EASWARI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(AUTONOMOUS)
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
2311CEC402J – GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
LECTURE NOTES

Unit I - Basic Properties of Soils

Soil formation – Physical properties of soil – Phase relations- Problems on basic definitions and
relationship- Soil description and classification for engineering purposes-functional relationships- Soil
description - their significance and problems- Index properties of soils- Physical properties- Problems-
Index properties - Problems- Atterberg limits BIS Classification system

1. Introduction to Soil (5 minutes)

Definition of Soil
Soil is a natural aggregate of mineral particles that can be separated by mechanical means
such as agitation in water.
In geotechnical engineering, soil refers to:
 Uncemented or weakly cemented materials
 Formed due to weathering of rocks
Importance of Soil in Civil Engineering
Soil is important because it:
 Supports foundations
 Forms embankments
 Used in earth dams
 Supports roads and pavements
 Acts as construction material
Difference Between Soil and Rock
Soil Rock
Loose or weakly bonded particles Hard consolidated mass
Formed from weathering Parent material
Lower strength High strength
Can be excavated easily Requires blasting

2. Soil Formation (Weathering of Rocks) (15 minutes)

Definition
Soil formation is the process by which rocks are broken down into smaller particles due
to physical, chemical and biological actions.
This process is called weathering.

Types of Weathering
1. Physical Weathering (Mechanical Weathering)
Breakdown of rocks without chemical change.
Causes
1. Temperature variation
o Expansion and contraction
2. Freeze–thaw action
o Water freezes → expands → cracks rock
3. Wind action
4. Running water
5. Glacial movement
Result
Large rocks → gravel → sand → silt

2. Chemical Weathering
Breakdown of rock due to chemical reactions.
Major chemical processes
Process Description
Hydration Water combines with minerals
Hydrolysis Minerals react with water
Oxidation Reaction with oxygen
Carbonation Reaction with carbon dioxide
Solution Minerals dissolve in water
Example
Feldspar → Kaolinite (clay mineral)
Result: Formation of clay soils

3. Biological Weathering
Weathering caused by living organisms.
Examples:
 Plant roots penetrating rocks
 Burrowing animals
 Microorganisms
 Human activities

Types of Soils Based on Formation

1. Residual Soil
Soil that remains at the place of formation.
Example:
 Laterite soils
 Weathered granite
Characteristics:
 Found above parent rock
 Non-uniform particle size

2. Transported Soil
Soil transported by natural agencies.
Types
Type Transporting Agent
Alluvial soil Rivers
Aeolian soil Wind
Glacial soil Ice
Marine soil Sea
Colluvial soil Gravity
Example:
 River sand
 Deltaic clay

Soil Profile
Layers of soil formed during weathering.
Typical layers:
Layer Description
O horizon Organic matter
A horizon Topsoil
 Layer Description
B horizon Subsoil
C horizon Weathered rock
R horizon Bedrock

3. Soil as a Three-Phase System (20 minutes)

In soil mechanics, soil consists of three phases.
These phases are:
1. Solid particles
2. Water
3. Air

Three-Phase Diagram
Air (Va)
------------
Water (Vw)
------------
Solids (Vs)
Total volume of soil
V=Vs+Vw+VaV = V_s + V_w + V_aV=Vs+Vw+Va
Where
Vs = volume of solids
Vw = volume of water
Va = volume of air

Weight Components
Air has negligible weight.
Therefore
W=Ws+WwW = W_s + W_wW=Ws+Ww
Where
Ws = weight of solids
Ww = weight of water

Three-Phase Representation
Phase Volume Weight
Solids Vs Ws
Water Vw Ww
Air Va ~0
Total volume:
V=Vs+Vw+VaV = V_s + V_w + V_aV=Vs+Vw+Va
Total weight:
W=Ws+WwW = W_s + W_wW=Ws+Ww

