CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

CHAPTER TWO
ATOMS, MOLECULES AND IONS

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Atomic structure and symbolism

Atom contains a very small nucleus composed of positively charged protons and uncharged
neutrons, surrounded by a much larger volume of space containing negatively charged electrons

• The nucleus contains the majority of an

atom’s mass
• Electrons occupy almost all of an atom’s
volume
10-10m
10-15m • Size of an atom ~ 100000 time the size of
the nucleus

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

The actual mass of an atom is very small. For example, the actual mass of carbon
atom is about 2.0x10-23 g.
The actual charge of an electron is very small and is about 1.6x10-19 C.
Hence, instead of the actual mass, the relative atomic mass is used for
calculation.
Carbon -12 is used as a standard to determine the relative atomic mass.

��
�
1 amu = ��
of the mass of carbon – 12
��
�
1 amu = ��
x 2.0 x 10-23g = 1.66056x10-24 g

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.
The properties of electron, proton and neutron
Charge Mass
Name Absolute (C) Relative Absolute (g) Relative Location in atom
(symbol) (amu)
Proton (p+) +1.6x10-19 +1 1.673x10-24 1.0073 nucleus
Neutron (n) 0 0 1.675x10-24 1.0087 nucleus
Electron (e-) -1.6x10-19 -1 9.11x10-28 0.00055 outside nucleus

The number of proton, neutron and electrons

a) For neutral atom,
• Atomic number (Z) = Number of electron= number of proton (p)
• Mass number (A) = number of protons (p) + number of neutron (n) or
• Mass number (A) = Atomic number (Z) + number of neutron (n)

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

a) For ions
• Number of electron  number of proton (p)
• Atomic number (Z) = number of proton (p)
• Mass number (A) = number of protons (p) + number of neutron (n) or
• Mass number (A) = Atomic number (Z) + number of neutron (n)

Note
• Atomic charge = number of proton – number of electron
• For cations, the number of protons are higher than number of electrons
• For anions, the number of protons are less than the number of electrons

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Example:
1. An atom has mass number of 14 and 6 electrons. How many protons and neutrons does it
have? A = 14 e- = 6,
Number of p = number of e- = 6
Number of n = A-Z or A-p = 14-6 = 8
89��
2. What are the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons respectively in the isotopes of 38
A =89, Z = 38
Z = p = 38 and p = e- = 38 and
A = n + p, then n = A-p = 89-38 = 51
Exercise:
1. Calculate the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in 40
20��
2+

2. A certain ion has a mass number of 27, number of electron 10 and an atomic number of 13.
What is the number of the charge in this ion?
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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.
Chemical Symbols and Isotopes
A chemical symbol is an abbreviation that we use to indicate an element or an atom of an
element. For example, the symbol for mercury is Hg
• Most symbols have one or two letters, but three-letter symbols have been
used to describe some elements that have atomic numbers greater than 112.

Isotopes: is atoms of the same element having the same number of protons but different
number of neutrons.

Atomic symbol 12 13 14
6C 6C 6C
Name C-12 C-13 C-14
Number of protons 6 6 6
Number of electrons 6 6 6
Mass number 12 13 14
Number of neutrons 6 7 8
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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Atomic mass unit and average atomic mass

 In nature, some elements occur as isotopes and they have different atomic mass.
 Therefore, the atomic mass is “average atom,” which is a weighted average of the
masses of all the naturally occurring isotopes of that element.
 This is the reason that the atomic mass of an element in the periodic table is not
whole number
The atomic mass of an element of an isotopes is calculated into ways
1. Using percent in abundance

Average atomic mass = �1 �1+ �2 �2+ �3�3+⋯����

100

Where, A1, A2, A3, …. an atomic mass of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd…. the nth isotopes.
f1, f2, f3, are percentage abundance of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd ……to the nth isotopes.
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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

