Module 5

Quantum computing
[Link] of quantum information & quantum computing

One of Alan Turing's achievements, in his famous paper of 1936, was to present a formally
exact predicate with which the informal predicate “can be done by means of an effective
method” may be replaced (Turing 1936). Alonzo Church, working independently, did the
same (Church 1936a).

Strong Church Turing thesis or Church Turing Deutsch principle which is foundation for
digital physics principle or foundation states when applied to physics. The thesis has several
possible meanings i.e. the universe is equivalent to a Turing machine; thus, computing non
recursive functions is physically impossible. In computer science and quantum physics, the
Church–Turing–Deutsch principle (CTD principle) is a stronger, physical form of the
Church–Turing thesis formulated by David Deutsch in [Link] states that a function on the
natural numbers can be calculated by an effective method if and only if it is computable by a
Turing machine. The principle also states that a universal computing device can simulate
every physical process. The thesis is named after American mathematician Alonzo Church
and the British mathematician Alan Turing

Introduction to quantum computing

Simulating naturally occurring quantum mechanical systems is obvious candidate for a task
at which quantum computer may excel or sophisticated, yet which is believed to be difficult
on a classical computer. When simulating quantum systems, the needed computational
resources grow exponentially with the system size due to the exponential growth of the
Hilbert space. Classical computer have difficulty in simulating general quantum systems for
much the same regions-because the number of complex numbers needed to describe a
quantum system generally grows exponentially with size of the system rather than linearly
as occurs in classical computer. In general storing the quantum state of system with n-
distinct components takes something like 𝑐 𝑛 bits of memory on a classical computer, where c
is a constant which depends upon details of the system being simulated and the desired
accuracy of the simulation. This quickly outgrows classical computational resources,
leaving many interesting quantum systems out of reach.

By contrast, a quantum computer can perform the simulation using 𝑘 𝑛 qubits, where kis
again a constant which depends upon the details of the system being simulated. This allows
quantum computers can efficiently perform simulations of quantum mechanical systems that
are believed not to be efficiently simulatable on a classical computer.

A significant notice (caveat) is that even though a quantum computer can simulate many
quantum systems for more efficiently than a classical computer, this does not mean that the
fast simulation will allow the desired information about the quantum system to be obtained
when measureda 𝑘 𝑛 qubit simulation will collapse into a definite state giving only 𝑘 𝑛 bits of
information,but the 𝑐 𝑛 bits of “Hidden information” in the wave function is not entirely
accessible. Systematic development of quantum computing only partially understood.
Quantum simulation/computation is an important application of quantum computers. The
computation of quantum system in many fields such as quantum chemistry, quantum
Physics, quantum Biology in Engineering/ Technology are very important problems, where
the computational constraints or restrictions imposed accurately the behaviour of quantum
system.

Quantum computer or computation developed on the basis of principles such as quantum

superposition, quantum entanglement and quantum interference which principles does not
work on classical computation.

Moore’s law and its end

Moore’s Law states that the number of transistors on an integrated circuit doubles
approximately every 18–24 months, leading to increased performance and reduced cost per
transistor. For decades, this empirical law guided the growth of the semiconductor industry
and VLSI (Very Large-Scale Integration) technology.

However, as device dimensions have entered the nanometer scale, several limitations have
emerged:

1. Physical Limits

a. Quantum effects: At very small sizes (below ~5 nm), quantum tunnelling causes
leakage currents, making transistors unreliable.
b. Short-channel effects: As channel lengths shrink, controlling current flow with the
gate becomes increasingly difficult.

2. Thermal Issues

Increasing transistor density produces significant heat dissipation problems, which

limits clock speed and integration.

3. Power Consumption

With reduced dimensions, leakage currents rise, leading to high static power
consumption. Dynamic power also becomes harder to manage.

4. Fabrication Challenges

a. Lithography at sub-5 nm nodes requires extremely advanced equipment (like EUV

Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography), which is costly and complex.
b. Variability in doping, defects, and alignment affects yield.

5. Economic Limits

 The cost of designing and fabricating advanced chips has grown exponentially,
making it unsustainable for all but the largest companies.
Statement for classical computer: - The power of classical computer will double once in
every two years or so for constant cost.

Or

The number of transistors on silicon chip will double about every two years while the cost
of the computers is halved. This suggests exponential growth of chip capabilities and
immense downward pressure on chip.

Statement for quantum computer: - staking that quantum computers are keeping pace with
classical computers provided single qubit added to the quantum computer every two years.

Moore’s Law end: - as we continue to minimise the chip dimensions, we will no drought to
bump into Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, which limits precision at the quantum level,
thus limiting computational capabilities. James R Powel calculated that due to the
uncertainty principle alone Moore’s law will be obsolete or end by 2036.

In case of quantum computer Moore’s law not taken very seriously because of the exact
nature of the gain, of any quantum computation over classical is not yet clear. But this
discovery statement helps to convey why we should be interested in quantum computers and
hopeful that they will one day able to outperform the most powerful classical computers, at
least for some applications.

Difference between classical and quantum computing

[Link]. Classical computing Quantum computing

1 Classical information is subjected to Quantum information obeys laws quantum
classical laws of Physics mechanics.
2 The classical information measurement The quantum information measurement is a
is a deterministic in nature. probabilistic in nature
3 The states of systems can be The states of systems can be represented by
represented by either 0 or 1 either |0> or |1> or linear combination of two
that is 𝜑 = 𝛼|0 > +𝛽|1 >
4 Every classical operation done on the Every quantum operation done on the qubit,
single binary digit at once on both the values at once.
5 The classical algebraic structure of The quantum algebraic structure of physical
physical events are Boolean algebra. events are abstract operators in Hilbert space
6 Classical information cannot be Quantum information can be manipulated
manipulated.
7 Classical computation uses bits 0 and 1Quantum computation uses qubits to measure
to measure and extract information and extract information
8 Classical computers which can store Quantum computers which can store
information either 0 or 1. information in multiple values at the same
time
9 Classical algorithm computation allows Quantum algorithm computation allows
N operations √𝑁operations
10 Classical computations employ stream Quantum computer uses subatomic particles
of binary electrical pulses of 0 and 1 such as electrons, photons for representing
qubits in quantum circuits
11 Classical computation allow the binary Quantum computation allow the Quantum
electrical pulses exist only in one state particles which existing in multiple sates at
either 0 or 1. the same time

Note: - The universe is a best quantum computer or quantum Turing machine.