Void Concept
Voids are spaces between soil particles.
Vv=Va+VwV_v = V_a + V_wVv=Va+Vw
Where
Vv = volume of voids

Important Relationships
1. Void Ratio (e)
Ratio of volume of voids to volume of solids
e=VvVse = \frac{V_v}{V_s}e=VsVv
Typical values:
Soil Type Void Ratio
Sand 0.3 – 0.8
Clay 0.5 – 1.5

2. Porosity (n)
Ratio of void volume to total volume
n=VvVn = \frac{V_v}{V}n=VVv
Relation between n and e
n=e1+en = \frac{e}{1+e}n=1+ee

3. Degree of Saturation (S)

Percentage of voids filled with water
S=VwVvS = \frac{V_w}{V_v}S=VvVw
Values:
Condition Saturation
Dry soil 0%
Partially saturated 0–100%
Fully saturated 100%

4. Water Content (w)

w=WwWs×100w = \frac{W_w}{W_s} \times 100w=WsWw×100
Determined by oven drying method.

5. Unit Weight
Bulk Unit Weight
γ=WV\gamma = \frac{W}{V}γ=VW
Dry Unit Weight
γd=WsV\gamma_d = \frac{W_s}{V}γd=VWs
Saturated Unit Weight
γsat=Ws+WwV\gamma_{sat} = \frac{W_s + W_w}{V}γsat=VWs+Ww

Special Soil Conditions

Dry Soil
Only solids + air
V=Vs+VaV = V_s + V_aV=Vs+Va

Saturated Soil
Voids completely filled with water
V=Vs+VwV = V_s + V_wV=Vs+Vw

Submerged Soil
Soil below groundwater level.
Effective stress becomes important.

1. Introduction to Phase Relations (5 minutes)

In geotechnical engineering, soil is considered as a three-phase system consisting of:
1. Solid phase (soil particles)
2. Liquid phase (water)
3. Gas phase (air)
Understanding the relationship between weight and volume of these phases helps in
determining soil properties such as:
 Density
 Moisture condition
 Compaction
 Strength
These relationships are called phase relationships.

2. Three-Phase System of Soil (10 minutes)

Soil Mass Components
Phase Symbol Description
Solid Vs Volume of soil particles
Water Vw Volume of water
Air Va Volume of air
Total Volume
V=Vs+VvV = V_s + V_vV=Vs+Vv
Where
Vv=Va+VwV_v = V_a + V_wVv=Va+Vw
So
V=Vs+Va+VwV = V_s + V_a + V_wV=Vs+Va+Vw

Weight Components
Phase Weight
Solid Ws
Water Ww
Air ≈ 0
Total weight:
W=Ws+WwW = W_s + W_wW=Ws+Ww

Three Phase Representation

Air (Va)
-----------------------
Water (Vw)
-----------------------
Solids (Vs)
Void space consists of air and water.

3. Water Content (w) (8 minutes)

Definition
Water content is the ratio of weight of water to weight of soil solids.
w=WwWsw = \frac{W_w}{W_s}w=WsWw
It is usually expressed in percentage.
w=WwWs×100w = \frac{W_w}{W_s} \times 100w=WsWw×100

Determination of Water Content

The most common method is the Oven Drying Method.
Procedure:
1. Weigh moist soil sample
2. Dry soil in oven at 105–110°C
3. Weigh dry soil
4. Compute water content
Typical Water Content Values
Soil Type Water Content
Sand 5–15%
Silt 10–30%
Clay 20–70%

4. Void Ratio (e) (8 minutes)

Definition
Void ratio is the ratio of volume of voids to volume of solids.
e=VvVse = \frac{V_v}{V_s}e=VsVv
Where
Vv = volume of voids
Vs = volume of solids

Range of Void Ratio

Soil Type Void Ratio
Dense sand 0.3 – 0.6
Loose sand 0.6 – 1.0
Clay 0.5 – 1.5
Higher void ratio means more empty space in soil.

