Transportation Engineering (BTCVC603)

Module 4

Traffic Engineering

By

Prof. S. B. Gawande

Prof. S. B. Deshmukh

Ref. C.E.G. Justo & S. K. Khanna

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●​ Introduction
Traffic Engineering is the branch of Civil Engineering which deals with the Safe and Efficient
movement of people and goods on roadways.
Traffic Engineering is the science of measuring traffic and travel, the study of the basic laws
relating to traffic flow and generation and application of this knowledge to the professional
practice of planning, designing and operating traffic systems to achieve safe and efficient
movement of persons and goods.
●​ Scope of Traffic Engineering
The basic object of traffic engineering is to achieve efficient free and rapid flow on traffic, with
least number of traffic accidents. Actual studies of traffic operation provide the foundation for
developing methods for improvement in general and for solving specific problems.
The study of traffic engineering may be divided into six major sections :
(i) Traffic characteristics
(ii) Traffic studies and analysis
(iii) Traffic operation-control and regulation
(iv) Planning and analysis
(v) Geometric design
(vi) Administration and management
Traffic engineering aims at achieving safe, free and rapid flow of traffic with minimum
accidents. It includes the study of traffic characteristics such as speed, volume, capacity, travel
patterns, parking and accident studies along with human psychology and vehicular characteristics.
Traffic operations involve regulations, control and use of signs, signals and islands for traffic
management.
Traffic planning includes proper design of highways, intersections, parking facilities, sight
distance and road alignment for better performance. Traffic engineering is implemented through
the “3-E’s” namely Engineering, Enforcement and Education.

​ TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS
●​ Road User Characteristics
The human element is involved in all actions of the road users either as pedestrian cyclist, cart
driver or motorist. The physical, mental and emotional characteristics of human beings affect their
ability to operate motot vehicle safely or to service as a pedestrian. Hence it is important to the
traffic engineer to study the characteristics and limitations of the road users.

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The various factors which affect road user characteristics may broadly be classified
under four heads:
1.​ Physical
2.​ Mental
3.​ Psychological and
4.​ Environmental
1. Physical characteristics
Physical characteristics of road users may be permanent or temporary and include vision,
hearing, strength and reaction to traffic situations. Vision is the most important factor and includes
acuity of vision, peripheral vision, eye movement, glare vision, glare recovery and depth
judgement. Licensing authorities prescribe minimum standards for acuity of vision. The clearest
vision is within a cone of about 3°, though satisfactory vision may extend up to 10° and even 20°
in the horizontal plane.
These factors are considered while designing and installing traffic control devices. Since
the field of clear vision is limited, road users often shift their eyes within the peripheral field to
obtain clear vision. Glare effects and adaptability to changes from darkness to light and vice versa
are also important. Depth judgement helps drivers judge the distance and speed of vehicles and
objects ahead.
2. Mental characteristics
Mental characteristics such as knowledge, skill, intelligence, experience and literacy influence
road user behaviour. Knowledge of vehicle characteristics, traffic behaviour, driving practice, road
rules and psychology of road users is important for safe traffic operations. Experience helps
drivers react more spontaneously and correctly in traffic situations. Intelligence and literacy help
in understanding traffic regulations, special instructions and taking timely action.
3. Psychological factors
Psychological factors greatly affect the reaction of road users to traffic situations.
Emotional factors such as attentiveness, fear, anger, superstition, impatience, maturity and general
attitude towards traffic regulations influence driving behaviour. Distractions caused by non-traffic
events and personal worries reduce attentiveness to traffic conditions. Impatience may lead to
dangerous actions on roads. Some road users do not follow traffic regulations properly and may
not have the correct attitude towards traffic safety.
4. Environmental factors

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Environmental factors affecting road user behaviour include traffic stream characteristics,
traffic facilities, atmospheric conditions and locality. Traffic streams may consist of mixed or
heavy traffic, and overtaking facilities for faster vehicles may be limited. Adaptability to different
traffic conditions depends on driver characteristics and motivation. The purpose of travel may be
social, recreational, business, routine movement or emergency travel.
Road users generally choose route, time and place according to their needs and are
motivated by time-distance economy, comfort and safety. Localities such as shopping centres and
crowded places create distractions and affect road user behaviour. Weather, visibility and other
atmospheric conditions also influence traffic performance and safety.
The total reaction time of drivers, called PIEV time, varies from driver to driver depending
on physical, mental, psychological and environmental factors. Driver characteristics such as
reaction time, depth judgement, field of vision, visual acuity and glare recovery can be measured
using Driver Testing Equipment.

●​ Vehicular Characteristics
Vehicular characteristics are important because they affect road design and traffic performance.
Roads should be designed according to the needs of existing and future traffic. It is not
economical to continuously increase pavement thickness and geometric standards for a few
oversized vehicles. Therefore, vehicle dimensions and weights should be standardized within a
country. Vehicular characteristics affecting road design are classified as static and dynamic
characteristics.
1.​ Static Characteristics
Static characteristics of vehicles include dimensions, weight and maximum turning angle.
Vehicle height affects overhead clearances under bridges and structures, while the height of the
driver seat and headlights affects visibility and headlight sight distance at valley curves. The
design of the windshield and front portion of the vehicle body also affects the driver’s field of
vision. Clearance below the chassis and approach, departure and ramp angles influence the design
of driveways, humps and dips.
Vehicle length affects road capacity, overtaking distance and manoeuvrability. Minimum
turning radius depends on wheel base length and steering system, which affects the design of
sharp curves. Gross weight, axle load and wheel load govern the structural design of pavements
and cross drainage structures.
2.​ Dynamic characteristics

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Dynamic characteristics affecting road design include speed, acceleration, braking characteristics
and vehicle body design. Speed and acceleration depend on engine power and resistance and are
important in geometric design. Braking and deceleration characteristics guide safe vehicle
operation and affect stopping distance. Vehicle stability on horizontal curves depends on wheel
base width and height of centre of gravity. Riding comfort on vertical curves depends on the
suspension system. Impact during collisions and injuries to passengers depend on bumper and
body design.

3.​ Vehicle dimensions

​ Important vehicle dimensions are overall width, height and length. Vehicle width affects
the width of traffic lanes, shoulders and parking facilities. If lane width is insufficient for wide
vehicles, road capacity decreases. Vehicle height determines the clearance required under
overbridges, underbridges and electric lines. Vehicle length affects horizontal alignment, extra
pavement width, turning radius, safe overtaking distance, road capacity and parking facilities.
Length is also important in the design of valley curves and dips.
4.​ Power of Vehicle
The power of the heaviest vehicles and their loaded weights govern the permissible and
limiting gradients on roads. Total tractive resistance includes inertia resistance, rolling resistance,
air resistance and grade resistance. From the hauling capacity and power required to overcome
these resistances, the speed and acceleration of vehicles can be determined. These factors are
useful in traffic regulation, planning and highway design.
5.​ Speed of Vehicle
Vehicle speed affects many geometric features of highways such as:
a.​ Sight distance
b.​ Superelevation
c.​ Length of transition curves
d.​ Limiting radius of horizontal curves
e.​ Design of valley curves and humps
f.​ Width of pavement and shoulders
g.​ Design gradient
h.​ Capacity of traffic lane
i.​ Design and control of intersections
Thus, design speed controls most highway geometric elements.
6.​ Braking Characteristics

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Braking and deceleration characteristics depend on the type and efficiency of the braking
system such as mechanical, fluid or air brakes. Braking capacity affects safety of vehicle
operation, stopping distance and spacing between vehicles in a traffic stream. Hence, highway
capacity and overtaking sight distance are also affected by braking characteristics.
7.​ Braking Test
Braking tests are conducted to measure the skid resistance of pavement surfaces under
existing conditions. During the test, brakes are applied at a desired running speed until the vehicle
stops completely. If the wheels become fully locked, the brake efficiency is considered as 100
percent.