1. Using fractional in abundance

Average atomic mass = A1X1 + A2X2 + A3X3+…. AnXn

where X1, X2, X3…Xn are the fractional abundance of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd…the nth isotopes.
Note: The sum of fractional abundance is 1. That is X1 + X2 + X3…Xn = 1
Example:
[Link] element boron is composed of two isotopes: About 19.9% of all boron atoms
are 10B with a mass of 10.0129 amu, and the remaining 80.1% are 11B with a mass of 11.0093
amu. Calculate the average atomic mass of boron to four significant figures:

� 1 �1+ � 2 �2 = (10.0129 �19.9) +(11.0093 � 80.1)

Average atomic mass =
100 100
199.25671+881.84493 1081.10164
= = = 10.81 amu
100 100

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.
2. Silver has two naturally occurring isotopes: Ag-107 and Ag- 109. The percentage abundance of
Ag-107 isotope is 51.84 % and its atomic mass is 106.90. The average atomic mass of silver is
107.87.
a) Calculate the percentage isotope of the Ag – 109
b) What is the atomic mass of the Ag-109 isotope?
a) f1 = 51.84%, A1 = 106.90
The average atomic mass of silver = 107.87
f1 + f2 = 100 then, f2 = 100- f1 = 100 – 51.84 = 48.16%
106.9 � 51.84 + (�2 48.16)
b) Average atomic mass = A 1 f 1 + A 2 f 2 = = 107.87
100 100
(106.9x51.84) + (48.16A2) = 10787
5541.696 + 48.16A2 = 10787
48.16A2 = 10787 - 5541.696 = 5245.30
5245.30
A2 = 48.16 = 108.91 amu
Therefore, the atomic mass of the Ag-109 isotope is 108.91 amu
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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Exercise
The two naturally occurring isotopes of lithium, lithium-6 and lithium-7, have masses of 6.01512
amu and 7.01600 amu, respectively. The atomic mass of Li is 6.94 amu. Which of these two occurs in
greater abundance?

Chemical Formulas

A molecular formula is representation of a molecule that uses chemical symbols to indicate the
types of atoms followed by subscripts to show the number of atoms of each type in the molecule.

The structural formula for a compound gives the same information as its molecular formula but
also shows how the atoms are connected in the molecule.

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

A ball-and-stick model shows atoms as balls and bonds as sticks, and the angles between the bonds are
accurate. This type of model exaggerates the distance between bonded atoms

A space-filling model is an accurately scaled-up image of the molecule, but bonds are not shown,
and it can be difficult to see each atom in a complex molecule.

Molecular formula Structural formula Ball and stick model Space filling model

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 The law of Triads – Group of three CNCS, Dept. of Chem.
The Periodic Table
Historical development of the periodic table
Johann Dobereiner • In 1817, Dobereiner divide the elements into a group of three with similar
(1780 - 1849)
chemical properties known as Dobereiner’s triad
• Law of Triads “The atomic mass of the middle was approximately the
average atomic mass of the other two elements in the triad”
• This classification lead chemist to realize the relationship between
chemical properties atomic mass of each element
Limitations:
• Failed to arrange all the known elements in the form of triads.
• Did not fully apply within the same family.
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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

John Newlands • In 1863, John Newland arranged the known elements based on
(1837 - 1898 )
increasing atomic mass. The law states that “Elements with similar
properties recurred at every eighth element. This law known as the Law
of Octaves.
• He showed for first time, the existence of a periodic pattern for the
properties of elements.
Limitations:
• The law of octaves obeyed by the first 17 elements only (up to Ca at the
time)
• When noble gases were discovered, the properties of the eighth
elements, were no longer similar to the first one.
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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.
Lothar Meyer
(1830 - 1895)
• In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer independently
proposed the periodic law.

• When the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic

mass, certain sets of properties recur periodically.

• Meyer plotted a graph of the atomic volume against the atomic mass for all the
know elements (see the next slide)
• The result indicated that the most electropositive elements (Li, Na, K , Rb and Cs)
appearing at the peaks of the curve showing periodicity.

