large size farms.
and large size farms also.

More suitable for contract growing farms, under an More suitable for ownership farms, doing direct
integrator. marketing.
Not suitable for retail sale Suitable for day-to-day retail sale.

Systems of Rearing of layers

• Brood -grow -layer house – in deep litter
• Brood grow house + separate layer house – cage or deep litter
• Brood + grower + layer house
1+1+3 system
1+1+4 commonly used
1+1+5 system
****

53
 DEEP LITTER MANAGEMENT

To avoid cleaning of the floor every day, material which can absorb moisture is spread on the
floor before leaving the birds on it. The material which is spread to absorb moisture is called as
“Litter material”. Therefore, litter material with faeces produced by the birds accumulates and
bacteria in such material decompose and form very good manure. Since the litter becomes deeper
day by day, the system is referred to as “Deep litter system”. Birds do scratch and peck in the
litter and even get certain vitamins and unknown growth factors.

Recycling of nutrients in deep litter system

 The dropping from chicken when mixed with litter synthesizes Riboflavin (Vitamin B 2)
and Cynocobalamin (Vitamin B12) by the chemical and bacterial actions.
 The built-up litter also contains niacin, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, sodium and
calcium.
 Deep litter bird often pecks and eats a small quantity of litter material which contains
above nutrients. This phenomenon is known as recycling.
 Even if the poultry feed is slightly deficient in some of the nutrients, the deep litter birds
will not show any deficiency symptoms due the recycling of nutrients.
 In cage rearing the recycling of nutrients is completely absent.
 So, all the nutrients including calcium, phosphorus and sodium must be balanced
meticulously in poultry ration.

Litter Materials
Various agro-industrial by-products and waste products can be utilized as litter materials.
Some of the commonly used litter materials are, paddy husk, peanut hulls, coir pith, wood
shavings, saw dust, fallen leaves, chopped straw, sugarcane bagasse, paper shreds, ground
corn cobs or any harmless agro industrial thrash material, which absorbs moisture. The
choice of the litter material mainly depends upon the cost and local availability.

54
Qualities of Good litter material
 It must absorb moisture from droppings quickly.
 It must release moisture and dries up rapidly.
 It must have least tendency to form cakes.
 It must be free from mould growth.
 It must be free from sharp objects and other objectionable materials.
 It must be non-toxic, inert and compressible.
 It should possess good insulating properties and protect chicks from extremes of climate.
 It must be cheap and locally available.
 It must be biodegradable, supply some nutrients to the birds and form a good quality
manure later.
 It must have medium particle size, soft and light in weight.
Litter maintenance:
Although litter will function more efficiently on an earthen floor, a concrete floor is advised
for a perfect disinfection at the end of each batch. About 5-7 cm of litter should be put into the
house initially and, as this breaks down, more should be added till a depth of about 10-12 cm is
reached depending upon season and growing period. Before adding fresh litter material, remove
the caked up and wet litter material. Rack the litter thoroughly to break the clumps with the help
of the litter racker and allow it to dry. Sprinkle a mixture of wood ash and fertilizer grade
superphosphate in the ratio of 4:1, at the ratio of 5 kg per 10 m2 area, before racking the litter to
prevent ammonia gas release from litter. Addition of slaked lime may be avoided that will
increase the pH of the litter which in turn release more ammonia from the litter and also favours
the growth of E. coli, the most common pathogen of poultry. If necessary, add slaked lime mixed
with bleaching powder at 10:1 ratio, to kill microbes in the litter.
Avoid spillage of water on the litter. Never fill the waterers to their full capcity. Keep the
height of the waterers on par with the back height of the birds. Perferably use nipple drinkers at
the rate of 1 to 10 birds and keep their height just above the chick head level. Remove the wet
litter immediately, sprinkle wood ash+ superphosphate 4:1 mixture as indicated above, and fresh
litter, if needed.