​ Traffic Studies
❖​ Traffic Studies or Surveys
Traffic studies or surveys are carried out to analyse traffic characteristics. These studies
help in deciding geometric design features and traffic control measures for safe and efficient
traffic movement. Traffic surveys conducted for collecting traffic data are also called traffic
census.
The various traffic studies generally carried out are:
●​ Traffic volume study
●​ Speed studies
○​ Spot speed study
○​ Speed and delay study
●​ Origin and Destination (O & D) study
●​ Traffic flow characteristics study
●​ Traffic capacity study
●​ Parking study
●​ Accident study

❖​ Traffic Volume Study

Traffic volume is the number of vehicles crossing a section of road per unit time during a selected
period. It is commonly expressed as vehicles per day or vehicles per hour. A complete traffic
volume study may include classified volume studies, directional distribution, turning movement
studies and lane distribution studies.
Uses of Traffic Volume Study

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1.​ Traffic volume indicates the relative importance of roads and helps in deciding priority for
road improvement and expansion.
2.​ It is useful in planning, traffic operation and control of existing facilities and in designing
new facilities.
3.​ It helps in analysing traffic patterns and trends.
4.​ Classified volume study is useful for pavement design, geometric design and roadway
capacity calculations.
5.​ Volume distribution study is used in planning one-way streets and other traffic regulations.
6.​ Turning movement study is used in intersection design, signal timing and channelisation.
7.​ Pedestrian volume study helps in planning footpaths, crosswalks, subways and pedestrian
signals.
❖​ Variations in Traffic Volume
●​ Traffic volume varies hourly, daily and seasonally.
●​ Peak hour volume is usually much higher than average hourly volume.
●​ Traffic volume also varies during different days of the week and seasons.
Classified Traffic Volume Study In classified studies, traffic is grouped into different classes such
as:
●​ Buses
●​ Trucks
●​ Passenger cars
●​ Light vehicles
●​ Rickshaws
●​ Tongas
●​ Bullock carts
●​ Cycles
●​ Pedestrians
The direction and turning movement of each class of traffic are also recorded.
●​ Counting of Traffic Volume
Traffic volume counts may be done manually or by mechanical counters.
Mechanical Counters
Mechanical counters may be:
●​ Fixed (permanent) type
●​ Portable type

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These counters automatically record the total number of vehicles crossing a road section during a
selected period.

❖​ Presentation of Traffic Volume Data

1. Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)
●​ AADT is the average daily traffic volume for all 365 days of the year.
●​ Total as well as classified traffic volume may be determined.
●​ Helps in deciding the importance of roads and road development planning.
●​ Useful for determining growth rate of different vehicle classes.
●​ Passenger Car Units (PCU) are used to convert different vehicle classes into passenger
cars.
2. Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
●​ ADT is obtained when traffic counts are carried out only for a few days.
●​ Usually traffic counts are conducted for 3 to 7 days.
●​ Used mainly on non-urban roads.
3. Trend Charts
●​ Show traffic volume trends over years.
●​ Useful for estimating growth rate and planning future expansion and regulation.
4. Variation Charts
●​ Show hourly, daily and seasonal variations in traffic.
●​ Help in deciding facilities and regulations during peak periods.
5. Traffic Flow Maps
●​ Maps showing traffic volume distribution along roads.
●​ Thickness of lines represents traffic volume.
●​ Help in understanding traffic distribution easily.
6. Volume Flow Diagram at Intersections
●​ Show crossing and turning movements at intersections.
●​ Traffic volume may be shown in numbers or PCU.
●​ Useful for intersection design and signal planning.

7. Design Hourly Traffic Volume

●​ Determined from the relationship between hourly traffic volume and number of hours in a
year the volume is exceeded.

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●​ Peak hourly volume is too high and uneconomical for design.

●​ Annual Average Hourly Volume (AAHV) is too low for many periods.
●​ Hence highways are generally designed for the 30th highest hourly traffic volume.
30th Highest Hourly Volume
●​ It is the hourly traffic volume exceeded only 29 times in a year.
●​ Provides a balance between economy and traffic facility.
●​ Congestion occurs only for limited hours in a year.
●​ Therefore it is generally adopted as the design hourly volume.

Analysis of Traffic Volume Count Data

1. Short Counts and Adjustments
●​ Continuous long-term traffic counts are difficult and expensive.
●​ Therefore short counts of 5, 10 or 15 minutes are taken.
●​ Hourly traffic flow can be estimated from short counts.
●​ Control stations are used to adjust short count data.
2. Expanding and Adjusting Traffic Counts
●​ Traffic counts from different days and months cannot be compared directly.
●​ Counts are adjusted to a common base using AADT or ADT.

Adjustment of Count Station Volume to ADT

Daily Factor (DF) = ​ Average 24-hour traffic volume
24-hour count on a particular day​

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Seasonal Factor (SF) =Average 24-hour traffic volume for 12 months

24-hour traffic volume for a specific month​

ADT = Traffic Volume Count x DF x SF​

❖​ Speed studies
The actual speed of vehicles over a particular route may fluctuate widely depending on several
factors such as geometric features, traffic conditions, time, place, environment and driver.
1.​ Travel Time (Journey Time): The total elapsed time to travel between two points,
including all stops and delays.
2.​ Running Time: The time a vehicle is actually in motion while traversing a section
(excludes stopped delay).
3.​ Delay: The time lost due to factors like traffic signals, intersections, or congestion.

Space Mean Speed

The average speed of all vehicles occupying a specific section of a roadway at a given instant i.e.
the speed calculated based on the average travel time it takes to cover a segment, rather than the
average of individual speeds. It is always equal to or lower than the Time Mean Speed.
Vs is calculated as the total distance d divided by the average travel time (t), n = no. of veh.
3.6 𝑑 𝑛
𝑉𝑠 = Σ𝑡
Time Mean Speed
It is the average of "spot speeds." If you stand on the side of the road with a radar gun and average
the speeds of every car that passes you, you are calculating the Time Mean Speed.
Σ 𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑡 = 𝑛
Vt : Time Mean Speed

i: Observed instantaneous speed of the ith vehicle

n: Total number of vehicles observed

●​ Running speed is the average speed maintained by a vehicle over a particular stretch of
road, while the vehicle is in motion; this is obtained by dividing the distance covered by
the time during which the vehicle is actually in motion.

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●​ Overall speed or travel speed is the effective speed with which a vehicle traverses a
particular route between two terminals; this is obtained by dividing the total distance
travelled by the total time taken including all delays and stoppages enroute,
●​ Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified section or location
●​ Average speed is the average of the spot speeds of all vehicles passing a given point on
the highway.

Spot Speed Studies

(i) Spot speed study, and
(ii) Speed and delay study
Spot speed study may be useful in any of the following aspects of traffic engineering
(a) to use in planning traffic control and in traffic regulations.
(b) to use in geometric design-for redesigning existing highways or for deciding desig
speed for new facilities.
(c) to use in accident studies
(d) to study the traffic capacity
(e) to decide the speed trends
(f) to compare diverse types of drivers and vehicles under specified conditions.

Spot speeds are affected by road features such as pavement width, curves, sight distance,
gradients, pavement unevenness, intersections and roadside developments. Other factors affecting
spot speed are weather, visibility, traffic conditions, enforcement, driver, vehicle and purpose of
travel.

Spot speed may be measured either by finding the running speed over a short distance of
less than 50 m or by measuring instantaneous speed at a road section. Spot speed observations are
taken for sample vehicles during different periods of the day, week and year.

●​ Enoscope method

One simple method of measuring spot speed is the enoscope method. An enoscope is a
mirror box mounted on a tripod stand. The observer starts a stopwatch when the vehicle crosses
one section and stops it when the vehicle image is seen through the enoscope placed at a known
distance, usually about 30 m away. Speed is then calculated from the measured time and distance.

Advantages

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●​ Simple and inexpensive

●​ Easy to use
Disadvantages
●​ Slow process
●​ Fewer observations possible
●​ Possibility of human error

Presentation of spot speed data

1. Average Speed of Vehicles
●​ Spot speed data are arranged in frequency distribution tables with different speed ranges.
●​ The number of vehicles in each speed range is recorded.
●​ Arithmetic mean of speeds is taken as the average speed.
●​ This helps in understanding speed distribution and traffic speed characteristics.
2. Cumulative Speed Curve
●​ A graph is plotted with:
○​ Speed values on X-axis
○​ Cumulative percentage of vehicles on Y-axis
●​ From the graph, the 85th percentile speed is determined.
85th Percentile Speed
●​ It is the speed at or below which 85% of vehicles travel.
●​ Only 15% of vehicles exceed this speed.
●​ It is generally taken as the safe speed limit under existing conditions.

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●​ Used in highway geometric design.

15th Percentile Speed
●​ It is the speed below which only 15% of vehicles travel.
●​ Used as the lower speed limit to control very slow vehicles and reduce congestion.