Note: atomic (molar) volume (cm3/mol) = molar mass (g/mol) 1/ density (cm3/g)

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Later, Meyer examined other physical properties

of the elements and their compounds, such as
hardness, compressibility, and boiling points,
and found that these also vary periodically

Exercise: Which periodic law does not show periodicity

a) Law of octaves B. Law of tirades
b) C. Mendeleev periodic table D. The modern periodic table
An illustration of the periodic law—
variation of atomic volume with atomic
number

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.
Dmitri Mendeleev • In 1869, Mendeleev arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic
(1834 - 1907)
mass and grouped them according to similar chemical properties.
• He arranged the elements into eight groups (Gruppe) and twelve rows
(Reihen).

Note: R2O, RO and so on, are formulas of

the element oxides (such as Li2O,
MgO……); RH4, RH3 and so forth are
formulas of the element hydrides (such as
CH4, NH3)

Mendeleev periodic table 1871

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Mendeleev’s work attracted more attention than Meyer’s for two reasons:
(a) He left blank spaces in his table for undiscovered elements (predict their
properties as well)
 These elements with atomic masses 44, 68, 72, and 100 we now know as
scandium, gallium, germanium, and technetium respectively.
For example, germanium was closely predicted with eka silicon
The term eka is derived from Sanskrit
and means “first.” That is, eka-silicon
means, literally, “first comes silicon” (and
then comes the unknown element).

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

(b) He corrected some atomic masses values for indium and uranium

Limitations of Mendeleev's periodic table:

a) Wrong order of atomic masses for some elements
• For example, the atomic mass of argon (39.95 amu) is greater than that of potassium
(39.10 amu). If elements were arranged solely according to increasing atomic mass, argon
would appear in the position occupied by potassium in the modern periodic table.

b) He did not leave place for noble gases

c) He did not give separate places for isotopes

The main reason that elements must be arranged based
on proton number
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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.
Henry J. G. Moseley • In 1914, Moseley studied the X- ray spectrum of elements.
(1887 - 1915)
• He concluded that proton number should be the basis for the periodic
change of chemical properties instead of the atomic mass.
• This leads to the modern periodic table

The modern periodic table

• The modern periodic law states “The properties of the elements are periodic functions of
their atomic numbers.”
• In a modern periodic table, the elements are arranged in increasing order of their atomic
numbers and groups atoms with similar properties in the same vertical column.
• The elements are arranged in seven horizontal rows, called periods or series, and 18
vertical columns, called groups.
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CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Classification of elements in the periodic table

1. Classification based on type
 The total element in the periodic table are 118. Of which, 91 are metals, 18 non-metals and 9
metalloids.

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

2. Classification based on groups

a) Representative elementsThe ‘A’ – group: Main groups (IA – VIIIA)
b) Transition elements: The ‘B’ – group: Sub-group (IB - VIIIB)
c) Inner transition elements – they are found separately in two rows and 14 columns at
the bottom of the periodic table.
3. Classification based on composition of compound they form
Group Common names Note: Hydrogen is a
IA Alkali metals
IIA Alkaline earth metals unique, nonmetallic
IIIA Boron family element with properties
IVA Carbon family
VA Nitrogen family (pnictogens ) similar to both group 1
VIA Oxygen family (chalcogens)
VIIA Halogens and group 17 elements
VIIIA Noble gases (inert gases)

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Ionic and Molecular Compounds

Ion: a charged particles that are formed during the formation of some compounds, when atoms
gain or lose electrons.
• Atoms of many main-group metals lose enough • Moving from the far left to the right on the
electrons to leave them with the same number periodic table, main-group elements tend to
of electrons as an atom of the preceding noble form cations with a charge equal to the
gas group number.
• When atoms of nonmetal elements form ions, • Moving from the far right to the left on the
they generally gain enough electrons to give periodic table, elements often form anions
them the same number of electrons as an atom with a negative charge equal to the number
of the next noble gas in the periodic table of groups moved left from the noble gases.