Concept of qubit and its properties

The concept of qubit is similar to binary digit or bit of classical computation but the algebra
of mathematics of qubit and bit are completely different.

The most general mathematical representation of quantum state |φ>of a single qubit by a
vector of the form

𝜃 𝜃
|𝜓 > = cos 𝐼 |0 > +𝑒 𝑖𝜙 sin |1 >
2 2

Mathematical representation of qubit: A qubit mathematically represented Dirac

representation of quantum states of state vectors in Hilbert space.

That is single, two, three, and n-qubits given by the matrices as

|0>, |00>, |000> …….|000000…….0> and

1 0
|1>, |11>, |111>,|111……….1> With the meaning|0 > = ( ) , |1 > = ( ) , |00 >=
0 1
1
1
0
0
1 0 0
−
0 1 0
( ) , |01 > = ( ), |000 >= etc. |0000 … . .0 >= −
0 0 0
−
0 0 0
−
0 (0)
(0 )

Properties of qubits

The most important properties of qubits are (i) Quantum Superposition (ii) Quantum
entanglement (iii) Quantum interference.

(i) Quantum Superposition: The ability of existence of two states 0 and 1 at the same time in
one state is known as quantum superposition.

(ii) Quantum entanglement: The quantum measurements on qubits perfectly correlated, and
they cannot be untangled into two individual states of qubits.

(iii) Quantum interference: Quantum interference is a by-product of superposition, is that it

allows to basis of the measurement of a qubit toward a desired state or set of states.
(iv). Quantum Tunnelling: the phenomenon of quantum particle can travel to the opposite
side of a barrier which is impossible by classical particles. Quantum tunnelling allows the
ability to perform tasks faster than classical computer.

Representation of qubit by Block sphere

Block sphere: - Block sphere is sphere of radius equal to one or unity. In quantum
computing a two level quantum mechanical system |ψ> =|0> and |ψ> =|1>or linear
combination of two states can be represented geometrically on the block sphere.

The state of qubit which is described by a complex unit vector |ψ> on a two dimensional
Hilbert space. Up to a physical significant or global phase factor such a vector can always
𝑖𝜙
𝜃 𝜃
written in the form|𝜓 >= cos 2 𝐼 |0 > + 𝑒 2 sin 2 |1 >. Such a state vector is often
represented as point on the surface of 3D sphere known as Block sphere representation of
single qubit as shown in figure. A point at North Pole is represented by single qubit |0 >
and point at South Pole is represented bysingle qubit|1 >. And the linear combination of
two represented also represented on the Block sphere.

The two real parameters θ and φ are sufficient to describe a state vector|𝜓 >, since state
𝜋
vectors are constrained to have norm 1 and are equivalent up to global phase𝑒 2 . Block
sphere radius equal to norm of the state vector|𝜓 >. Norm of the state vector |𝜓 > is equal
to< 𝜓 ∗ |𝜓 > = 1. Which is also equal to probability of finding the state vector of the
quantum mechanical system or qubit because qubit can be represented by quantum systems
such as quantum particles that are electrons, photons, atoms and ions etc., exists in two
states at the same time.

Note: - points on the surface of the Block sphere can also be expressed in Cartesian co-
ordinates as(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (sin 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙, cos 𝜃), the measuring points within the Block
sphere can be explain using density matrices.

Single, two qubits, extended to N qubits.

Single qubit: - A single qubit is a state vector of quantum mechanical system such electron
or photon etc. |𝜓 >= 𝑎 |0 > +𝑏|1 > parameterised by two complex numbers
satisfying|𝑎 |2 + | 𝑏|2 = 1. Operations on a qubit must preserve this norm and described
by2 × 2 unitary matrices. The basis states of single qubit are |0> and |1> or linear
combination of two i.e. |𝜓 >= 𝑎 |0 > +𝑏|1 >, and mathematically represented by|0 >=
1 0
( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |1 > = ( ).
0 1
The most general mathematical representation of quantum state |ψ> of a single qubit by a
𝜃 𝜃
vector of the form|𝜓 > = cos 2 𝐼 |0 > +𝑒 𝑖𝜙 sin 2 |1 >. A single qubit is represented by
abstract operators on the finite two dimensional Hilbert space as by2 × 2 unitary matrices.

The single qubit basis states |0> and |1> can be expressed in decimal equivalent as follows.

1
|0 > (𝑞𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚) = ( ) (𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚) = (𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚) 0 × 20 = 0 × 1
0
= (𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚) 0

0
|1 > (𝑞𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚) = ( ) (𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚) = (𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚) 1 × 20 = 1 × 1
1
= (𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚) 1

0 1
Examples: - All Pauli matrices are single qubit state vectors operators, 𝜎𝑥 = ( ),𝜎 =
1 0 𝑦
0 −𝑖 1 0
( ),𝜎𝑧 = ( ).
𝑖 0 0 −1

Note: Hilbert space is complex vector space.

1
Two qubit: - A two qubit is vector represented by a state vector |𝜓 > = |0 > |0 >
√2
1
+ |1 >.
√2

And the state is entangled with there are no possible values 𝛼0 , 𝛼1 , 𝛽0 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽1 and the state defined by vector of
the form|𝜓 > = (𝛼0 |0 > +𝛼1 |1 >)(𝛽0 |0 > +𝛽1 |1 >). The above state is called an EPR (Einstein-Podolsk-
Rosen) state

Binary and decimal representation of two qubit

1
0
|00 > (𝑞𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚) = ( ) (𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚) = (𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚) 0 × 21 + 0 × 20
0
0
= 0 × 2 + 0 × 1 = (𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚) 0

0
1
|01 > (𝑞𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚) = ( ) (𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚) = (𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚) 0 × 21 + 1 × 20
0
0
= 0 × 2 + 1 × 1 = (𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚) 1

0
0
|01 > (𝑞𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚) = ( ) (𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚) = (𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚) 1 × 21 + 0 × 20
1
0
= 1 × 2 + 0 × 1 = (𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚) 2
 0
0
|01 > (𝑞𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚) = ( ) (𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚) = (𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚) 1 × 21 + 1 × 20
0
1
= 1 × 2 + 1 × 1 = (𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚) 3

Note: Two Qubit give four inputs to quantum gates.