55
 In case of open sided houses, close the curtains while raining, to prevent splashing of rain
water. But as soon as the rain stops, remove the curtains, to improve ventilation and to reduce the
ammonia level. Provided sufficient ventilation and avoid over crowding, to keep liter dry.
A well maintained litter should be friable and should not form cakes. The moisture level
in the litter should be between 20-25%. If the moisture level is more than 25% the following
problems will arise.
a. Litter will become wet and form cakes
b. Generate more heat due to ferementation
c. More ammonia gas will be produced; leading to conjunctivitis and rhinitis
d. More incidence of coccidiosis
e. The wet litter will form boots over the foot pad and toes and cause foot pad
dermatitis, bumble foot and lameness.
f. More incidences of parasitic and respiratory diseases and flies.
On the other hand, too dry litter with less than 15% moisture level, will
a. Contaminate the feeders and waterers by falling into it.
b. Create too much dustiness and predispose the birds to brooder pneumonia and
other respiratory diseases.
Hence, the litter should be neither too dry nor too wet.
Testing of litter material quality
Quality of a litter material is tested by picking a hand full of litter material and presses
it tightly. A good litter material is the one which breaks up when hand is open and the
litter material with more moisture will form a ball in the hand. Too much dried litter
material causes dustiness in the farm resulting into respiratory problems.
Factors influencing the litter quality
1. Overcrowding will make the litter wet soon.
2. Insufficient litter material
3. Insufficient ventilation
4. Atmospheric temperature and relative humidity
5. Too high side walls of the house
6. Splashing of rain water into the shed
7. Defective and leaky waters

56
 8. Enteric diseases like diarrhoea
9. Water consumption by the birds
10. Water quality, especially the dissolved mineral levels.
11. Pellet feeding will increase the water intake and therby causes wet litter condition.
12. Litter management
13. Excess salt in feed also leads to watery droppings and wet litter condition.
14. Seepage of water in the floor due to low flooring, mud floor, high water table and
improper cement flooring leads to wet litter problem.
15. Excess fibre in the feed also leads to watery droppings and wet litter condition.
16. Operating the foggers to cool the poultry house will increase the humidity and wet
litter condition.
Recycling of old litter:
In certain places where the litter material is very costly, scarce high labour cost
and no market for the used litter, the old litter is reclycled after treatment.
The common treatment followed will be heaping and reheaping. During
reheaping, the top layer of the previous heap will go to the bottom and the bottom layer
will come to the top. During heaping and reheaping the litter get fermented, which
generate sufficient heat, to kill all the harmful microbes and make it safe for the next
batch of birds reared on it.
While heaping, a disinfectant solution will be sprayed on the floor and heaped
litter, to reduce the microbial load. After 7 to 10 days heaping and reheaping, the litter
will be spread again. The caked up litter will be either broken on removed. Rack the litter
daily and bring the litter moisture level to below 15 percent. Now the recycled litter is
ready for rearing the next batch of birds. Never recycle the litter, if any serious disease
outbreak like coccidiosis has occurred in the previous batch on the litter. The recycled
litter will be always inferior to the fresh litter.

****

57
 BROODING MANAGEMENT

Reason/Purpose of Brooding
The thermoregulatory mechanism of a newly hatched chick is not well developed and
takes about two weeks for this mechanism to develop fully and maintain homeostasis. Therefore
chicks cannot maintain the body temperature properly for the first few weeks of life; and may be
subjected to chilling, if not properly taken care off. Under these circumstances, artificial
brooding is mainly aimed at, providing extra heat or warmth during the first two to three weeks
of the chicks life. This is done to prevent cold shock since the environmental temperature may be
lower than the hatcher temperature. Therefore, chicks cannot maintain body temperature soon
after they are hatched. In nature also, hens provide the chicks warmth under their wings or
breasts. In a commercial set up, “brooders” are used for this purpose.
What happens if you do not brood the chicks?
If brooding is not done, chicks obviously feel cold. To overcome this, they huddle and heap on
one another. Hence, many chicks at the bottom of the heap may die due to suffocation and
trampling. Further, they do not move around resulting in starvation and death. Therefore,
brooding is mandatory for chicks.
Brooding Temperature
The brooding temperature should be 35ºC (95ºF) which has to be reduced at the rate of 2.7ºC
(5ºF) per week till the required brooding temperature is same as that of house temperature.
Hence, brooding is necessary for the first 4 weeks. However, under cold weather conditions,
brooding may have to be extended till 6 weeks whereas, brooding may have to be limited to only
1 or 2 weeks under hot weather conditions.
Why is brooding reduced every week?
One of the reasons why the chicks require brooding is that they have not grown the feathers yet.
Therefore, if we reduce brooding temperature every week, it stimulates feather growth.
Where to measure brooding temperature?
Brooding temperature, if measured, is at a height of 8 to 10 cm above the litter floor under the
brooder in case of reflector brooder and infra-red bulbs and at the edge of the canopy in case of
canopy brooding. As the birds grow in size, the height at which temperature is measured should
also be increased.