3. Modal Average (Mode Speed)

●​ A frequency distribution curve of spot speeds is plotted with:
○​ Speed values on X-axis
○​ Percentage of vehicles on Y-axis
●​ This graph is called the speed distribution curve.
●​ The peak point of the curve gives the modal speed or mode speed.
●​ Modal speed represents the speed at which the maximum number of vehicles travel.
❖​ Speed Dispersion
●​ All vehicles do not travel at the same speed on a road.
●​ Variation or spread in speed is called speed dispersion.
●​ Speed dispersion affects traffic capacity and road safety.
●​ Under free flow conditions, speed distribution follows a normal distribution curve.
❖​ Methods to Measure Speed Dispersion
●​ Difference between 85th percentile speed and 15th percentile speed
●​ Standard deviation of speeds
●​ Coefficient of variation of speed

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❖​ Speed and Delay Study

Speed and delay studies are conducted to determine running speed, overall speed, speed
fluctuations and delays between two stations on a road. These studies provide information about
the amount, location, duration, frequency and causes of delays in traffic flow. The results help in
identifying congestion spots, analysing causes of delays and suggesting suitable remedial
measures. They are also useful in determining travel time and for benefit-cost analysis. The
efficiency of a roadway is generally judged from the travel time.
Delays during travel may be of two types:
1. Fixed Delays
●​ Occur mainly at:
○​ Traffic signals
○​ Railway level crossings
○​ Intersections
2. Operational Delays
●​ Caused by:
○​ Turning vehicles
○​ Parking and unparking vehicles
○​ Pedestrians
○​ Heavy traffic volume
○​ Insufficient road capacity
○​ Accidents

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Due to these delays, overall travel speed is always lower than the running speed.
There are various methods of carrying out speed and delay study, namely:
1.​ Floating car or riding check method
2.​ License plate or vehicle number method
3.​ Interview technique
4.​ Elevated observations, and
5.​ Photographic technique
1. Floating Car Method
In the floating car method, a test vehicle is driven along a selected road stretch at approximately
the average speed of the traffic stream so that it “floats” with the traffic flow. Several test runs are
conducted and observers record different traffic details.
●​ One observer records travel time at control points such as intersections and bridges using a
stopwatch.
●​ Another stopwatch is used to measure duration of delays.
●​ The location, time and causes of delays are also recorded.
●​ A third observer notes the number of vehicles overtaking the test vehicle and the number
of vehicles overtaken by the test vehicle.
●​ A fourth observer records vehicles travelling in the opposite direction.
●​ In mixed traffic conditions, additional observers may be required for counting different
vehicle classes.
This method provides detailed information regarding speed, delay, location, duration and causes
of traffic congestion.
2. License Plate or Vehicle Number Method – Short Notes
In this method, synchronized stopwatches or voice recording equipment are used. Observers are
stationed at the entrance and exit of the test section. They record vehicle numbers and timings of
selected vehicles. From these observations, the travel time of each vehicle is calculated.
Limitation
●​ Does not provide details about:
○​ Causes of delays
○​ Duration of delays
○​ Number of delays within the section
3. Interview Technique
In this method, road users are interviewed directly and information is collected on the spot. The
study can be completed quickly, but the collected data may not always be accurate or complete.

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4. Elevated Observation and Photographic Technique

●​ Useful for studying short road sections such as intersections.
●​ Helps in observing traffic movement and delays effectively.
5. Intersection Delay Studies
Intersection delay studies are important because delays at intersections create major traffic
problems. These studies help in:
●​ Evaluating efficiency of traffic control devices
●​ Assessing signal systems
●​ Planning remedial measures for accidents and congestion.

●​ Origin and Destination (O & D) Study – Short Notes

Origin and Destination (O & D) study is conducted mainly:
1.​ To plan road networks and traffic facilities.
2.​ To plan schedules of different transportation systems for passenger demand.
The study determines:
●​ Number of trips
●​ Origin and destination of trips
●​ Route selection
●​ Direction of travel
●​ Length of trip
Additional information collected may include:
●​ Number of passengers
●​ Purpose of trip
●​ Intermediate stops and reasons
Uses of O & D Study
●​ Planning new highway facilities
●​ Improving existing road systems
●​ Identifying through traffic and planning bypasses
●​ Determining desired traffic flow patterns
●​ Solving traffic problems in a region
●​ Planning transportation and mass transit systems in cities
●​ Estimating future traffic needs using socio-economic studies.
Origin and Destination (O & D) study is carried out to determine:

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●​ Number of trips
●​ Origin and destination of trips
●​ Route followed by vehicles
●​ Purpose and pattern of travel
It is mainly used for planning road networks and transportation systems.
Objectives / Importance of O & D Study
1.​ To plan road network and highway facilities.
2.​ To plan transportation systems and mass transit facilities.
3.​ To determine traffic flow direction or desire lines.
4.​ To improve existing roads and traffic systems.
5.​ To locate bypasses for diverting through traffic.
6.​ To estimate future traffic demand.
7.​ To reduce travel time and travel distance.
8.​ To solve traffic problems in urban and regional areas.
Methods of O & D Study
1. Road-side Interview Method
Vehicles are stopped at selected stations. Drivers are interviewed using questionnaires.
●​ Information collected:
○​ Origin and destination
○​ Route followed
○​ Purpose of trip
○​ Stops made
○​ Number of passengers
Advantages
●​ Quick collection of data
●​ Simple field organization
Disadvantages
●​ Causes delay to traffic
●​ May create congestion
●​ Drivers may feel inconvenience
2. License Plate Method
Observers note vehicle registration numbers at entry and exit points. Time of entry and exit is also
recorded & Data is analyzed later to determine travel pattern.

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Advantages
●​ No need to stop vehicles
●​ Less disturbance to traffic
Disadvantages
●​ Large office work and calculations required
●​ Difficult to track all vehicles accurately
3. Return Post Card Method
In this method, post cards containing questionnaire forms are distributed to drivers at selected
locations. Drivers fill in details such as origin, destination, purpose of trip, route, etc., and mail
the card back. Sometimes stamped and self-addressed cards are provided for convenience.
Advantages
●​ Simple and economical method
●​ Less interruption to traffic
●​ Suitable for large study areas
Disadvantages
●​ Low response rate
●​ Information may be incomplete or inaccurate
●​ Time consuming to receive replies
4. Tag-on-Car Method
A tag or card is attached to the vehicle at the entry point of the study area. The tag is removed at
the exit point and details such as travel time, route and destination are recorded. Mainly used for
studying through traffic movement.
Advantages
●​ Useful for determining travel pattern
●​ Helps in identifying through traffic
Disadvantages
●​ Requires large manpower
●​ Tags may be lost or removed
●​ Difficult in heavy traffic conditions
5. Home Interview Method
Investigators visit homes and interview family members regarding their travel habits.
●​ Information collected includes:
○​ Number of trips

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○​ Purpose of travel
○​ Mode of transport
○​ Origin and destination
○​ Travel timings
Advantages
●​ Provides detailed and reliable information
●​ Useful for urban transport planning
●​ Helps in future traffic forecasting
Disadvantages
●​ Very costly and time consuming
●​ Requires trained investigators
●​ Difficult for large cities and populations

​ Traffic capacity studies

Before studying details of traffie capacity, it may be worth while to define some of the
related terms which are often used.
Traffic Volume, Density and Capacity
1. Traffic Volume : Traffic volume is the number of vehicles moving in a specified direction on a
lane or roadway that pass a given point or cross-section during a specified period of time.
Units- Vehicles per hour (veh/hr) and Vehicles per day (veh/day)
●​ Used in road planning and traffic control.
●​ Helps in deciding roadway improvements and expansion.
2. Traffic Density : Traffic density is the number of vehicles occupying a unit length of a lane or
roadway at a given instant of time.
Units- Vehicles per kilometre (veh/km)
Traffic Volume = Traffic Density × Traffic Speed
●​ Maximum density occurs when vehicles are almost at a standstill.
●​ In such cases, traffic volume becomes nearly zero.
3. Traffic Capacity : Traffic capacity is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given
point on a lane or roadway during a specified time under given roadway and traffic conditions.
Units - Vehicles per hour per lane (veh/hr/lane)
●​ Indicates the ability of a roadway to carry traffic.
●​ Useful in highway design and traffic management.

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●​ Types of Traffic Capacity

1. Basic Capacity
Basic capacity is the maximum number of passenger cars that can pass a point on a lane or
roadway during one hour under ideal roadway and traffic conditions. Also called theoretical
capacity.
●​ Assumes ideal road, weather and traffic conditions.
●​ Depends mainly on physical road characteristics.
2. Possible Capacity
Possible capacity is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a point during one hour under
prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.
●​ Lower than basic capacity under normal conditions.
●​ Changes according to congestion and road conditions.
●​ Can approach zero during severe traffic congestion.
3. Practical Capacity
Practical capacity is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a point on a roadway without
causing unreasonable delay, hazard or restriction to driver freedom under prevailing conditions.
Also called design capacity.
●​ Most useful capacity for highway engineers.
●​ Used in actual road design and traffic planning.