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CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Example: Magnesium and

nitrogen react to form an
ionic compound. Predict
which forms an anion,
which forms a cation, and
the charges of each ion.
Write the symbol for each
ion and name them.

Mg2+ N-3

Mg3N2

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Two types of ions Some common polyatomic ions

 Monatomic ions: are electrically
charged that contains only one type
of atoms (see the periodic table
above)
 Poly atomic ions: these ions, which
act as discrete units, are electrically
charged molecules (a group of
bonded atoms with an overall
charge)- contains two or atoms

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Formation of Ionic Compounds Examples:

 When an element composed of atoms that

readily lose electrons (a metal) reacts with an
element composed of atoms that readily gain
electrons (a nonmetal), a transfer of electrons
usually occurs, producing ions.
 The compound formed by this transfer is
stabilized by the electrostatic attractions
(ionic bonds) between the ions of opposite
charge present in the compound.

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Example: Calcium dihydrogen phosphate, an ionic compound composed of the ions Ca2+ and H2PO4.
What is the formula of this compound?
Solution: Ca2+ H2PO4- = Ca(H2PO4)2

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Properties of ionic compounds

 Made from a metal and a non-metal
 Formed by the transfer of electrons
 They are very strong
 Are solid at room temperature
 Have high melting and boiling points
 Does not conduct electricity in the solid state, but does in a liquid and
aqueous state
 They are a neutral compounds

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Formation of Molecular Compounds

 Molecular compounds are discrete, neutral

molecules.
 These molecular compounds are covalent
compounds)
The Lewis structure of fluorine molecule
 Covalent compounds are usually formed by a
combination of nonmetals.
 They are formed by the sharing of electrons

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Chemical Nomenclature of ionic compounds

Nomenclature, a collection of rules for naming things, is important in science and in many other
situations.
1. Compounds Containing Only Monatomic Ions
Example:
o In the name of an ionic compound made up of
two elements, the name of the metal ion,
which is written first, is the same as its element
name.
o The name of the nonmetal ion is obtained by
using the first syllable of its element name
followed by ide
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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

2. Compounds containing polyatomic Ions

• When naming ionic compounds Some ionic compounds that polyatomic ions

containing polyatomic ions, we

first write the positive ion,
usually a metal, and then we
write the name for the
polyatomic ion.

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

3. Compounds Containing a metal ion with a variable charge

• Most of the transition metals and some main group metals can form two or more
cations with different charges (please look at the periodic table)

Elements that form two cations Some ionic Compounds with variably charged metal ions

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

4. Hydrated Salts
o Ionic compounds that contain water molecules as Nomenclature prefix
integral components of their crystals are called
hydrates.
.
o For example, the anhydrous compound copper(II)
sulfate also exists as a hydrate containing five water
molecules and named copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate
Copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate CuSO4∙5H2O Exercise: Write the formula of the following
Sodium carbonate decahydrateNa2CO3∙10H2O hydrated salts
a) Epsom salt
b) Gypsum salt

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.

Chemical Nomenclature of molecular compounds

1. Compounds composed of two elements
The name of the more metallic element followed by the name of the more nonmetallic
element with its ending changed to the suffix –ide
Example:

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.
Binary acids
o Binary acid is an acid that contains two elements (comprised of hydrogen and one other
nonmetallic element): 1. The word “hydrogen” is changed to the prefix hydro-
2. The other nonmetallic element name is modified by adding the suffix -ic
3. The word “acid” is added as a second word

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 CNCS, Dept. of Chem.
Oxyacids
Oxyacids: is an acid contain hydrogen, oxygen, and non-metal.
To name oxyacids:

1. Omit “hydrogen” 3. Replace –ate with –ic, or –ite with –ous

2. Start with the root name of the anion 4. Add “acid”

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