58
Classification of brooding
Natural brooding: It is done with the help of broody hens after hatching, up to 3 to 4 weeks of
age.
Artificial brooding: In artificial brooding large number of baby chicks are reared in the absence
of broody hen.
Equipments used for brooding are called brooders. Brooder comprises of three elements:
o Heating source
o Reflectors
o Brooder guard
Heating source may be electrical, gases like natural gas, LPG and methane, liquid fuel like
kerosene and solid fuel like coal, wood can be used as a heating material.
Charcoal stove / kerosene stove
 Where electricity is not available, ordinary charcoal / kerosene stoves are used to provide
supplementary heat to chicks.
These stoves are covered with plate / pans to dissipate the heat.
Electrical brooder
 It is also thermostatically controlled heating system that spread required amount of heat
uniformly above large area, this avoid crowding of chicks under brooder directly.
 One electrical brooder can be used for 300 to 400 chicks.
Infra red bulbs
 It is a self reflecting bulb. One 250 watts IR bulb can provide brooding for about 150 to
250 chicks.
 Gas brooder Natural gas, LPG or methane is connected to heating element which is
hanged 3 to 5 feet above the chick to provide heat. Now practised particularly in semi-
environmentally controlled and environmentally controlled houses. These are costly but
can take care of 1500 to 2000 chicks
Reflectors
 These reflectors are called Hovers. Flat type hover – These hovers are provided with
heating element, heating mechanism and pilot lamp and in some cases thermometer is
also there in order to record the temperature.

59
  Canopy type hover – These reflectors are in concave shape consisting of ordinary
electrical bulb, thermostat mechanism and in some cases thermometer.
Brooder guard / chick guard
 They are used to prevent chicks from straying too far away from heat supply until they
learn the source of heat.
 We have to provide brooder guard with a diameter of 5 feet, height of the brooder should
not exceed 1.5 feet.
 For this purpose, we can use materials like cardboard sheet, GI sheet, wire mesh, and mat
etc. depending upon the season of brooding.
 During summer season, brooding is done for 5-6 days. In winter season it is 2-3 weeks.
Heater coils
 Hater coils may also be provided for warmth instead of bulbs.
 Heater coils of various watts capacities with thermostats, reflector hoods and hanging
chains are available for providing heat to chicks. These coils are more suitable for cold
climates, because they give more heat. Separate tube lights have to be provided for
lighting the house. They have to be hanged above the reach of the chicks
 Centralised heating system of brooding is followed in environmentally controlled
poultry houses; where the room temperature is maintained at an average of 32 °C during
first week of age
 Battery brooders – Multi-tier cage brooding is also practised. Bulbs or heaters with
thermostats are used to provide warmth to chicks in the battery cages
 Bio-gas brooders – Certain farms use the cage droppings and cow dung to generate bio-
gas; which will be used to provide light and heat to the birds
Brooding Chicks
As soon as the chicks arrive, they have to be taken out of chick boxes and kept in the brooder
house. The following steps are recommended:
 It is advisable to examine a sample of chicks from each of the chick boxes to ascertain
the quality of the chicks; it also helps to note mortality, if any, during transit.
 It is a good practice to dip the beaks of the newly hatched chicks in water and leave them
into the brooder area. Otherwise, the chick box can be inverted quickly to dump all the
chicks nearby the brooding area. It is essential to count the chicks at this time.