❖​ Determination of theoretical maximum capacity

An estimate of theoretical maximum or basic capacity of a single lane may be made
from the relation:
C = 1000V / S
Here, C= capacity of a single lane, vehicle per hour
V = speed, kmph
S = average centre to centre spacing of vehicles, when they follow one behind the other as a
queue or space headway, m
●​ Space Gap Between Vehicles
Space gap is the clear distance maintained between two successive vehicles for safe driving.
It is kept so that the following vehicle can stop safely if the leading vehicle suddenly stops.
●​ Behaviour of Drivers
○​ At low speeds → drivers maintain a smaller gap.

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○​ At high speeds → drivers maintain larger gaps instinctively.

❖​ Factors Affecting Space Gap

The space gap depends on:
1.​ Speed of leading and following vehicles
○​ Higher speed requires larger spacing.
2.​ Type and characteristics of vehicles
○​ Heavy vehicles require greater gap.
3.​ Driver characteristics
○​ Driver alertness, skill and reaction affect spacing.
4.​ Traffic volume–capacity ratio / Level of Service (LOS)
○​ Congested roads reduce available spacing.
5.​ Proportion of vehicle classes in traffic stream
○​ Mixed traffic affects vehicle spacing.
6.​ Road geometric conditions
○​ Curves, gradients, width etc. influence spacing.
7.​ Environmental factors
○​ Weather, visibility and road conditions affect spacing.

●​ Minimum Space Gap Formula

The space gap is often assumed equal to the distance travelled during the driver’s reaction time.
Formula:
Sg = vt = 0.278V t
Where:
Sg​= Minimum space gap (m)
v = Speed in m/s
V = Speed in kmph
t = Driver reaction time (sec)

●​ Minimum Space Headway

Space headway is the minimum centre-to-centre distance between two vehicles.
Formula:
S= Sg + L
S=0.278Vt+L

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Where:
S = Space headway (m)
L = Average vehicle length (m)

●​ Empirical Relation for Space Headway

For traffic stream analysis, reaction time is commonly taken as 0.7 sec.
Therefore,
S=(0.7v+L)
or
S=(0.2V+L)
This relation is used for estimating theoretical traffic lane capacity.

●​ Time Headway and Capacity

Time headway is the time interval between two successive vehicles passing a point.
Relation with Speed
●​ As traffic speed increases, time headway decreases initially.
●​ At an optimum speed, time headway becomes minimum.
●​ Beyond this speed, time headway increases again.

❖​ Factors Affecting Practical Capacity

Practical capacity of a traffic lane is affected by roadway, traffic and environmental conditions.
Important factors are:
1. Lane Width
●​ Capacity decreases as lane width decreases.
●​ Narrow lanes reduce driving comfort and vehicle maneuverability.
●​ Example: Capacity of a 3.0 m lane may be about 76% of a 3.5 m lane on a two-lane rural
road.
2. Lateral Clearance
●​ Obstructions near the roadway (retaining walls, poles, parked vehicles, etc.) reduce
effective lane width.
●​ Reduced clearance decreases driving comfort and safety.
Recommended clearance: 1.85 m from pavement edge.
Effects:
●​ 0.75 m clearance on one side → capacity ≈ 96% of standard capacity.

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●​ 0.75 m clearance on both sides → capacity ≈ 80% of standard capacity.

3. Width of Shoulders
●​ Narrow shoulders reduce effective traffic lane width.
●​ Vehicles tend to move toward the centre of the pavement.
●​ Emergency parking on narrow shoulders further reduces lane capacity.
4. Commercial Vehicles
●​ Heavy vehicles such as trucks and buses occupy more space.
●​ They influence movement of vehicles in the same and adjacent lanes.
●​ On gradients, heavy vehicles move slowly and reduce traffic flow capacity.
5. Alignment and Road Geometry
●​ Poor alignment and substandard geometry reduce capacity.
●​ Factors affecting capacity:
○​ Inadequate sight distance
○​ Sharp curves
○​ Steep and long gradients
Example:​
If 60% of road length has inadequate Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD), capacity may reduce to
65% of standard design capacity.
6. Presence of At-Grade Intersections
●​ Intersections interrupt free traffic flow and reduce capacity.
●​ Capacity of an at-grade intersection is slightly lower than the road having lower capacity.
●​ Signalized intersections further reduce capacity due to stopping delays.
Improvement:​
Controlled-access highways with grade-separated intersections provide higher capacity and
smoother flow.
7. Other Factors
Other factors affecting practical capacity include:
●​ Stream speed
●​ One-way or two-way traffic movement
●​ Number of traffic lanes
●​ Vehicle characteristics
●​ Driver characteristics
●​ Traffic composition

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●​ Traffic volume
These factors collectively influence roadway performance and traffic flow efficiency.

​ Design Capacity and Level of Service (LOS)

●​ Design Capacity
Design capacity is the traffic volume adopted for road design corresponding to a desired level of
service (LOS) under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.
1.​ Maximum traffic flow occurs at an optimum speed.
2.​ Traffic flow decreases at speeds higher or lower than this optimum speed.
3.​ At capacity flow, vehicles move as a stream with little or no overtaking
opportunity.
4.​ When Volume/Capacity ratio (V/C) approaches 1.0, the roadway operates near its
maximum capacity.
❖​ Level of Service (LOS)
Level of Service (LOS) is a qualitative measure describing the operating condition of a roadway
from the driver's viewpoint.
It indicates the quality of traffic flow in terms of:
●​ Speed
●​ Travel time
●​ Comfort
●​ Safety
●​ Freedom of movement

❖​ Factors Affecting Level of Service

Important factors used to evaluate LOS are:
1.​ Operating speed
2.​ Travel time
3.​ Traffic interruptions
4.​ Freedom of manoeuvre
5.​ Driving comfort
6.​ Safety
7.​ Economy
According to Highway Capacity Manual (HCM), LOS mainly depends on:

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●​ Volume to Capacity Ratio (q/c or V/C ratio)

●​ Operating or Travel Speed

❖​ Levels of Service (A to F)
LOS A – Excellent Condition
➔​ Very low traffic volume.
➔​ Vehicles travel at desired/free speeds.
➔​ Easy overtaking possible.
➔​ Highest operating speed and comfort.
LOS B – Stable Flow
➔​ Slight increase in traffic.
➔​ Minor restrictions on speed and overtaking.
➔​ Good operating conditions.
LOS C – Stable but Restricted Flow
➔​ Noticeable interaction between vehicles.
➔​ Reduced freedom to overtake.
➔​ Moderate operating conditions.
LOS D – Approaching Unstable Flow
➔​ High traffic density.
➔​ Speeds and manoeuvrability decrease.
➔​ Driver comfort reduces.
LOS E – Capacity Condition
➔​ Traffic volume reaches roadway capacity.
➔​ Very limited overtaking opportunities.
➔​ Low operating speed.
➔​ V/C ratio approaches 1.0.
LOS F – Forced Flow / Traffic Jam
➔​ Severe congestion conditions.
➔​ Flow becomes unstable.
➔​ Very low speeds.
➔​ Stop-and-go traffic occurs.
➔​ At maximum density (jam density), traffic may nearly stop.

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​ Passenger Car Unit (PCU)

Passenger Car Unit (PCU) is a standard unit used to convert different classes of vehicles into an
equivalent number of passenger cars.
It helps in analysing mixed traffic flow where vehicles of different sizes, speeds and
operating characteristics use the same roadway.
❖​ Need for PCU
➢​ Roads in countries like India carry heterogeneous or mixed traffic consisting of
cars, buses, trucks, auto-rickshaws, cycles, bullock carts, etc.
➢​ Since these vehicles differ in dimensions, speed and driver behaviour, direct
comparison is difficult; therefore PCU conversion is required.

❖​ Concept of PCU
➢​ PCU indicates the relative effect of a vehicle class compared to a passenger car
under specified roadway and traffic conditions.
➢​ If one vehicle produces the same traffic effect as one passenger car, its PCU value
is taken as 1.0.

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➢​ PCU is used in determining traffic volume, roadway capacity and traffic density
under mixed traffic conditions.
➢​ Traffic flow is generally expressed in PCU/hour, PCU/lane/hour and PCU/km/lane.