N-qubit: -An n-qubit is a quantum mechanical state vector represented by,

|𝜓 > = |00000 − − − −0 >, |01000 − − − 0 >, … … . . |1 1 1 − − − − − 1 0 >, |1 1 1 −

− − − − 1 1 >. The column vectors corresponding the basis vectors are as follows,

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
|𝜓 >= , |𝜓 >= , …………|𝜓 >= , |𝜓 >=
− − − −
− − − −
− − 1 −
(0) (0) (0) (1)

The unitary operator for n-qubit is given the matrix of the form

1000 00
0100 00
0010 00
0001 00
|𝜓 >= −−−−
−−−− −−
−−−− −−
−−−− 10
(0 0 0 0 0 1 )𝑛×𝑛

Dirac representation and matrix operations

The state of a quantum mechanical system is described or represented by a wave function

𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) in Schrodinger form and as a state vector in Dirac form. The wave function is a
Schrodinger representation and state vector is a matrix or Heisenberg representation of
quantum mechanical system or event. (Here quantum systems meant to electrons, Photons
and all microscopic and sub microscopic particles, in reality obeying quantum mechanical
conditions).

In Dirac notation of quantum systems the wave function of 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) is represented by as a

column vector or matrix called as ‘ket’ vector |𝜓 > and read as ket ‘Psi’. a state vector or
|𝜓 > is written in matrix form as
 𝜓 (𝑥1 )
𝜓 (𝑥2 )
𝜓 (𝑥3 )
|𝜓 >= −
−
−
(𝜓 (𝑥𝑛 ))

The complex conjugate of ket vector is represented by a ‘bra’ vector < 𝜓| and it is
represented by a matrix of the form,

< 𝜓| = (𝜓 ∗ (𝑥1 )𝜓∗ (𝑥2 )𝜓∗ (𝑥3 ) − − − − − 𝜓 ∗ (𝑥𝑛 ))

The bra and ket vectors are transpose of complex conjugate of row and column vectors to
each other. Hence the scalar or inner product of bra and ket vectors can be represented by
bra-ket notation which is known as Dirac notation of quantum mechanical system in two
dimensional Hilbert space. Mathematically given as follows.

𝜓 (𝑥1 )
𝜓 (𝑥2 )
𝜓 (𝑥3 )
∗ (𝑥 )𝜓 ∗ (𝑥 )𝜓 ∗ (𝑥 ) ∗ (𝑥 ))
< 𝜓|𝜓 > = (𝜓 1 2 3 −−−−−𝜓 𝑛 × −
−
−
(𝜓 𝑛 ))
(𝑥

= (𝜓 ∗ (𝑥1 )𝜓 (𝑥1 ) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑥2 )𝜓 (𝑥2 ) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑥3 ) 𝜓 (𝑥3 ) ± − − − − 𝜓 ∗ (𝑥𝑛 )𝜓 (𝑥𝑛 )

= 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

This is matrix representation of wave function in quantum mechanics.

Matrix representation of 0 and 1 states

The state of quantum binary digit or qubit in quantum computation is represented by |0>
read as ket zero and |1> read ket one. The zero and one state of qubit can be represented in
1 0
matrix form as|0 > = ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |1 > = ( ). |0> and |1> are called as quantum binary digit
0 1
or qubit.

The transpose of complex conjugate of |0> is described by <0| = (1 0)

And |1>described by < 1| = (0 1).

|0>, |1>, <0| and <1| are quantum binary digit or qubit.

Brief discussion on types of qubit

The main types of qubits are:

 1. Superconducting
2. Trapped ions
3. Photonic
4. Spin-based (semiconductor/quantum dots)
5. Topological
6. Neutral atoms
7. Nitrogen Vacancy centers in diamond

Each has trade-offs in terms of speed, error rates, scalability, and operating conditions.

Type of Qubit How It Works Advantages Disadvantages Examples /

Companies
Fast gate operations
Current/voltage Short coherence
(nanoseconds), well-
Superconduct states in times (µs–ms), IBM, Google,
developed fabrication
ing Qubits Josephson requires milliKelvin Rigetti
(similar to CMOS), widely
junctions cooling
used
Internal
Very long coherence times Slow gate speeds IonQ,
Trapped Ion electronic states
(seconds), high-fidelity (µs–ms), scaling to Honeywell/
Qubits of ions in EM
gates large systems is hard Quantinuum
traps
Room temperature
Polarization/pha Hard to implement
Photonic operation, great for Xanadu,
se/path of two-qubit gates,
Qubits communication (low loss PsiQuantum
photons photon loss
over fiber)
Spin of electron Compatible with Short coherence
Spin Qubits
or nucleus in semiconductor tech, (needs isotopically Intel, Delft
(Quantum
semiconductor potential for large-scale pure materials), University
Dots/Silicon)
quantum dots integration complex control
Majorana zero
Topological Naturally protected from Still theoretical, not Microsoft
modes in
Qubits decoherence, potentially yet demonstrated (pursuing
topological
(experimental) low error rates reliably research)
superconductors
Atoms trapped
by optical Complex laser
Neutral Atom Can scale to 100s–1000s of QuEra,
tweezers, systems, slower
Qubits qubits, long coherence ColdQuanta
Rydberg gates
interactions
Research
Room temperature
Nitrogen Spin states of labs,
operation, great for quantum Difficult to scale to
Vacancy nitrogen– quantum
sensing, long coherence large quantum
Centers in vacancy defects sensors
(with isotopically pure computers
Diamond in diamond (Qnami,
diamond)
Element Six)

Superconducting qubits
A superconducting qubit is an artificial atom created from tiny circuits of superconducting
material that behave according to the laws of quantum mechanics. Instead of relying on
natural atoms or photons, engineers fabricate these qubits on a chip using standard
nanofabrication techniques similar to those used in VLSI/CMOS technology. At the core of
a superconducting qubit is a Josephson junction, a thin insulating barrier between two
superconductors, which introduces non-linear quantum effects and enables the circuit to
exhibit discrete energy levels, much like an atom. In essence, superconducting qubits are
engineered quantum systems based on Josephson junctions, functioning as artificial atoms
with controllable quantum states. They are currently the most advanced and widely used
platform for quantum computing, forming the foundation of many of today’s leading
quantum processors.