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  Chicks have to be observed carefully to identify weak ones and also to help those which
are not able to reach for feed and water.
 It is equally necessary to observe and ensure that all the chicks are actually eating. You
may have to watch out for “starve-outs” by catching few of them randomly and
examining at the base of the neck for presence of feed in a pouch like structure called
“Crop” under the skin.
 Drinkers have to be cleaned and freshwater to be given at least twice a day. Similarly,
feed is also offered at least twice a day.
 Care has to be exercised in placing the drinkers. They have to be kept at horizontal plane
and it must be ensured that water is not flowing out onto the litter.
 Standard balanced ration (broiler starter) has to be offered without any restriction (ad
libitum).
 As the birds advance in age, bell or nipple drinkers and linear or hanging feeders can be
introduced; replacing part of the existing feeders and drinkers at a time.
 Floor space and drinker space must be adequate to avoid unnecessary competition,
cannibalism (eating one another), poor growth and wastage of feed. Broilers up to 4
weeks require 450 cm² (½ sq ft) and later 900 cm² per chick (1 sq ft); the corresponding
drinker space requirements are 1.5 and 2.5 linear cm, respectively.
Comfort of Chicks
The next step is to assess whether the chicks are comfortable or not. It can be done as follows:
If the brooding temperature is comfortable, chicks should move in and out of brooder uniformly.
During the morning time, the birds will be continuously disturbed due to routine farm operations
such as feeding, watering etc. Hence, observation will not be accurate. However, during the night
time, the farmer can inspect brooder house without disturbing the chicks. He/she can walk all
round the shed on the side-walk so that no chick will be disturbed. If chicks are uniformly
distributed under the brooder guard (both brooder and run space), the conditions provided are
comfortable.

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Assessment of brooding comfort
This can also be assessed by noting the distribution of faecal matter on the paper spread on the
litter. If faeces (droppings) are uniformly distributed on the paper, the birds were comfortable
during the night time. On the contrary, if most of the droppings is seen under the brooder or at
the periphery (just close to brooder guard), the brooding temperature is considered too low or too
high, respectively. If droppings are seen in a triangular fashion on one side of the brooder area, it
indicates blowing of cold air from that direction, it is possible that curtains fixed to the windows
have come off in that direction.
Lighting
Light is a basic necessity for all animals, including human beings. For chicks, light is required
not only for seeing (visibility), but also as a source of heat, especially in canopy brooders. Hence,
details regarding light requirements of broilers are given below:
Duration of light
During brooding 23 hours of light and 1 hour of darkness should be provided. Under canopy
brooding, the light serves two purpose of both illumination for visibility and also heating the air
by convection to provide the required brooding temperature. Under infra-red brooding, the light
primarily serves the purpose of visibility. In all the methods of brooding, one hour darkness at a

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specified time of the day is provided mainly to acclimatize chicks for power failure; this would
help minimize huddling of chicks and subsequent mortality due to sudden power failure.
Intensity of light
The required intensity of light can be achieved by use of 10 Watts of light bulb per m² of floor
space (about 1 Watt per sq ft); the bulb being fixed at about 2.4 m above the floor. This intensity
is sufficient enough to brightly illuminate feeders and reflect off from the drinking water to
attract the chicks.
After 48 hr of brooding, intensity at the floor level can be reduced by use of 2.70 Watts of light
per m² (about 0.27 Watts per sq ft) of floor space; the bulb being fixed at about 2.4 m above the
floor.
*****

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 MANAGEMENT OF CHICKS (LAYING TYPE)
The term “Layers” refers to the birds which have already started laying eggs. But, “Laying-
type birds” includes chicks (up to 8 weeks of age), growers (9 to 18 or 20 weeks of age) and
layers (after 18 or 20 weeks of age).
It is not common that one purchases birds which are ready for lay (called “Ready-to-lay
pullets”) and start a layer farm. This is primarily because of non-availability of ready-to-lay
pullets and also because they are sold for profits by the seller. It is equally difficult to determine
the exact age of the birds purchased and the care taken during rearing of those birds definitely
influences their egg production also. Therefore, it is not advisable to purchase ready-to-lay
pullets.
Therefore, management of laying-type birds has three components namely, chicks (0 to 8
weeks of age), growers (9 to 18 or 20 weeks of age) and layers (above 18 or 20 weeks of age).
Space requirement of chicks
Laying-type chicks require 700 cm² of floor space, 5 cm feeder space and 1.5 cm drinker space
by the time they are 8 weeks of age. That means, these allowances are gradually increased as the
birds grow. You should always remember that these requirements are at 21.1ºC. If temperature
increases, all space requirements have to be increased. Comfort of the birds as indicated by
livability is the criteria for deciding how much to increase.
Feed Requirement
Weekly feed requirement and body weight of laying-type chicks are tabulated below. During
brooding period, each bird consumes about 1.68 kg of chick starter feed. Chick starter ration
which is available in the mash form is offered during brooding period. Many standard feed
manufacturers can supply feed at the farm gate. Sometimes, even the hatchery which supplies
chicks also provides or recommends a feed source. You can make your own feed also.
Water Requirement
Water must be available always and ad libitum. The following table is only a guide, but in
practice, bell drinkers ensure continuous supply of water. It can be seen that during brooding
period, each bird at 21.1ºC requires about 9 litres of drinking water.