Engineering Importance
Void ratio influences:
 Compressibility
 Permeability
 Shear strength
 Settlement

5. Porosity (n) (7 minutes)

Definition
Porosity is the ratio of volume of voids to total volume of soil.
n=VvVn = \frac{V_v}{V}n=VVv
Where
Vv = volume of voids
V = total volume

Relation between Porosity and Void Ratio

n=e1+en = \frac{e}{1+e}n=1+ee
or
e=n1−ne = \frac{n}{1-n}e=1−nn

Range of Porosity
Soil Type Porosity
Sand 25–40%
Clay 40–70%

6. Degree of Saturation (Sr) (6 minutes)

Definition
Degree of saturation is the ratio of volume of water to volume of voids.
Sr=VwVvS_r = \frac{V_w}{V_v}Sr=VvVw
Expressed in percentage.
Sr=VwVv×100S_r = \frac{V_w}{V_v} \times 100Sr=VvVw×100
Soil Conditions
Condition Degree of Saturation
Dry soil Sr = 0
Partially saturated 0 < Sr < 100
Fully saturated Sr = 100

Engineering Significance
Degree of saturation affects:
 Soil strength
 Compressibility
 Permeability
 Effective stress

7. Specific Gravity of Soil Solids (G) (4 minutes)

Definition
Specific gravity of soil solids is the ratio of unit weight of soil solids to unit weight of
water.
G=γsγwG = \frac{\gamma_s}{\gamma_w}G=γwγs
or
G=WsVsγwG = \frac{W_s}{V_s \gamma_w}G=VsγwWs
Where
γs = unit weight of soil solids
γw = unit weight of water

Typical Values
Soil Type Specific Gravity
Quartz sand 2.65
Clay minerals 2.7 – 2.9
Organic soil 1.5 – 2.0

8. Important Phase Relationships (Optional Derivation) (5 minutes)

Relationship between w, e, Sr and G
Sre=wGS_r e = w GSre=wG
This is an important formula used in many soil mechanics problems.

Dry Unit Weight Relation

γd=Gγw1+e\gamma_d = \frac{G\gamma_w}{1+e}γd=1+eGγw
Where
γd = dry unit weight
G = specific gravity
γw = unit weight of water
e = void ratio
1. Introduction to Functional Relationships (5 minutes)
Soil consists of solid particles, water, and air.
The relationships between weights and volumes of these phases are called phase
relationships.
Functional relationships help engineers to determine:
 Moisture condition
 Density of soil
 Compaction level
 Settlement characteristics
  Strength properties
These relationships connect basic parameters such as:
 Water content (w)
 Void ratio (e)
 Porosity (n)
 Degree of saturation (Sr)
 Specific gravity (G)

2. Basic Volume Relationships (8 minutes)

Total Volume of Soil
V=Vs+VvV = V_s + V_vV=Vs+Vv
Where
Vs = Volume of solids
Vv = Volume of voids
Void volume consists of air and water:
Vv=Va+VwV_v = V_a + V_wVv=Va+Vw
Therefore
V=Vs+Va+VwV = V_s + V_a + V_wV=Vs+Va+Vw

Total Weight of Soil

W=Ws+WwW = W_s + W_wW=Ws+Ww
Where
Ws = Weight of solids
Ww = Weight of water
Weight of air is negligible.

3. Functional Relationship Between Parameters (20 minutes)

These equations relate soil parameters used in engineering calculations.

1. Relationship Between Void Ratio and Porosity

Porosity is defined as:
n=VvVn = \frac{V_v}{V}n=VVv
Void ratio is defined as:
e=VvVse = \frac{V_v}{V_s}e=VsVv
Since
V=Vs+VvV = V_s + V_vV=Vs+Vv
Substituting,
n=e1+en = \frac{e}{1+e}n=1+ee
and
e=n1−ne = \frac{n}{1-n}e=1−nn

2. Relationship Between Water Content, Void Ratio and Degree of Saturation

A very important equation in soil mechanics:
Sre=wGS_r e = w GSre=wG
Where
Sr = degree of saturation
e = void ratio
w = water content
G = specific gravity
This equation is frequently used to determine missing parameters in numerical problems.