❖​ Factors Affecting PCU

1. Vehicle Characteristics
●​ Vehicle dimensions, speed, power, acceleration and braking characteristics influence the
space occupied and movement pattern in traffic.
●​ Larger or slower vehicles generally have higher PCU values because they affect traffic
flow more.
2. Vehicle Spacing / Clearance
●​ The transverse and longitudinal gaps maintained between vehicles depend on speed, driver
behaviour and vehicle type.
●​ Greater spacing between vehicles reduces roadway efficiency and affects PCU values.
3. Traffic Stream Characteristics
●​ Traffic composition, mean speed, speed distribution and volume-capacity ratio influence
the interaction among vehicles.
●​ Mixed traffic with varied vehicle types generally results in changing PCU values.
4. Roadway Characteristics
●​ Road geometrics such as gradient, curves, access control, urban/rural conditions and
intersections affect vehicle operation.
●​ Difficult roadway conditions increase vehicle interference and modify PCU values.
5. Traffic Regulation and Control
●​ Speed limits, one-way operation, traffic signals and other control measures influence
traffic movement.
●​ Regulations change vehicle interactions and therefore alter PCU equivalency.
6. Environmental and Climatic Conditions
●​ Weather, visibility and surrounding environmental conditions affect driver performance
and vehicle movement.
●​ Poor environmental conditions may increase spacing and reduce traffic efficiency.

❖​ Parameters Used in PCU Analysis

Average Speed

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●​ The average speed of a vehicle class under prevailing traffic and roadway conditions is
considered.
●​ Higher speed differences among vehicle classes significantly affect PCU estimation.
Vehicle Dimensions
●​ Average length and width of vehicles determine the amount of roadway space occupied.
●​ Larger vehicles require more operating space and usually have higher PCU values.
Average Vehicle Gap
●​ Longitudinal and transverse clearances maintained during compact traffic flow are taken
into account.
●​ Vehicle gaps vary with speed, traffic density and driver characteristics.

❖​ PCU Values are Commonly Determined For

●​ Urban road mid-block sections, where uninterrupted traffic flow conditions are studied.
●​ Signalized intersections and kerb parking conditions, where traffic movement and capacity
differ from normal roadway sections.

​ Parking Studies
Parking studies are conducted to analyse the parking demand, parking characteristics and
available parking facilities in an area.
These studies help traffic engineers plan efficient parking arrangements, especially in
urban, commercial and metropolitan areas
❖​ Need / Importance of Parking Studies
1.​ Parking demand created by automobiles is a major transportation problem, particularly in
commercial, industrial and residential zones.

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2.​ Parking studies help in evaluating existing facilities and planning additional parking
spaces to reduce congestion.

❖​ Aspects Investigated in Parking Studies

1. Parking Demand
●​ Parking demand refers to the number of parking spaces required by vehicles in a
particular area during different periods of the day.
●​ It is evaluated to understand whether existing parking supply is sufficient or
additional facilities are required.
Methods to Evaluate Parking Demand
(a) Cordon Count Method
●​ In this method, a selected area is cordoned and the number of vehicles entering and
leaving is counted.
●​ Vehicle accumulation during peak hours is obtained by subtracting outgoing traffic from
incoming traffic.
(b) Vehicle Count Method
●​ The number of parked vehicles is counted at different times of the day in the study area.
●​ By recording vehicle registration numbers at fixed intervals, parking duration of each
vehicle can be estimated.
(c) Interview Method
●​ Information is collected by interviewing drivers, shop owners and local vehicle owners.
●​ This method is useful when parking demand exceeds the available parking space.

2. Parking Characteristics
●​ Parking characteristic studies analyse the existing parking practices and problems in the
study area.
●​ In kerb parking, interference to traffic flow, parking pattern and accidents during
parking/unparking operations are also examined.

3. Parking Space Inventory

●​ Parking space inventory is a complete survey of the study area to identify existing and
possible parking locations.
●​ A map is prepared showing kerb parking and off-street parking facilities to satisfy parking
demand.

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❖​ Types of Parking
1. On-Street (Kerb) Parking
●​ Parking provided along the edge of the roadway is called on-street or kerb parking.
●​ It is economical but reduces effective road width and may interfere with traffic flow.
(a) Parallel Parking
●​ Vehicles are parked parallel to the kerb.
●​ Requires less road width but accommodates fewer vehicles.
(b) Angle Parking
●​ Vehicles are parked at an angle (30°, 45°, 60° or 90°) to the kerb.
●​ Provides greater parking capacity but requires more road width and affects traffic
movement.
2. Off-Street Parking
●​ Parking facilities provided away from the roadway, such as parking lots or garages, are
called off-street parking.
●​ Suitable for commercial areas, shopping centres, offices and busy urban locations.
Types of Off-Street Parking
●​ Surface parking lots – open ground parking areas.
●​ Multi-storeyed parking – parking provided on several floors to save land area.
●​ Underground parking – parking constructed below ground level in congested cities.

❖​ Elements of Parking Design

1. Parking Space Dimensions
●​ Parking space dimensions depend on vehicle size and parking angle.
●​ Adequate length and width should be provided for easy parking and door opening.
2. Parking Angle
●​ Common parking angles are 30°, 45°, 60° and 90°.
●​ Increasing parking angle increases parking capacity but also increases road width
requirement.
3. Aisle Width
●​ Adequate aisle width is required for safe turning and movement of vehicles within parking
areas.
●​ Width depends on parking angle and vehicle dimensions.

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4. Entry and Exit Arrangement

●​ Separate entry and exit points improve traffic circulation and reduce conflicts.
●​ Proper control devices and signs should be provided.
5. Circulation Pattern
●​ Parking layouts should ensure smooth vehicle movement through one-way or two-way
circulation systems.
●​ Proper circulation reduces delay, confusion and accidents.

​ Accident Studies
Accident studies are carried out to analyse traffic accidents occurring on highways due to
complex traffic flow, mixed traffic and pedestrian movements. These studies help in improving
traffic safety and accident prevention.
❖​ Need for Accident Studies
●​ Traffic accidents may result in property damage, personal injuries and casualties.
●​ Since road accidents cannot be completely prevented, systematic studies are
needed to reduce accident rates.
❖​ Objective of Accident Studies
●​ One major objective of traffic engineering is to provide safe and efficient traffic
movement.
●​ Accident studies help traffic engineers identify causes of accidents and develop
preventive measures.
❖​ Role of Traffic Engineer
●​ The traffic engineer conducts systematic accident investigations to determine
accident causes.
●​ Suitable design improvements and traffic control measures are adopted to
minimise accidents.
❖​ Accident Analysis and Record Keeping
●​ Every accident should be analysed individually and zone-wise accident records
should be maintained.
●​ Proper records help in understanding accident patterns and identifying critical
locations.
❖​ Statistical Analysis of Accidents

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●​ Periodic statistical analysis is carried out at critical locations, road stretches and
traffic zones.
●​ The analysis helps in selecting effective measures to significantly reduce accident
rates.

❖​ Objectives of Accident Studies

Accident studies are carried out to study the causes of accidents and to suggest corrective
treatments at potential accident locations. These studies help traffic engineers identify
accident-prone areas and adopt suitable remedial measures to improve road safety.
Accident studies are useful in evaluating existing road designs and supporting proposed
designs. By analysing accident data, the effectiveness of current roadway designs can be assessed
and safer design improvements can be justified.
These studies are also conducted to carry out before and after studies in order to
demonstrate the improvement achieved after implementing traffic or design measures. They help
compare accident conditions before and after modifications.
Accident studies are used to compute the financial losses resulting from accidents,
including losses due to property damage and injuries. They also provide economic justification for
the improvements suggested by traffic engineers.

❖​ Causes of Accidents
There are four basic elements in a traffic accident namely road users, vehicles, road and
road condition, and environmental factors such as traffic and weather conditions. Accidents may
occur due to defects or failures associated with one or more of these elements.
The road user responsible for an accident may be the driver of one or more vehicles,
pedestrians or passengers. Human errors, negligence and unsafe actions contribute significantly to
accident occurrence.
Vehicles involved in accidents may be defective due to failures in brakes, steering system,
lighting system, tyre burst or other mechanical defects. Such defects reduce vehicle control and
increase accident possibility.
Road conditions and roadway design also influence accident occurrence. Slippery
surfaces, potholes, ruts and damaged pavements create unsafe conditions. Defective geometric
design such as inadequate sight distance, insufficient shoulder width, improper curve design, poor
lighting and improper traffic control devices may also lead to accidents.

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Environmental factors such as traffic, weather and surrounding conditions affect road
safety. Mist, fog, snow, dust, smoke and heavy rainfall may restrict visibility and make driving
unsafe. Stray animals on roads may also create hazardous situations for road users.
Accidents are generally caused by a combination of several factors rather than a single
reason. Therefore, it is often difficult to identify one particular cause for an accident.