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 Table Water intake by layer chicks at 21.1°C
Water intake (ml)
Age (weeks) Per bird/day Per bird/week Cumulative per bird
1 30 210 -
2 61 427 637
3 95 665 1302
4 133 931 2233
5 174 1218 3451
6 216 1512 4963
7 254 1778 6741
8 288 2016 8757
Vaccination
All of you know that all vaccines can not be and should not be given at the same time. The
vaccines are given against diseases in such an order or schedule that the birds will be protected
by the time the disease is likely to occur in the flock. This is commonly referred to as
Vaccination schedule. The following table gives the recommended vaccination schedule during
brooding period:
Table Vaccination schedule of layer chicks
Age (days/wks) Disease Route
Day old MD Sub-cutaneous (neck)/ Intramuscular
th th th
5 /6 /7 RD + IB Ocular or nasal
12th//13th/14th IBD Ocular or nasal
st
21 RD + IB Ocular or nasal or water
28th IBD Ocular or nasal or water
th th
5 to 6 week Coryza* Sub-cutaneous (neck)
6th week Fowl pox wing web
th
8 week RD Sub-cutaneous/ Intramuscular
* Not compulsory

ND- Raniket Disease; IB- Infectious Bronchitis; IBD-Infectious Bursal Disease

Debeaking/beak trimming:
To avoid feed wastage, the chicks are to be debeaked. Their beaks have to be cut short
by electrical [Link] if carried out properly may be done only once during
fourth week. It may also be performed at the during the end of second week (10-14 days) and
repeated at 12-14th week. The upper beak has to be cut 2/3rd and the lower beak 1/3rd portion.

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The cut portion has to be cauterized by touching on the hot plate. The tongue should be carefully
held back. Undertake debeaking during cooler parts of the day. Provide anti-stress B-complex
vitamins and vitamin K in drinking water before, during and after the day of debeaking; adjust
the feeder and waterer height to be lower than before to suit the shortened beak. Engage
experienced persons to perform debeaking, to do it properly with lesser stress and to avoid the
necessity for repetition. Since layer chicks are comparatively more active, they tend to peck at
each other’s back (cannibalism), cause injury and death also. Debeaking helps to prevent such
instances.
Evaluation of performance of Chicks
The following are some of the practical indicators of the performance of chicks farm which can
be calculated only when accurate records are maintained:
(i) Average weight (kg)
This is simplest criterion. You can assess periodically (say weekly) body weight of about 5% of
the birds, chosen at random, in each batch. Average weight can be easily calculated and can be
compared with the values given in above table.
(ii) Feed conversion ratio (FCR)
As the name suggests, it is the quantity of feed required for one kg weight gain. Day-old layer
chicks weigh only between 35 to 40 g. Hence, weight gain and average weight at a specified age
are considered the same.
(iii) Livability %
This is 100 times the ratio of number of birds shifted to grower house to the number of birds
started. This is the reverse of mortality; hence, higher the better. Generally, ≥ 98% livability (or
≤ 2% mortality) is expected. Hatchery supplies 2% of extra chicks free of cost.
Livability % of a layer chick = Number of birds shifted to grower house x 100
Number of birds started