Harmonic oscillator (qualitative)

A harmonic oscillator is a fundamental system in physics where the restoring force is
directly proportional to the displacement, as seen in a spring–mass system or an LC circuit
in electronics. In quantum mechanics, it exhibits discrete and equally spaced energy levels
given by

1
𝐸𝑛 = (𝑛 + 2) ℏ𝜔 Where n = 0,1,2,3

With states labeled as ∣0⟩, ∣1⟩, ∣2>…, known as Fock states (or number states). Many
physical implementations of qubits—such as superconducting circuits, trapped ions, and
photonic modes—naturally behave like quantum harmonic oscillators. However, because
the energy levels are evenly spaced, transitions are not isolated. To realize a qubit, one must
engineer anharmonicity, ensuring that only the lowest two states, ∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩, can be
selectively controlled.

Fock states (or number states) are quantum states that describe a system with a definite, fixed number of
quanta of excitation—such as photons in a cavity, phonons in a lattice, or energy quanta in a harmonic
oscillator. A Fock state is written as ∣n⟩, where n is an integer specifying the exact number of quanta. For
example, ∣0⟩|0⟩∣0⟩ is the vacuum state (no excitation), ∣1⟩ corresponds to one quantum (the first excited state),
and ∣2⟩ to two quanta, and so on.

They are eigen states of the number operator

𝑛̂ = 𝑎̂† 𝑎 = 𝑛̂|𝑛 >= 𝑛|𝑛 > where a† and a are the creation and annihilation operators.

Fock states are fundamental because they represent states with well-defined energy in the harmonic oscillator,
form a complete basis for constructing any quantum state through superposition’s, and in quantum optics, ∣n⟩
directly corresponds to exactly n photons in a mode. Intuitively, they act as “counting states”: ∣0⟩ means no
particle, ∣1⟩ one particle, ∣2⟩ two particles, and so forth.

Need for anharmonicity

The harmonic oscillator forms the fundamental model for many quantum systems in
quantum computing. In its ideal form, however, it cannot serve as a qubit because its equally
spaced energy levels allow microwaves to excite multiple transitions simultaneously. By
introducing anharmonicity—for example, through a Josephson junction in superconducting
circuits—the energy spectrum is distorted so that the first two states (|0⟩ and |1⟩) can be
cleanly isolated and controlled. This engineered non-linearity makes reliable qubits possible,
establishing the harmonic oscillator as both the theoretical foundation of qubit design and a
pathway to more advanced continuous-variable quantum computing.

Charge qubit
A charge qubit is a type of superconducting qubit where quantum information is stored in
the number of Cooper pairs (pairs of bound electrons) on a tiny superconducting island,
often called a Cooper-pair box.

The island is connected to a reservoir through a Josephson junction and controlled by a gate
electrode, allowing precise tuning of its electrostatic energy. The qubits behaviour arises
from the competition between the charging energy (EC), which is the cost of adding or
removing a Cooper pair, and the Josephson energy (EJ), which enables Cooper pairs to
tunnel across the junction and form superpositions of charge states. The two qubit states
correspond to the absence or presence of an extra Cooper pair and transitions between them
can be driven by applying microwave pulses. Although charge qubits are conceptually
simple and were the first type of superconducting qubit demonstrated, they suffer from
strong sensitivity to charge noise in the environment, which reduces coherence times; this
limitation led to the development of improved designs such as the transmon qubit, which
retains the basic charge-qubit structure but is far less sensitive to noise.

Quantum logic gates

Introduction: A quantum logic gate is a simple electronic switching device that determines
whether quantum particle can pass through an input to the output in quantum digital circuits.

A quantum logic gate is quantum digital electronic device which performs like unitary
operator on the qubit basis of states of quantum particles and do quantum logic operations.

Every quantum logic gate is unitary operator means when the input of quantum logic gate is
the qubit and the unitary operator-operates on input qubits and give output. Here quantum
logic operation means unitary operator operation. An abstract linear operator is specified
completely by its unitary operators on the 2- dimensional complex Hilbert space.

Every quantum gate is a unitary operator which satisfies the conditions,

(1). 𝑈 . 𝑈 = 𝑈 . 𝑈 = 𝐼

(2). |𝐷𝑒𝑡. | = 1

(3). Columns satisfy Orthonormal condition, that is self-product is equal to 1 and different
product is equal to 0

Single qubit logic gates

Every single qubit logic gate isa quantum electronic device which consists only one input
and one output and represented2 × 2 unitary matrix operator. It is represented by the symbol
In the above diagram, quantum logic gate = U = unitary matrix operator, which represent
abstract operators on 2- dimensional complex Hilbert space as 2 × 2unitary matrix.

The basis vectors of input of single qubit logic gate in Hilbert space are,

1 0
|0 > = ( ) = 0 × 20 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |1 > = ( ) = 1 × 20 = 1.
0 1

Identity gate

A quantum identity gate is one which is single qubit logic gate and when operates on the
input qubit basis vectors (which are states of quantum particles) left as it is in the output.
Being a linear operator, it will operate on linear combination of inputs left as it is. The
quantum identity gate is represented by the symbol as

10
The unitary operator for identity gate is defined by the unitary matrix as𝐼 = ( ), this
01
matrix operates on the single qubit basis states, converts |0> to |0> and |1> to |1> and the
linear combination basis states into corresponding linear combination of basis states in case
of mixed states.

𝐼 Gate operation.

10
The 𝐼 𝑖𝑠 defined 𝐼 = ( )
01

10 1 1+0 1
𝐼 |0 > = ( ).( ) = ( ) = ( ) = |0 >
01 0 0+0 0

10 0 0+0 0
𝐼 |1 > = ( ).( ) = ( ) = ( ) = |1 >
01 1 1+0 1

Truth table

Input states Output states

|0> |0>
|1> |1>
𝛼1 |0 > + 𝛼2 |1 > 𝛼1 |0 > + 𝛼2 |1 >

Quantum NOT gate

A quantum NOT gate is one which is single qubit logic gate and when operates on the input
qubit basis vectors (which are states of quantum particles) converts into one basis vector
into another. Being a linear operator, it will operate on linear combination of inputs and
converts or maps into corresponding linear combination of output. The quantum NOT is
represented by the symbol as

01
The unitary operator for NOT gate is defined by the unitary matrix as𝑄𝑢 − 𝑁𝑂𝑇 = ( ),
10
this matrix operates on the single qubit basis states,converts |0> to |1> and |1> to |0> and the
linear combination basis states into corresponding linear combination of basis states in case
of mixed states.