❖​ Accident Studies and Records

The various steps involved in traffic accident studies are collection of accident data, preparation
of reports, maintenance of records and diagrams, and application of findings for suggesting
preventive measures.
(i) Collection of Accident Data
Collection of accident data is the first step in accident studies. Standard forms are prepared
for collecting accident information. The collected details generally include the date, time, persons
involved, and classification of accident such as fatal, serious or minor.
The location details of the accident are recorded, including description of the accident site.
Information regarding the vehicles involved such as registration number, make, description,
loading details and vehicle defects is also collected.
The nature of accident is studied by noting the condition of vehicles, details of collision,
involvement of pedestrians or objects, damages, injuries and casualties. Details of road and traffic
conditions, such as road geometry, road surface condition and traffic density are also recorded.
Possible causes and the primary cause of the accident are identified. In addition, the total
accident cost is estimated in terms of property damage, personal injuries and casualties.

(ii) Accident Report

Accidents should be reported to police authorities, particularly in cases involving injuries,
casualties or severe property damage. Legal action may be initiated wherever necessary.
Accident reports of the persons involved may also be collected. The report is prepared
with all relevant facts and details useful for future analysis, legal actions and compensation
claims.

(iii) Accident Records

Accident records are maintained with complete details regarding accidents, location and
other relevant particulars. These records help in systematic accident analysis and identification of
accident-prone locations.

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(a) Location Files

Location files are used to keep a record of accident locations and identify areas of high
accident occurrence. These files are generally maintained by police stations for their respective
jurisdictions.
(b) Spot Maps
Spot maps show accident locations on a map using spots, pins or symbols. Maps of
suitable scale are commonly used for urban accident studies to indicate accident distribution.
(c) Condition Diagram
A condition diagram is a drawing showing the important physical conditions of an
accident location. It includes roadway limits, curves, kerbs, bridges, culverts, trees, road
conditions, visibility obstructions, traffic signs and property lines.
Standard symbols are used to represent different details. Sometimes condition diagrams and
collision diagrams may be combined into a single sketch.
(d) Collision Diagram
Collision diagrams show the approximate paths of vehicles and pedestrians involved in
accidents. These diagrams help in comparing accident patterns before and after implementing
remedial measures.

❖​ Stages of Accident Investigation

Accident investigations and studies are generally carried out scientifically in the following three
stages:

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1.​ Accident Investigations

2.​ Analysis of Individual Accidents
3.​ Statistical Analysis of Accidents
1.​ Accident Investigations
1. Recording General Observations
In accident investigation, the first step is recording general observations at the accident site. This
includes measuring skid marks caused by partial or full skidding, recording the positions of
vehicles and objects using collision diagrams and photographs, and noting accident details,
injuries, and damages. Road surface condition, shoulder condition, environmental factors, and
condition diagrams with measurements are also recorded.
2. Driver Tests
Driver tests are conducted to examine whether driver behaviour contributed to the accident.
Breath analysis is done to check alcohol content using a breathalyzer, and blood or spinal fluid
tests may be performed when necessary. Tests on driver characteristics such as reaction time,
distance judgment, clear vision, glare vision, and glare recovery are also carried out.
3. Skid Resistance of Pavement Surface
The skid resistance of the pavement surface is measured soon after the accident under prevailing
conditions. Portable pendulum skid resistance testers or similar equipment are used to determine
the average skid resistance along the skid marks. This helps in understanding the braking and
friction conditions during the accident.
4. Vehicle Tests
Vehicle tests are performed to examine the condition of vehicles involved in the accident. Tests
are conducted on braking systems, steering mechanisms, accessories, and overall vehicle
condition. Dents, damages, collapsed members, and other physical characteristics of the vehicles
and objects involved are also studied.
5. Probable Causes of the Accident
The investigation includes identifying the probable causes of the accident. Primary, secondary,
and contributing causes are analysed based on accident type, site conditions, vehicle positions,
environmental conditions, and other relevant factors. This helps determine how and why the
accident occurred.
6. Cost Analysis
Cost analysis estimates the total economic loss caused by the accident. It includes costs due to
injuries and fatalities, vehicle damages, property damages, traffic delays, investigation expenses,
and legal proceedings. This analysis helps evaluate the financial impact of road accidents.

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Statistical Analysis of Accidents

1. Statistical Analysis of Road Accidents
Statistical analysis of road accidents is carried out to evaluate the effectiveness of measures
adopted to reduce accident rates. It helps in estimating the relative safety of different road
stretches or zones and assessing traffic safety performance.
2. Effect of Mobility on Accidents
As mobility increases, the probability of accidents also increases. Growth in the number of
vehicles, pedestrians, and population generally causes a rise in total accidents year after year.
Therefore, effectiveness of traffic engineering, enforcement, and educational measures is judged
by changes in accident rates rather than by total number of accidents.
3. Accident Rate and Relative Safety
Accident rate may be expressed in terms of number of vehicles, population, or vehicle movement
(vehicle-km) related to population. Relative accident rates may also be related to roadway and
traffic factors. This helps compare the safety level of different roads and traffic conditions.
4. Accident Density and Prediction
Accident-prone road stretches can be identified by determining accident density per unit length of
road. Statistical studies over a long period help in predicting the probability of accident
occurrence per day and evaluating the relative safety of different classes of road users.
5. Reliability of Statistical Analysis
The reliability of accident analysis mainly depends on the reliability and accuracy of accident data
collected from accident records. Proper and complete accident records are therefore essential for
meaningful statistical analysis.
Analysis of Individual Traffic Accidents
1. Need for Individual Accident Analysis
Every road accident is analysed individually by the traffic engineer to arrive at sound conclusions.
It is often necessary to determine the original speeds of vehicles involved in different types of
accidents.
2. Common Types of Vehicular Accidents
Typical modes of vehicular accidents include:
●​ A moving vehicle colliding with a parked vehicle.
●​ Two vehicles colliding at an intersection from different directions.
●​ Head-on collision of vehicles approaching from opposite directions.
●​ A moving vehicle colliding with a stationary object such as a pole, tree, or rigid structure.
3. Assumptions Used in Accident Analysis

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To simplify accident analysis, certain assumptions are made. If skid marks are present, skid
distances are measured and 100% skidding is assumed to estimate braking distance. If skid marks
are absent, the collision is considered a free collision without brake application.
4. Collision Analysis using Conservation of Momentum
When two vehicles of masses ma and mb with speeds va and vb collide, and are assumed to
behave as perfectly plastic bodies, they move together after impact with a common speed V′.
(ma va+mb vb) = (ma+mb)V′
This relationship is used in accident reconstruction to estimate vehicle speeds and analyse
collision behaviour.
●​ Measures for Reduction in Accident Rates
The measures adopted to reduce accident rates are generally grouped into three categories called
“3 E’s”:​
(i) Engineering, (ii) Enforcement, and (iii) Education.
1. Engineering Measures
(a) Road Design
Road design measures involve checking and improving geometric features such as sight distance,
pavement width, alignment, and intersection design. Pavement condition and skid resistance are
maintained to required standards. Where needed, by-passes, flyovers, and grade-separated
intersections are constructed to reduce conflicts and delays.
(b) Preventive Maintenance of Vehicles
Vehicle components such as brakes, steering systems, and lighting arrangements should be
inspected regularly. Heavy penalties may be imposed on defective vehicles, especially public
transport vehicles, to ensure safe operation.
(c) Before and After Studies
Accident records and patterns are maintained using collision and condition diagrams. After
implementing design improvements and regulations, accident data is again collected to compare
the situation before and after the measures, helping to evaluate their effectiveness.
(d) Road Lighting
Proper road lighting reduces accidents caused by poor night visibility. Lighting is particularly
important at intersections, bridges, and locations with restricted traffic movements.
2. Enforcement Measures
(a) Speed Control : Speed control is an important enforcement measure to reduce accidents.
Devices such as tachometers may be fitted in buses to monitor speeds, and surprise spot-speed
checks should be conducted to detect and penalize speed limit violations.

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(b) Traffic Control Devices

Traffic signals, signs, road markings, and channelizing islands should be installed or redesigned
wherever necessary. Proper traffic control devices help regulate traffic movement and improve
road safety.
(c) Training and Supervision
Transport authorities should strictly test drivers before issuing licenses, especially for public
service vehicles and taxis. Drivers should receive training in defensive driving and undergo
supervision and periodic license renewal checks.
(d) Medical Check
Drivers should undergo periodic medical examinations, including vision and reaction time tests, at
prescribed intervals to ensure their fitness for safe driving.
(e) Special Precautions for Commercial Vehicles
Heavy commercial vehicles should preferably have a conductor or attendant to guide and assist
the driver. This improves operational safety and reduces accident risk.
(f) Observance of Law and Regulation
Strict enforcement of traffic laws and regulations is essential for accident prevention. Trained
personnel and police teams should inspect locations, check compliance by road users, and enforce
regulations wherever required.
3. Educational Measures
(a) Education of Road Users
Road users must be educated about safe use of roadway facilities. Drivers, passengers,
pedestrians, and school children should be taught road rules, safe crossing methods, and
precautionary measures through education programs, posters, and safety manuals.
(b) Safety Drive
Safety drives such as Traffic Safety Week help create awareness among the public. Films,
documentaries, training courses, and workshops can educate road users and drivers about safe
practices and correct traffic behaviour.