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 MANGEMENT OF GROWERES
Now, you have 8 weeks old birds in the Brood-Grow House. Consider that these birds are
destined to be layers by 16 to 18 weeks of age. Therefore, it is very important that certain
management steps are undertaken to improve their performance, which in turn increases your
profit.
Space Requirement
Laying-type chicken during growing stage require 900 cm² of floor space, 6.5 cm of feeder space
and 2.5 cm of drinker space. These requirements are gradually increased from brooding period.
You should always bear in mind that these requirements are at 21.1ºC. If temperature increases,
all space requirements have to be increased; comfort of the birds as indicated by livability is the
criteria for deciding how much to increase.
Feed Restriction
During growing period, birds are feed restricted. You will immediately ask the reasons for not
offering ad libitum feed. The reasons are as follows:
 A considerable saving on feed cost is possible because, only 90 to 92% of the calculated
feed requirement will be offered.
 They are likely to consume less feed per dozen eggs even when they are offered ad
libitum feed during laying period.
 The pullets (females before beginning to lay eggs) accumulate less fat and therefore
produce more eggs.
 It is easier to identify weaker birds at an early age during feed restriction. Removing
(Culling) of such birds helps not only saves feed cost, but also improves layer house
livability because, healthier birds will be moving to the layer house.
 Layers which are feed restricted during growing period have been found to produce
heavier eggs in longer sequences (number of eggs laid without a gap; also called
“Clutch”) than those fed ad libitum.
Obviously, you will definitely expect some bad effects also. They are as follows:
 Feed restricted birds mature late; but this is more than compensated by sustained
production of heavier eggs.

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  There will be reduction in grower house livability because, weaker birds will be culled.
But, this is compensated in the form of higher layer house livability. In fact, it is possible
to save feed which would have been offered to weaker birds had they entered layer house.
 Feed-restriction requires technical supervision.
You may get a different idea at this stage; why restrict feed? Just restrict feeder space.
Restricting feeder space only postpones feed consumption marginally. Birds soon learn to eat
rapidly and all would feed ad libitum. Next possibility you can think of is to carry on feed
restriction and feeder space restriction. This is dangerous. Restricting feeder space adds further
competition for the available feed and can result in fighting, injury and mortality. Therefore,
feeder space and drinker space can be increased but never decreased.
Method of feed restriction
 There are two types of feed restriction
 Quantitative and qualitative

Quantitative feed restriction

In which the amount of feed is reduced below the normal requirement of birds. This can
be done on day-to-day basis or skip-a-day programme or skip-two days in a week programme.
But this restriction depends on the matching of the flock average body weight with standard
body weight provided by the breeder. Quantitative feed restriction is usually followed in
commercial breeders
Qualitative feed restriction
In which the quality of the feed is reduced below the standard requirement of the bird.
This can be done by including unconventional feeds or lesser nutrient feed ingredients in place of
high protein or high energy diet. Here the quantity of allotment to the bird is not restricted.
During restricted feeding programme, provide more number of feeders and see that all the birds
are taking feed simultaneously or otherwise dominant birds will take more amount of feed and
the weaker will be subjected to feed deprivation and hence the uniformity will be affected.

Advantages of feed restriction during growing period

 A considerable saving on feed cost because, only 80 % of the calculated feed requirement
will be offered.

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  They are likely to consume less feed per dozen eggs even during laying period when they
are offered ad libitum feed.
 The pullets accumulate less fat and therefore produce more eggs.
 It is easier to identify weaker birds at an early age during feed restriction.
 Culling of such birds helps not only saving feed but also promoting layer house
survivability because, healthier birds will be moving to laying house.
 Layers feed-restricted during growing period have been found to produce heavier eggs in
longer clutches than those fed ad libitum.

Uniformity
At a given age, growing pullets should have average body weight very close to breeder
recommendations and at least 70% of the birds’ weight within 10% of flock average.
 Points to be considered for getting uniformity among growing pullets are,

o Receive chicks of uniform weight.

o Provide proper feeding, watering and floor space.
o Change the feeder and waterer according to the age.
o The height of the feeder and waterer should be at the back height of the bird.
o Provide proper energy in the diet.
o Sample weights of the pullets are taken at regular intervals and change the feed
accordingly.
o Provide proper feeding space, so as to all birds consume feed simultaneously.