𝑄𝑢 − 𝑁𝑂𝑇 Gate operation.

01
The 𝑄𝑢 − 𝑁𝑂𝑇 𝑖𝑠 defined 𝑄𝑢 − 𝑁𝑂𝑇 = ( )
10

01 1 0+0 0
𝑄𝑢 − 𝑁𝑂𝑇 |0 > = ( ).( ) = ( ) = ( ) = |1 >
10 0 1+0 1

01 0 0+1 1
𝑄𝑢 − 𝑁𝑂𝑇 |1 > = ( ).( ) = ( ) = ( ) = |0 >
10 1 0+0 0

Truth table

Input states Output states

|0> |1>
|1> |0>
𝛼1 |0 > + 𝛼2 |1 > 𝛼1 |1 > + 𝛼2 |0 >

It is similar to Pauli X-Gate.

Pauli quantum gates (only X, Y and Z gates)

(Only understanding point of view

Any single qubit quantum gate in general is given by the rotation unitary operator that is

𝑖𝜃⁄ (𝜎 ⃗)
𝑈 = 𝑒 𝑖𝛼 𝑅𝑛̂ (𝜃) = 𝑒 2 ⃗ .𝑛

Where 𝑅𝑛̂ (𝜃) is called rotational operator about any arbitrary axis or direction.

𝜃 𝜃
Let 𝑈 = 𝑒 𝑖𝛼 (𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 𝑖 (𝜎 . 𝑛⃗) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 )
2 2

𝜋
Put 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = 𝜋 in the above equation then we get
2

𝑖𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑈 = 𝑒 2 (𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 𝑖 (𝜎 . 𝑛⃗) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) = (𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) (𝐼 × 0 − 𝑖 (𝜎 . 𝑛⃗))
2 2 2 2

𝑈 = (0 + 𝑖) (0 − 𝑖 (𝜎 . 𝑛⃗))) = 𝑖 × (−𝑖 (𝜎 . 𝑛⃗))) = (𝜎 . 𝑛⃗)

𝑈 = (𝜎 . 𝑛⃗) = (𝑖𝜎𝑥 + 𝑗𝜎𝑦 + 𝑘 𝜎𝑧 ). (𝑖 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑗 𝑛𝑦 + 𝑘 𝑛𝑧 )

Where i, j and k are unit vectors and n is unit vector in three dimension hence

𝑛 = (𝑖 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑗 𝑛𝑦 + 𝑘 𝑛𝑧 ).

Thus if we take the dot or inner product of the two vectors then we get and by applying 𝑖. 𝑖 = 𝑗. 𝑗 = 𝑘. 𝑘 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖. 𝑗 =
𝑗. 𝑘 = 𝑘. 𝑖 = 0

𝑈 = 𝜎𝑥 𝑛𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝑛𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 𝑛𝑧

In the above equation put the values of n as 𝑛𝑥 = (1 0 0), 𝑛𝑦 = (0 1 0) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑧 = (0 0 1) then we will obtained Pauli X, Y
and Z gates.

Pauli X-Gate

The unitary operator for Pauli X-gate can be obtained by putting the values of unit vectors 𝑛𝑥 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑋 −
𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. 𝐼𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 (1 0 0) and substitute in the above equation then we get

01
𝑈 = 𝜎𝑥 . 1 + 𝜎𝑦 . 0 + 𝜎𝑧 . 0 = 𝜎𝑥 Which is Pauli matrix X defined by the matrix unitary operator as𝜎𝑥 = ( ).
10

𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍 𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑛𝑦 = (0 1 0) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑧 = (0 0 1) 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

𝑇𝑜 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑃𝐴𝑢𝑙𝑖 Matrices spin wave functions and their operators has to be considered.

Pauli X-Gate

The Pauli X-gate is a single qubit quantum gate. The unitary operator for the Pauli X-gate is
01
given by the unitary matrix 𝑋 = 𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑥 = ( ) . The Pauli X gate is represented by the
10
symbol,

Pauli X-gate operation

Let us consider the single qubit basis states as |0>, |1> and linear combination of the two that
is, a|0>+b|1> which will be the inputs of Pauli X-gate. Then the Pauli X-gate operates these
input states and converts |0> to |1> and |1> to |0> and the linear combination basis states into
corresponding linear combination of basis states in case of mixed states.

01 1 0+0 0
𝑋 |0 >= 𝜎𝑥 |0 > = ( ).( ) = ( ) = ( ) = |1 >
10 0 1+0 1

01 0 0+1 1
𝑋 |1 >= 𝜎𝑥 |1 > = ( ).( ) = ( ) = ( ) = |0 >
10 1 0+0 0

Truth table

Input states Output states

|0> |1>
|1> |0>
𝛼1 |0 > + 𝛼2 |1 > 𝛼1 |1 > + 𝛼2 |0 >
Pauli Y-Gate

The Pauli Y-gate is a single qubit quantum gate. The unitary operator for the Pauli Y-gate is
0𝑖
given by the unitary matrix𝑌 = 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑦 = ( ) . The Pauli Y gate is represented by the
−𝑖0
symbol,

Pauli Y-gate operation

Let us consider the single qubit basis states as |0>, |1> and linear combination of the two that
is, a|0>+b|1> which will be the inputs of Pauli Y-gate. Then the Pauli Y-gate operates these
input states and converts |0>to i|1> and |1> to -i|0> and the linear combination basis states
into corresponding linear combination of basis states in case of mixed states.

0𝑖 1 0+0 0
𝑌 |0 >= 𝜎𝑦 |0 > = ( ).( ) = ( ) = −𝑖 ( ) = −𝑖|1 >
−𝑖 0 0 −𝑖 + 0 1

0𝑖 0 0+1 1
𝑌 |1 >= 𝜎𝑦 |1 > = ( ).( ) = ( ) = ( ) = 𝑖|0 >
−𝑖 0 1 0+0 0

Truth table

Input states Output states

|0> i|1>
|1> -i|0>
𝛼1 |0 > + 𝛼2 |1 > −𝑖(𝛼1 |1 > + 𝛼2 |0 >)

Pauli Z-Gate

The Pauli Z-gate is a single qubit quantum gate. The unitary operator for the Pauli Z-gate is
10
given by the unitary matrix𝑍 = 𝜎3 = 𝜎𝑦 = ( ) . The Pauli Z-gate is represented by the
0−1
symbol,

Pauli Z-gate operation

Let us consider the single qubit basis states as |0>, |1> and linear combination of the two that
is, a|0>+b|1> which will be the inputs of Pauli Z-gate. Then the Pauli Z-gate operates these
input states and converts |0>to |0> and |1> to-|1> and the linear combination basis states into
corresponding linear combination of basis states in case of mixed states.