​ Traffic Control Devices

Traffic control devices are the aids and devices used to control, regulate, and guide traffic
movement. The general requirements of traffic control devices are attention, meaning, response
time, and respect of road users. The common traffic control devices are signs, signals, markings,
islands, and road lighting.

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​ Traffic Signs
Traffic signs are devices used to regulate, warn, and guide road users. They should be backed by
law to make them effective and useful. According to the Indian Motor Vehicles Act, traffic signs
are classified into:
1.​ Regulatory Signs
2.​ Warning Signs
3.​ Informatory Signs
Placement of Traffic Signs
Traffic signs should be placed where they can be easily seen and recognized by road users in time.
On roads with kerbs, the sign edge should be at least 0.6 m from the kerb edge. On roads without
kerbs, the sign edge should be 2–3 m from the carriageway edge. Sign posts are painted with
alternate black and white bands, and the reverse side of sign plates is painted grey.

❖​ Regulatory Signs
Regulatory or mandatory signs inform road users about laws, regulations, restrictions, and
prohibitions. Violation of these signs is considered a legal offence.
Regulatory signs are classified into:
●​ Stop and Give-way signs
●​ Prohibitory signs
●​ No Parking and No Stopping signs
●​ Speed Limit and Vehicle Control signs
●​ Restriction Ends sign
●​ Compulsory Direction Control signs

●​ Stop and Give-Way Signs

The Stop sign requires vehicles to stop completely before proceeding. It is octagonal in
shape, red in colour, with a white border. It may be used with a definition plate carrying the word
“STOP”.
●​ Give-Way Sign
The Give-Way sign instructs drivers to give priority or right-of-way to traffic on another
road. It is triangular, white in colour, with a red border and the apex pointing downward.

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1.​ Prohibitory Signs

Prohibitory signs restrict certain traffic movements, vehicle entry, or actions. These signs
are circular, white in colour, and have a red border.
Examples of Prohibitory Signs
Common prohibitory signs include:
●​ No Entry
●​ One Way
●​ Vehicles Prohibited in Both Directions
●​ Truck Prohibited
●​ Cycle Prohibited
●​ Pedestrian Prohibited
●​ Right Turn Prohibited
●​ U-Turn Prohibited
●​ Overtaking Prohibited
●​ Horn Prohibited

2.​ No Parking and No Stopping Signs

The No Parking sign prohibits parking of vehicles at a particular location. It is circular,
with a blue background, red border, and one oblique red bar at 45°. Definition plates may indicate
restrictions related to time, day, or distance.
No Stopping / Standing Sign
The No Stopping or Standing sign prohibits stopping of vehicles at a location. It is circular, with a
blue background, red border, and two intersecting oblique red bars.
3.​ Speed Limit and Vehicle Control Signs
Speed Limit Sign
Speed limit signs restrict the speed of vehicles on a particular road section. They are circular, with
a white background, red border, and black numerals showing the permitted speed.
Vehicle Control Signs
Vehicle control signs regulate dimensions or load of vehicles. They are similar to speed limit signs
but use black symbols instead of numerals.
Examples include:
●​ Width Limit
●​ Height Limit
●​ Length Limit

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●​ Load Limit
●​ Axle Load Limit
4.​ Restriction Ends Sign
The Restriction Ends sign indicates the point where restrictions imposed by previous
prohibitory signs no longer apply. It is circular, with a white background and a broad diagonal
black band at 45°.
5.​ Compulsory Direction Control Signs
Compulsory Direction Control signs indicate the directions in which vehicles must
proceed or are permitted to move. These signs are circular, with a blue background and white
directional arrows. They guide traffic movement and ensure orderly traffic operation.

❖​ Warning Signs
Warning or cautionary signs are used to warn road users about hazardous or dangerous
conditions existing on or near the roadway. These signs help drivers take precautionary action in
advance for safe traffic movement.
Shape and Colour of Warning Signs
Warning signs are generally in the shape of an equilateral triangle with the apex pointing upwards.
They have a white background, red border, and black symbols indicating the nature of the hazard.
Common Warning Signs

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Commonly used warning signs include:

●​ Right Bend / Left Bend
●​ Right–Left Reverse Bend
●​ Steep Ascent / Steep Descent
●​ Narrow Bridge
●​ Gap in Median
●​ Slippery Road
●​ Cycle Crossing
●​ Pedestrian Crossing
●​ School Ahead
●​ Men at Work
●​ Ferry
●​ Cross Road / Side Road Intersection
●​ Round About Ahead
●​ Dangerous Dip / Hump or Rough Road
●​ Unguarded Railway Crossing / Guarded Railway Crossing
●​ Falling Rock Zone
These signs provide advance warning to road users regarding road conditions and possible
hazards.

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❖​ Informatory Signs
Informatory signs are used to guide road users along routes, provide information about
destinations and distances, and make travel easier, safer, and more convenient.
Classification of Informatory Signs
Informatory signs are grouped into the following categories:
1.​ Direction and Place Identification Signs
2.​ Facility Information Signs
3.​ Other Useful Information Signs
4.​ Parking Signs
5.​ Flood Gauge

1. Direction and Place Identification Signs

These signs provide information regarding routes, destinations, and place identification.
They help drivers select the correct direction and confirm their route.
Shape and Features
These signs are generally rectangular, with white background, black border, and black arrows and
letters. Information may be written in English and other required languages.
Examples
Examples include:
●​ Destination Signs
●​ Direction Signs
●​ Reassurance Signs
●​ Route Markers
●​ Place Identification Signs
2. Facility Information Signs
Facility information signs inform road users about the availability of important public
facilities and services along the route.
Examples
These signs indicate facilities such as:
●​ Public Telephone
●​ Petrol Pump
●​ Hospital
●​ First Aid Post
●​ Eating Place

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●​ Resting Place
3. Other Useful Information Signs
These signs provide additional useful guidance for safe and convenient travel.
Examples
Common examples include:
●​ No Through Road
●​ No Through Side Road
4. Parking Signs
Parking signs indicate locations where parking is permitted or controlled. They guide road
users regarding parking arrangements.
Shape and Features
Parking signs are generally square boards with a blue background and white coloured letter “P”.
Additional definition plates may specify vehicle category, parking direction, or reserved parking
details.
5. Flood Gauge
Flood gauge signs provide information regarding water level or flooding conditions on
roads. These signs help road users judge whether the roadway is safe for travel during flood
situations.

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​ Traffic Signals
Traffic signals are automatic control devices used at intersections to regulate traffic
movement using red, yellow and green lights.​
They separate conflicting traffic streams by time segregation, allowing one movement while
stopping others.
❖​ Need of Traffic Signals
●​ Used at intersections with heavy crossing and right-turn traffic.
●​ Help maintain orderly movement and reduce chances of accidents.
●​ Replace manual control by traffic police using automatic signal operation.
Requirements of Traffic Signals
A good traffic signal system should:
●​ Draw attention of road users clearly.
●​ Provide clear meaning (stop, caution, proceed).
●​ Give sufficient response time to drivers.
●​ Ensure minimum delay and wastage of time.

❖​ Advantages of Traffic Signals

1. Orderly Traffic Movement: Traffic signals regulate vehicle movements systematically and
improve intersection handling capacity.
2. Reduction in Accidents: They reduce accident possibilities, especially right-angle (crossing)
collisions.
3. Safety for Pedestrians: Pedestrians can cross roads safely at signalized intersections.
4. Safe Crossing of Heavy Traffic : Signals allow safe crossing of high traffic volumes at busy
intersections.
5. Better Traffic Progression: Properly coordinated signals help maintain reasonable speed on
major roads.
6. Opportunity for Minor Road Traffic: Signals provide controlled intervals for minor road traffic
to cross major traffic streams.
7. Economical Operation: Automatic signals can be more economical than manual traffic control.
8. Improved Traffic Flow Quality: Signals create compact platoons of vehicles, improving traffic
movement when vehicles maintain similar speeds.
❖​ Disadvantages of Traffic Signals

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1. Increase in Rear-End Collisions: Stopping and starting of vehicles may increase rear-end
accidents.
2. Violations Due to Poor Design: Improper signal design or wrong placement may lead to control
violations by drivers.
3. Failure Causes Confusion: Power failure or signal malfunction can create confusion among
road users.
❖​ Signal Installation Criteria
The decision to install automatic traffic signals should be based on:
●​ Careful analysis of traffic data.
●​ Sound engineering judgement.
●​ Major consideration is the traffic volume entering the intersection and crossing
movements.