3. Bulk Unit Weight of Soil

Bulk unit weight is defined as:
γ=WV\gamma = \frac{W}{V}γ=VW
Where
γ = bulk unit weight
W = total weight
V = total volume

4. Dry Unit Weight

Dry unit weight represents soil without water.
γd=WsV\gamma_d = \frac{W_s}{V}γd=VWs
Using phase relations:
γd=Gγw1+e\gamma_d = \frac{G\gamma_w}{1+e}γd=1+eGγw
Where
γw = unit weight of water.

5. Saturated Unit Weight

When soil voids are completely filled with water:
γsat=(G+e)γw1+e\gamma_{sat} = \frac{(G + e)\gamma_w}{1+e}γsat=1+e(G+e)γw

6. Submerged Unit Weight

For soil below groundwater table:
γ′=γsat−γw\gamma' = \gamma_{sat} - \gamma_wγ′=γsat−γw
This is called effective unit weight.

Summary of Functional Relationships

Parameter Formula
Void ratio e=VvVse = \frac{V_v}{V_s}e=VsVv
Porosity n=VvVn = \frac{V_v}{V}n=VVv
Relation n=e1+en = \frac{e}{1+e}n=1+ee
Water content w=WwWsw = \frac{W_w}{W_s}w=WsWw
Degree of saturation Sr=VwVvS_r = \frac{V_w}{V_v}Sr=VvVw
Combined relation Sre=wGS_r e = w GSre=wG

4. Soil Description (10 minutes)

Definition
Soil description is the process of identifying and classifying soil based on its physical
characteristics.
It is commonly used in:
 Field investigations
 Borehole logs
 Geotechnical reports
 Site investigations

Methods of Soil Description

Soils are described based on the following characteristics:
1. Color
Indicates soil composition.
Examples:
Color Possible Meaning
Red Iron oxide
Dark brown Organic soil
Grey Saturated soil
2. Particle Size
Soils are classified as:
Soil Type Particle Size
Gravel > 4.75 mm
Sand 0.075 – 4.75 mm
Silt 0.002 – 0.075 mm
Clay < 0.002 mm

3. Shape of Particles
Particle shapes influence strength and permeability.
Types:
 Angular
 Sub-angular
 Rounded
 Flaky

4. Consistency (for Clay)

Clay soil may be:
 Soft
 Medium stiff
 Stiff
 Very stiff

5. Plasticity
Plasticity indicates soil behavior when wet.
Clay soils show plastic behavior, while sand does not.

6. Structure
Arrangement of soil particles.
Types include:
 Single grained
 Honeycomb structure
 Flocculated structure
 Dispersed structure

5. Significance of Soil Description (5 minutes)

Soil description is essential because it helps engineers to:
1. Identify Soil Type
Determines whether soil is sand, clay, or silt.
2. Predict Engineering Behaviour
Soil behavior such as:
 Compressibility
 Strength
 Permeability
can be estimated.

3. Foundation Design
Soil description helps in deciding:
 Type of foundation
 Depth of foundation
 Bearing capacity

4. Construction Planning
It helps engineers decide:
 Excavation methods
 Compaction techniques
 Drainage requirements

5. Soil Classification
Soil description is the first step for:
 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
 Indian Standard Soil Classification (IS 1498)
Index Properties of Soils
(Lecture Notes – 50 Minutes)

1. Introduction (5 minutes)
Definition
Index properties are basic physical properties of soil used to identify and classify soils.
They do not directly measure engineering behavior but indicate soil characteristics such as
strength, compressibility, and permeability.
Index properties are primarily used in:
 Soil identification
 Soil classification
 Preliminary engineering analysis
 Selection of construction materials

Importance of Index Properties

Index properties help engineers to:
 Identify soil type
 Estimate engineering behavior
 Classify soil according to standard systems
 Compare soils from different locations

2. Types of Index Properties (5 minutes)

Index properties are broadly classified into:
1. Grain Size Properties
Properties related to particle size distribution.
2. Consistency Properties
Properties related to water content and plastic behavior.
3. Density Properties
Properties related to weight and volume relationships.