1 0 1 1+0 1
𝑍 |0 >= 𝜎𝑧 |0 > = ( ).( ) = ( ) = ( ) = |0 >
0−1 0 0+0 0
 10 0 0+0 0
𝑍 |1 >= 𝜎𝑍 |1 > = ( ).( ) = ( ) = ( ) = −|1 >
0−1 1 0−1 −1

Truth table

Input states Output states

|0> |0>
|1> -|1>
𝑎|0 > + 𝑏|1 > (𝑎|0 > − 𝑏|1 >)

Hadamard gate

The Hadamard gate is a single qubit quantum gate. The unitary operator for the Hadamard
1 1
1 1 1
gate is given by the unitary matrix𝐻 = (√2
1
√2
1 )= ( ) . The Hadamard gate is
√2 1−1
−
√2 √2
represented by the symbol,

Hadamard gate operation

Let us consider the single qubit basis states as |0>, |1> and linear combination of the two that
is, a|0>+b|1> which will be the inputs of Hadamard gate. Then the Hadamard gate operates
1 1
these input states and converts |0>to (|0 > +|1 >)and |1> to (|0 > −|1 >) and the
√2 √2
linear combination basis states (𝛼|0 > + 𝛽|1 >)into corresponding linear combination of
1 1
basis states as (|0 > +|1 >) + (|0 > −|1 >).
√2 √2

1 1 1 1 1 1+0 1 1 1
𝐻 |0 >= 𝐻 |0 > = ( ).( ) = ( )= ( )= ( |0 > +|1 >)
√2 1−1 0 √2 1+0 √2 1 √2

1 1 1 0 1 0+1 1 1 1
𝐻 |1 >= 𝐻 |1 > = ( ).( ) = ( ) = ( ) = (|0 > −|1 >)
√2 1−1 1 √2 0 − 1 √2 −1 √2

1 1 1 1 1
𝐻 (𝑎|0 > +𝑏 |1 >) = ( ) . (𝑎|0 > +𝑏 |1 >) = (𝑎|0 > +|1 >) + 𝑏 (|0 >
√2 1−1 √2 √2
−|1 >)

Truth table

Input states Output states

1
|0> ( |0 > +|1 >)
√2
1
|1> (|0 > −|1 >)
√2
1 1
𝑎(|0 > +|1 >) + 𝑏(|0
𝑎|0 > + 𝑏|1 > √2 √2
> −|1 >)
Phase gate (or S-gate)

The Phase gate (or S-gate)is a single qubit quantum gate. The unitary operator for the Phase
10
gate is given by the unitary matrix𝑆 = ( ) . The Phase gate is represented by the symbol,
0𝑖

Phase gate (or S-gate) operation

Let us consider the single qubit basis states as |0>, |1> and linear combination of the two that
is, a|0>+b|1> which will be the inputs of Phase gate (or S-gate). Then the Phase gate (or S-
gate) operates these input states and converts |0>to |0> and |1> toi|1> and the linear
combination basis states into corresponding linear combination of basis states in case of
mixed states.

1 0 1 1+0 1
𝑆 |0 >= ( ).( ) = ( ) = ( ) = |0 >
0 𝑖 0 0+0 0
10 0 0+0 0
𝑆 |1 >= ( ) . ( ) = ( ) = ( ) = 𝑖|1 >
0𝑖 1 0+𝑖 𝑖

Truth table

Input states Output states

|0> |0>
|1> i|1>
(𝑎|0 > + 𝑏|1 > (𝑎|0 > + 𝑖 𝑏|1 >)

T gate

The T-gate is a single qubit quantum gate. The unitary operator for the T-gate is given by the
1 0
unitary matrix 𝑆 = ( 𝑖𝜋 ) . The T-gate is represented by the symbol,
0𝑒 ⁄4

T-gate operation

Let us consider the single qubit basis states as |0>, |1> and linear combination of the two that
is, a|0>+b|1> which will be the inputs of T-gate. Then the T-gate operates these input states
1+𝑖
and converts |0>to |0> and |1> to |1 > and the linear combination basis states into
√2
corresponding linear combination of basis states in case of mixed states.

1 0 1 1+0 1
𝑇 |0 >= ( 𝑖𝜋 ) . ( ) = ( ) = ( ) = |0 >
0𝑒 ⁄4 0 0+0 0
 1 0 0 0+0 0 𝑖𝜋⁄ 1+𝑖
𝑇 |1 >= ( 𝑖𝜋 ) . ( ) = ( 𝑖𝜋⁄ ) = ( 𝑖𝜋⁄ ) = 𝑒
4| 1 > = |1 >
0𝑒 ⁄4 1 0+𝑒 4 𝑒 4 √2

Truth table

Input states Output states

|0> |0>
1+𝑖
|1> |1 >
√2
1+𝑖
𝛼1 |0 > + 𝛼2 |1 > (𝛼1 |0 > + 𝛼2 | 1 >)
√2

Note: The above all gates operations can also be obtained by applying tensor or outer product rules.

Example.

1. Hadamard gate

Let us consider the outer product form of H-gate

H |0> |1>
1 1
<0|
√2 √2
1 1
<1|
√2 √2

The unitary operator for Hadamard gate can be obtained in the outer product or tensor form from the above table by
following the mathematical steps.

 Leave zero products

 During multiplication all bra vectors changed to ket vectors and vice versa.
 Apply orthonormal conditions for bra and ket vector products. That is <0|0> = <1|1> =1and <0|1> = <1|0> =0

Now from the table

1 1 1 1
𝐻= (|0 >< 0|) + (|0 >< 1|) + (|1 >< 0|) − (|1 >< 1|)
√2 √2 √2 √2

1
𝐻= {(|0 >< 0|) + (|0 >< 1|) + (|1 >< 0|) − (|1 >< 1|)}
√2

The above outer product form equation in bra and ket notation is the unitary matrix operator for Hadamard gate. Let us
take the operation on input starts of Hadamard gate as follows.