❖​ Traffic Signals
Basic Terms Used in Traffic Signals
1. Cycle : Cycle is the total time required for one complete sequence of signal indications.​
It includes all red, amber and green indications for all traffic movements.
2. Phase: A phase is the portion of signal cycle assigned to a traffic movement or combination of
movements. Each phase controls a specific traffic direction.
3. Interval: Interval is a part of the signal cycle during which signal indications remain unchanged.​
It represents a fixed signal condition period.
4. Level of Service (LOS): Signal performance is measured by vehicle delay, queue length and
waiting probability.​
It indicates the operating efficiency of a signalized intersection.

●​ Factors Affecting Capacity of Signalized Intersection

1. Physical Factors
Capacity depends on roadway width, number of lanes and intersection geometry.​
Green and red signal timings also influence intersection performance.
2. Operational & Control Factors
Turning movements, commercial vehicles, pedestrian flow, parking control and signal
characteristics affect capacity.​
​ Peak hour traffic and adjacent land use also influence operation.

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●​ Types of Traffic Signals

1. Traffic Control Signals
(a) Fixed-Time (Pre-Timed) Signal
These signals operate with predetermined red, amber and green timings based on traffic
studies. They are simple automatic signals but may cause delays when traffic demand varies.
(b) Manually Operated Signal
Signal timings are controlled manually by traffic police or operators. Used mainly during
peak hours or special traffic conditions.
(c) Traffic Actuated (Automatic) Signal
Signal timings change according to actual traffic demand. Detectors and computers adjust
phases automatically for efficient traffic control.
Semi-Actuated Signal
Normal green time may be extended for closely approaching vehicles using detectors.
Useful where traffic flow varies moderately.
Fully Actuated Signal
Detectors and computers allocate right of way based on traffic demand. Highly efficient
but expensive to install.

●​ Traffic Signal Colours

Red Light - Red indicates STOP and vehicles must not proceed.
Green Light - Green indicates GO and vehicles are allowed to move.
Amber/Yellow Light - Yellow provides clearance time for vehicles already inside the intersection
to clear safely.

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●​ Types of Traffic Signal Coordination Systems

1. Simultaneous System
All signals on a route show same indications at the same time. This system is generally not very
satisfactory.
2. Alternate System
Alternate intersections display opposite signal indications. It performs better than the
simultaneous system.
3. Simple Progressive System
Signals are timed to allow continuous vehicle movement on the main road at a desired speed.
Each signal uses equal cycle length with fixed timing.
4. Flexible Progressive System
Cycle length, division and schedule are varied automatically using computers. It is the most
efficient coordination system.

B. Pedestrian Signal
Pedestrian signals provide a right of way to pedestrians during walk period. Vehicular
traffic is stopped during pedestrian crossing time.
●​ Flashing Beacons
○​ Flashing Red Signal: Drivers must stop before entering an intersection or stop line.
It acts like a stop control.
○​ Flashing Yellow Signal : Drivers may proceed with caution.​
Used mainly as a warning indication.

●​ Warrants for Traffic Control Signal Installation

1. Minimum Vehicular Volume Warrant

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Signals may be installed when traffic volume on major and minor streets exceeds specified
limits. Volume requirements reduce when speeds exceed 60 kmph or in built-up areas.
2. Interruption of Continuous Traffic Flow Warrant
When heavy traffic on a major road causes undue delay or hazard to minor road traffic,
signal control becomes necessary.
3. Minimum Pedestrian Volume Warrant
Signals are justified when high pedestrian crossing demand exists with heavy vehicular
traffic on the major street.
4. Accident Experience Warrant
Signals may be installed when other safety measures fail and accident frequency remains
high.
5. Combination of Warrants
If no single warrant is fully satisfied, signals may still be justified when two or more
warrants are substantially met.

​ Road Markings
Road or traffic markings are lines, patterns, words, symbols or reflectors placed on
pavements, kerbs, islands or nearby fixed objects. They act as special traffic signs used to control,
regulate, warn and guide traffic.
Road markings are generally made using paint of contrasting colour and brightness with
the pavement background. Reflective paints are commonly used to improve visibility during
night.
Requirements of Road Markings
●​ Longitudinal lines should be at least 10 cm wide.
●​ Transverse lines should be clearly visible from a sufficient distance.
●​ Markings should provide adequate response time for road users.

❖​ Classification of Road Markings

Road markings are classified into:
1.​ Pavement Markings
2.​ Kerb Markings
3.​ Object Markings
4.​ Reflector Unit Markings

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1. Pavement Markings
Pavement or carriageway markings are generally painted white. Yellow colour is used for parking
restrictions, continuous centre lines and barrier lines.
●​ Types of Pavement Markings
(a) Centre Lines
Centre lines separate opposing traffic streams on undivided two-way roads.
Rural Highways
●​ Single broken white lines are used.
●​ Standard width: 0.10 m.
●​ On NH and SH: 4.5 m segments with 7.5 m gaps on straight sections.
●​ Reduced to 3.0 m segments and 6.0 m gaps near curves and intersections.
Urban Roads
●​ White broken lines of 0.10–0.15 m width are used.
●​ Segment length: 3.0 m with 4.5 m gaps.
●​ On roads having two lanes per direction, double continuous lines are used.
Four/Six Lane Undivided Roads
Two solid parallel lines are painted with 0.05–0.10 m spacing between them.

(b) Lane Lines

Lane lines are used to designate traffic lanes. They guide drivers and help in efficient utilization
of carriageway width.

(c) No Passing Zone Markings

These markings indicate areas where overtaking is prohibited. They improve safety in hazardous
locations.

(d) Turn Markings

Turn markings are provided near intersections. They help vehicles take correct lateral position
before turning.

(e) Stop Lines

Stop lines indicate the exact position where vehicles must stop before pedestrian crossings,
signals or intersections.

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(f) Cross Walk Lines

Crosswalk lines indicate designated pedestrian crossing locations.​
Width generally ranges from 2.0 m to 4.0 m depending on requirements.

(g) Approach to Obstructions

Special pavement markings warn drivers about approaching obstructions or hazards.

(h) Parking Space Limits

These markings define individual parking spaces for systematic and efficient parking.

(i) Border or Edge Lines

Edge lines indicate carriageway boundaries on rural roads without kerb stones. They guide drivers
about roadway limits.

(j) Route Direction Arrows

Arrows painted on pavement guide vehicles into the correct traffic lanes and directions.

(k) Parking Space Limits on Urban Roads

Used to promote organized parking arrangement and proper utilization of parking areas.

(l) Bus Stop Markings

Bus stopping areas are identified by:
●​ Continuous yellow kerb line indicating no parking.
●​ Pavement marking displaying the word “BUS”.

2. Kerb Markings
Kerb markings indicate traffic regulations such as parking restrictions.
Alternate black and white stripes on kerbs and islands improve visibility from long distances.

3. Object Markings
Object markings are used on hazardous roadside or roadway obstructions.
Examples
●​ Bridge supports
●​ Traffic signs and signals

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●​ Level crossing gates

●​ Traffic islands
●​ Narrow bridges
●​ Culvert head walls
These objects are marked to increase driver awareness and safety.

4. Reflector Unit Markings

Reflector markers are used as:
●​ Hazard markers
●​ Guide markers
They improve night-time visibility and safe driving.
Hazard markers reflect yellow light and should be visible from approximately 150 m distance.

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❖​ Road Delineators
Road delineators are devices used to outline roadway alignment and provide visual
guidance, especially during night driving.
They help drivers recognize the road direction and hazards ahead.

Types of Road Delineators

1. Roadway Indicators
Roadway indicators are guide posts used to show road alignment and roadway edges.
Characteristics:
●​ Height: 0.8 – 1.0 m
●​ Painted with black and white stripes
●​ May include reflectors

2. Hazard Markers
Hazard markers indicate obstructions located near the roadway.
Characteristics:
●​ Height approximately 1.2 m
●​ Use three red reflectors or black-yellow 45° stripes pointing toward safe side.

3. Object Markers

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Object markers indicate hazards or obstructions directly in vehicle path.

Characteristics:
●​ Circular red reflectors mounted on triangular or rectangular panels.
●​ Commonly used for channelizing islands and intersection obstructions.

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