3. Grain Size Distribution (10 minutes)

Definition
Grain size distribution describes the relative proportion of different particle sizes present
in soil.
It is determined by:
1. Sieve analysis (for coarse-grained soils)
2. Hydrometer analysis (for fine-grained soils)

Soil Particle Size Classification (IS System)

Soil Type Particle Size
Boulder > 300 mm
Cobble 80 – 300 mm
Gravel 4.75 – 80 mm
Sand 0.075 – 4.75 mm
Soil Type Particle Size
Silt 0.002 – 0.075 mm
Clay < 0.002 mm

Grain Size Distribution Curve

A graph plotted between:
 Particle size (log scale) on x-axis
 Percentage finer on y-axis
This curve helps determine soil gradation.

Gradation of Soil
Well Graded Soil
Contains a wide range of particle sizes.
Characteristics:
 High density
 Good strength
 Low permeability

Poorly Graded Soil

Particles are nearly of the same size.
Characteristics:
 Lower strength
 Higher permeability

4. Consistency Limits (Atterberg Limits) (15 minutes)

Fine-grained soils change behavior with water content.
The Atterberg Limits define the boundaries of different states of soil.
These limits are:
1. Liquid Limit (LL)
2. Plastic Limit (PL)
3. Shrinkage Limit (SL)

1. Liquid Limit (LL)

Definition
Liquid limit is the water content at which soil changes from plastic state to liquid state.
Determination
Using Casagrande Liquid Limit Device.
Standard condition:
 Groove closes at 25 blows.

2. Plastic Limit (PL)

Definition
Plastic limit is the water content at which soil changes from semi-solid state to plastic
state.
Determined by rolling soil threads of 3 mm diameter.
When the thread starts crumbling, that water content is the plastic limit.

3. Shrinkage Limit (SL)

Definition
Shrinkage limit is the water content below which further drying does not reduce soil
volume.
Below this limit, soil remains constant in volume.
Plasticity Index (PI)
Plasticity index indicates range of plastic behavior.
PI=LL−PLPI = LL - PLPI=LL−PL
Higher PI indicates more plastic soil.

Soil Plasticity Classification

PI Value Soil Type
Low PI Silt
Medium PI Clay
High PI Highly plastic clay

5. Density Index (Relative Density) (5 minutes)

Used for coarse-grained soils like sand.
Definition
Relative density indicates the compactness of granular soil.
Dr=emax−eemax−eminD_r = \frac{e_{max} - e}{e_{max} - e_{min}}Dr=emax−eminemax
−e
Where
e = in-situ void ratio
emax = maximum void ratio
emin = minimum void ratio

Relative Density Classification

Dr (%) Soil Condition
0–15 Very loose
15–35 Loose
35–65 Medium dense
65–85 Dense
85–100 Very dense

6. Specific Gravity of Soil Solids (5 minutes)

Definition
Specific gravity is the ratio of density of soil solids to density of water.
G=ρsρwG = \frac{\rho_s}{\rho_w}G=ρwρs

Determination
Measured using:
 Pycnometer
 Density bottle

Typical Values
Soil Type Specific Gravity
Quartz sand 2.65
Clay minerals 2.7 – 2.9
Organic soil 1.5 – 2.0
Atterberg Limits – Determination and Significance
(Lecture Notes – 50 Minutes)

1. Introduction to Atterberg Limits (5 minutes)

Fine-grained soils such as silts and clays change their behavior depending on water content.
When water content changes, soil passes through different states:
 Solid state
  Semi-solid state
 Plastic state
 Liquid state
These boundaries between different states are called Atterberg Limits.
The concept was introduced by the Swedish scientist Albert Atterberg (1911).