1
𝐻 |0 >= {(|0 >< 0|) + (|0 >< 1|) + (|1 >< 0|) − (|1 >< 1|)} |0 >
√2

1 1 1 1
𝐻 |0 >= (|0 >< 0|0 >) + (|0 >< 1|0 >) + (|1 >< 0|0 >) − (|1 >< 1||0 >)
√2 √2 √2 √2

1 1 1 1
𝐻 |0 >= (|0 >). 1 + (|0 >). 0 + (|1 >). 1 − (|1 >). 0
√2 √2 √2 √2
 1
𝐻 |0 >= (|0 > + |1 >)
√2

The output is the linear combination of the two input states.

1
𝐻 |1 >= {(|0 >< 0|) + (|0 >< 1|) + (|1 >< 0|) − (|1 >< 1|)} |1 >
√2

1 1 1 1
𝐻 |1 >= (|0 >< 0|1 >) + (|0 >< 1|1 >) + (|1 >< 0|1 >) − (|1 >< 1||1 >)
√2 √2 √2 √2

1 1 1 1
𝐻 |0 >= (|0 >). 0 + (|0 >). 1 + (|1 >). 0 − (|1 >). 1
√2 √2 √2 √2

1
𝐻 |0 >= (|0 > − |1 >)
√2

The output is the linear combination of the two input states.

Note: - The outer product or tensor product form finding the unitary operator is very important tool in
case of multiple input quantum gates.

Multiple qubit logic gates

The quantum gates with more than one input are called multiple quantum logic gates. Hence
the quantum gates are of the types single qubit, two qubit, three qubit and upto n-qubit
quantum logic gates are possible to construct.

Every single or multiple quantum gate output is a unitary matrix and the operation of quantum logic gate can be decided
even by comparing output unitary matrix with the identity matrix without doing unitary matrix operation.

In case of multiple qubit logic gates when controlled input is true then the logic operation operates on target input
otherwise it left the input as it is.

The output can be obtained by comparing with identity matrix of the order depends upon the qubit states (single or multiple
qubit logic gates) by considering when the controlled inputs are set to true or |1>, then the particular target input will be
operated by the corresponding unitary matrix operator (depends on CI, CNOT, C-Pauli gates, CH, CS, CT or CCNOT
unitary matrix operator) and the corresponding columns of identity will be interchanged with substitution of elements of
particular single qubit logic gate unitary matrix which will be the output of the multiple quantum logic gates. This
procedure is useful to obtained output of the multiple quantum logic gates without

Construction of basis states for multiple quantum gates.

1
i. The basis states for Single qubit are specified by |0 > = ( ) = 0 × 20 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑
0

0 1 0 10
|1 > = ( ) = 1 × 20 = 1And take all basis as column matrix then we get an identity matrix that is ( ) ( ) = ( ) which
1 0 1 01
is tensor or outer product. This is same for all quantum gates

ii. The basis states of two qubit quantum gates are

1
1 1 0
|00 > = |0 > ⨂|0 > = ( ) ⨂ ( ) = ( ) = 0 × 21 + 0 × 20 = 0
0 0 0
0

⨂ Represents tensor product or outer product which indicates that the each elements of first matrix is multiplied with all
the elements of second matrix then we get a column matrix.
 0
1 0 1
|01 > = |0 > ⨂ |1 > = ( ) ⨂ ( ) = ( ) = 0 × 21 + 0 × 20 = 0
0 1 0
0

0
0 1 0
|10 > = |1 > ⨂ |0 > = ( ) ⨂ ( ) = ( ) = 1 × 21 + 0 × 20 = 2
1 0 1
0

0
0 0 0
|11 > = |1 > ⨂ |1 > = ( ) ⨂ ( ) = ( ) = 1 × 21 + 1 × 20 = 3
1 1 0
1

And take all basis as column matrices then we get an identity matrix which is tensor or outer product that is
1 0 0 0 1000
0 1 0 0 0100
( ),( ),( ),( ) = ( ) = 𝐼4 = 𝐷 (1111)
0 0 1 0 0010
0 0 0 1 0001

iii. The basis states of 3 qubit quantum gates can be written as

1
0
1 0
1 1 1 1 0 0
|000 > = |0 > ⨂ |0 > ⨂ |0 > = ( ) ⨂ ( ) ⨂ ( ) = ( ) ⨂ ( ) =
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0
0
(0)

= 0 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 20 = 0

0
1
0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0
|001 > = |0 > ⨂ |0 > ⨂ |1 > = ( ) ⨂ ( ) ⨂ ( ) = ( ) ⨂ ( ) =
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0
0
(0)

= 0 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20 = 1

0
0
0 1
1 0 1 1 0 0
|010 > = |0 > ⨂ |1 > ⨂ |0 > = ( ) ⨂ ( ) ⨂ ( ) = ( ) ⨂ ( ) =
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0
0
(0)

= 0 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 0 × 20 = 2

0
0
0 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
|011 > = |0 > ⨂ |1 > ⨂ |1 > = ( ) ⨂ ( ) ⨂ ( ) = ( ) ⨂ ( ) =
0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0
0
(0)
 = 0 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 1 × 20 = 3

0
0
1 0
0 1 1 0 0 0
|100 > = |1 > ⨂ |0 > ⨂ |0 > = ( ) ⨂ ( ) ⨂ ( ) = ( ) ⨂ ( ) =
1 0 0 1 0 1
0 0
0
(0)

= 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 0 × 20 = 4

0
0
0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0
|101 > = |1 > ⨂ |0 > ⨂ |1 > = ( ) ⨂ ( ) ⨂ ( ) = ( ) ⨂ ( ) =
1 0 1 1 0 0
0 1
0
(0)

= 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20 = 5

0
0
0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
|110 > = |1 > ⨂ |1 > ⨂ |0 > = ( ) ⨂ ( ) ⨂ ( ) = ( ) ⨂ ( ) =
1 1 0 1 1 0
0 0
1
(0)

= 1 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 0 × 20 = 6

0
0
0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
|111 > = |1 > ⨂ |1 > ⨂ |0 > = ( ) ⨂ ( ) ⨂ ( ) = ( ) ⨂ ( ) =
1 1 1 1 0 0
1 0
0
(1)

= 1 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 1 × 20 = 7

If write the three quantum bit column vectors in matrix form then we get identity matrix for the three qubit quantum logic
gate.