Feed intake:

About 5.25 kg of feed is offered per growing bird between 9 and 20 weeks of age.
Table Feed intakes during growing period at 21.1ºC
Feed intake g/bird
Age (weeks) Av. Weight (g) Daily Weekly Cumulative
9 650 45 315 315
10 725 50 350 665
11 825 53 371 1036
12 900 55 385 1421
13 975 58 406 1827
14 1050 60 420 2247
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 15 1100 64 448 2695
16 1175 65 455 3150
17 1225 68 476 3626
18 1275 70 490 4116
19 1325 78 546 4662
20 1400 85 595 5257

Grower ration which is available in the mash form is offered for growing birds till first egg is
produced. Many standard feed manufacturers can supply feed at the farm gate. Sometimes, even
the hatchery which supplies chicks also provides or recommends a feed source. You can make
your own feed also.
Water Requirement
Water must be available always and ad libitum. The below given table is only a guide, but in
practice, bell drinkers ensure continuous supply of water. You can note that each bird at 21.1ºC
drinks about 12 litres of water during growing period (9 to 20 weeks of age)
Table Water intake during growing period at 21.1ºC
Age (weeks) Water intake (ml/bird)
Per day Per week Cumulative
9 124 868 -
10 129 903 1771
11 131 917 2688
12 134 938 3626
13 136 952 4578
14 138 966 5544
15 141 987 6531
16 143 1001 7532
17 145 1015 8547
18 147 1029 9576
19 149 1043 10619
20 150 1050 11665

Beak-trimming (Debeaking)
This is popularly known as debeaking. It is undertaken usually between 12 to 14 weeks of age. It
can be done in the brooder house also. For the majority of birds, it involves the partial removal of
the upper and lower beak using an electrically heated blade.
Why beak-trimming?

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  Beak trimming is performed early in the life of commercial hens to decrease injuries
caused by the behavioural bad habits (vices) like pecking and eating one’s own species
(cannibalism), bossing over others (bullying) as well as feather and vent pecking.
 To avoid feed wastage:
 To avoid egg-eating vice.
How much trimming?
For birds 10 to 12 weeks of age, beaks should be trimmed 6 to 7 mm beyond the nostril with 2
seconds of cauterization.
Precautions before beak-trimming
 You will naturally expect bleeding when beak is cut. Therefore, administering vitamin K
through drinking water 2 to 3 days before trimming can reduce bleeding.
 Birds should not be subjected to stress from housing, vaccination or deworming during
the week before or after trimming.
 Sick birds should not be beak-trimmed.
Precautions during beak-trimming
 You should hold the bird in such a way that it neither shakes it head nor suffocates.
 The beaks are opened with the help of index finger and the tongue is held back.
 The upper beak is cut first to the recommended level. The beak is held against the blade
and circular motion is given for at least 2 seconds while holding to effect proper
cauterization (blocking of cut blood vessels by heat).
 Lower beak is then cut as per the recommendation.
 Proper cauterization is once again ensured before the bird is left into the pen.
Note: If toe nails have grown in excess, they can also be trimmed.
Precautions after beak-trimming
 Feeders must be kept full with feed to help birds eat easily. Probably, this is the only
occasion when feeders are full with feed.
 Vitamins B-complex, C and K can be given through water to help reduce stress.
 All the birds must be observed carefully for any bleeding, especially in the upper beak. If
any bird shows bleeding, it must be separated at once, suitably treated. Otherwise, there is
a likelihood of cannibalism.

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De-worming
Internal parasites (worms) is one of the problems under deep-litter system because, the
birds have an access to their own faeces. However, in cage system, worms are not expected due
to obvious reason that faeces falls away from the birds. Hence, generally, during growing period,
birds are de-wormed few days before shifting them to cage layer house (CLH). If the layers are
reared on deep-litter, they have to be de-wormed once every 3 months.
Vaccination
The following vaccines are administered during the growing period:
Table Vaccination schedule during growing period
Age (weeks) Disease Route
12th IB Ocular or nasal or water
13th to 14th Coryza* Sub-cutaneous (neck)
th
16-18 Fowl Pox wing web
th
17 RD (R2B) Sub-cutaneous (neck)
* Not compulsory
Lighting
If natural day length remains constant around 10-12 hours per day or decreasing during growing
period, no artificial lighting at roof level is necessary. If the day length is increasing, then start
giving additional lighting so as to maintain constant day length during growing phase.

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