2. States of Consistency of Soil (5 minutes)

Fine-grained soils exist in four states depending on moisture content.
State Soil Behaviour
Solid Hard and brittle
Semi-solid Slight deformation possible
Plastic Can be molded without cracking
Liquid Flows like a viscous fluid
The transition between these states defines the Atterberg limits.

3. Types of Atterberg Limits (5 minutes)

There are three important limits:
1. Liquid Limit (LL)
2. Plastic Limit (PL)
3. Shrinkage Limit (SL)
These limits define the consistency behavior of cohesive soils.

4. Liquid Limit (LL) (10 minutes)

Definition
Liquid limit is the water content at which soil changes from plastic state to liquid state.
At this limit, soil behaves like a viscous liquid.

Determination of Liquid Limit

The most common method is the Casagrande Liquid Limit Device.
Apparatus
 Casagrande cup
 Grooving tool
 Spatula
 Moist soil sample

Procedure
1. Soil paste is placed in the brass cup.
2. A groove is cut using a grooving tool.
3. The cup is repeatedly dropped from a height of 10 mm.
4. The number of blows required to close the groove is recorded.
5. Water content corresponding to 25 blows is taken as Liquid Limit.

Flow Curve
A graph is plotted between:
 Number of blows (log scale)
 Water content
The water content corresponding to 25 blows gives the liquid limit.

5. Plastic Limit (PL) (8 minutes)

Definition
Plastic limit is the water content at which soil changes from semi-solid state to plastic
state.
At this limit, soil begins to crumble when rolled into threads.
Determination of Plastic Limit
Procedure
1. Take a small portion of moist soil.
2. Roll the soil on a glass plate into threads.
3. Continue rolling until the diameter becomes 3 mm.
4. If the thread crumbles at this diameter, determine the water content.
That water content is called the Plastic Limit.

6. Shrinkage Limit (SL) (5 minutes)

Definition
Shrinkage limit is the water content at which further drying does not cause reduction in
soil volume.
Below this limit, soil remains constant in volume.

Determination
The shrinkage limit is determined using:
 Shrinkage dish
 Oven drying
 Volume measurement
Procedure involves measuring:
 Initial wet soil volume
 Dry soil volume

7. Plasticity Index (PI) (4 minutes)

Plasticity Index indicates the range of plastic behavior.
PI=LL−PLPI = LL - PLPI=LL−PL
Where
LL = Liquid limit
PL = Plastic limit

Interpretation
PI Value Soil Type
Low PI Silt
Medium PI Clay
High PI Highly plastic clay

8. Consistency Index and Liquidity Index (Optional) (3 minutes)

Liquidity Index
LI=w−PLLL−PLLI = \frac{w - PL}{LL - PL}LI=LL−PLw−PL
Where
w = natural water content
Indicates relative consistency of soil in the field.

Consistency Index
CI=LL−wLL−PLCI = \frac{LL - w}{LL - PL}CI=LL−PLLL−w
Indicates stiffness of soil.

9. Significance of Atterberg Limits (5 minutes)

Atterberg limits are very important in geotechnical engineering.
1. Soil Classification
Used in classification systems such as:
 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
  Indian Standard Soil Classification (IS 1498)

2. Determination of Plasticity
Helps determine the plastic behavior of soil.

3. Predict Engineering Behavior

Atterberg limits give indication of:
 Compressibility
 Permeability
 Strength
 Swelling potential

4. Suitability for Construction

They help engineers decide whether soil is suitable for:
 Foundations
 Road construction
 Earth dams
 Embankments

5. Shrinkage and Swelling Behaviour

High plasticity soils are likely to:
 Shrink during drying
 Swell during wetting
This affects foundation stability.