10000000
01000000
00100000
00010000 𝐼 𝑂
𝐼8 = = 𝐷 (11111111) = ( 4 4 )
00001000 𝑂4 𝐼4
00000100
00000010
(00000001)

Controlled qubit logic gates

In quantum computing, a controlled quantum gate is a quantum gate whose operation on a

given space of states is conditioned on the data in another space of “control states”.
In case of multiple quantum logic gates such two qubit logic gates the first input is controlled
and the second input is target input, and the operation starts only when controlled input is set
to true or |1> otherwise the output is same as the input.

In case of three qubit logic gates the first input two inputs are controlled inputs and the third
input is target input, and the operation starts only when controlled inputs are set to true or |1>
otherwise the output is same as the target input. This same as for all n-input quantum logic
gates.

Qubits must be controlled and manipulated in order to program and operate quantum systems.
This is achieved through quantum gates, which can only be set up and run calculations using
control signals. The gates are usually generated via microwaves which interact with the
qubits.

Note: in case quantum logic gates always number of inputs are equal to number of
outputs.

Controlled NOT gate (CNOT-gate)

Controlled NOT gate is two qubit quantum logic gate, it has two inputs, one is controlled
input and second one is target input. As per the two input quantum CNOT logic gate operation
“if |a> is true then do |b>”. If the controlled input is set to |1> then the target input is operated
by quantum NOT operation, the target input changes as per as NOT operation in the output.
The CNOT gate is represented by the following symbol.

The C-NOT operation generally given |𝑎 > |𝑏 > = |𝑎 > |𝑎⨁𝑏 >. The CNOT gate unitary
operator can be obtained as follows.

|00 > |0 > ⨂|0 > 1000

|01 > |0 > ⨂|1 > 0100
= = ( ) = 𝐶𝑁𝑂𝑇 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
|10 > |1 > ⨂|0 > 0001
|11 > |1 > ⨂|1 > 0010

In the above discussion first two inputs are set as |00> and |01> which means the controlled
input set to |0> hence the output is same. But in third fourth inputs the controlled input set as
|1> hence the NOT operation operates on the corresponding inputs. The CNOT unitary
operation can be obtained by interchanging the third and fourth column of identity matrix.

Discussion of CNOT operation

When the above CNOT unitary operator operates on the four input sates of CNOT quantum
logic gate such as |00>, |01>, |10> and |11> then the output can be obtained as follows.
 1000 1 1+0+0+0 1
0100 0 0+0+0+0 0
𝐶𝑁𝑂𝑇|00 >= ( )( ) = ( ) = ( ) = |00 > −𝑛𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
0001 0 0+0+0+0 0
0010 0 0+0+0+0 0

1000 0 0+0+0+0 0
0100 1 0+1+0+0 1
𝐶𝑁𝑂𝑇|01 >= ( )( ) = ( ) = ( ) = |01 > −𝑛𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
0001 0 0+0+0+0 0
0010 0 0+0+0+0 0

1000 0 0+0+0+0 0
0100 0 0+0+0+0 0
𝐶𝑁𝑂𝑇|10 >= ( )( ) = ( ) = ( ) = |11 > −𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑑
0001 1 0+0+0+0 0
0010 0 0+0+1+0 1

1000 0 0+0+0+0 0
0100 0 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 0
𝐶𝑁𝑂𝑇|11 >= ( )( ) = ( ) = ( ) = |10 > −𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑑
0001 0 0+0+0+1 1
0010 1 0+0+0+0 0

If we observe the CNOT operation we can easily understand that which the interchange of
third and fourth column of identity matrix.

Truth table

Inputs Outputs
Qubit states
|a> |b> |a> |𝑎⨁𝑏 >
|0> |0> |0> |0> |00>
|0> |1> |0> |1> |01>
|1> |0> |1> |1> |11>
|1> |1> |1> |0> |10>

Representation of Controlled swap gate

Controlled S gate is two qubit quantum logic gate, it has two inputs, one is controlled input
and second one is target input. As per the two input quantum S logic gate operation “if |a> is
true then do |b>”. If the controlled input is set to |1> then the target input is operated by
quantum S operation, the target input changes as per as S operation in the output. The S gate
is represented by the following symbol.
The S operation generally given |𝑎 > |𝑏 > = |𝑎 > |𝑎⨁𝑏 >. The S gate unitary operator can
be obtained as follows.

|00 > |0 > ⨂|0 > 1000

|01 > |0 > ⨂|1 > 0100
|𝜓 >= = = ( ) = 𝑆 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
|10 > |1 > ⨂|0 > 0010
|11 > |1 > ⨂|1 > 000 𝑖

In the above discussion first two inputs are set as |00> and |01> which means the controlled
input set to |0> hence the output is same. But in third fourth inputs the controlled input set as
|1> hence the CS operation operates on the corresponding inputs. The CS unitary operation
can be obtained by fourth column fourth element of identity matrix replaced by i.

Discussion of C-S operation

When the above C-S unitary operator operates on the four input sates of C-S quantum logic
gate such as |00>, |01>, |10> and |11> then the output can be obtained as follows.

1000 1 1+0+0+0 1
0100 0 0+0+0+0 0
𝐶 − 𝑆 |00 >= ( )( ) = ( ) = ( ) = |00 > −𝑛𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
0010 0 0+0+0+0 0
000 𝑖 0 0+0+0+0 0

1000 0 0+0+0+0 0
0100 1 0+1+0+0 1
𝐶 − 𝑆 |01 >= ( )( ) = ( ) = ( ) = |01 > −𝑛𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
0010 0 0+0+0+0 0
000 𝑖 0 0+0+0+0 0

1000 0 0+0+0+0 0
0100 0 0+0+0+0 0
𝐶 − 𝑆 |10 >= ( )( ) = ( ) = ( ) = |10 > −𝑛𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
0010 1 0+0+1+0 1
000 𝑖 0 0+0+0+0 0

1000 0 0+0+0+0 0
0100 0 0+0+0+0 0
𝐶 − 𝑆 |11 >= ( )( ) = ( ) = ( ) = 𝑖 |10 > −𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑑
0010 0 0+0+0+0 0
000 𝑖 1 0+0+0+𝑖 𝑖

If we observe the C-S operation we can easily understand that which the fourth column,
fourth element of identity matrix is replaced by i.

Truth table

Inputs Outputs
Qubit states
|a> |b> |a> |𝑎⨁𝑏 >
|0> |0> |0> |0> |00>
|0> |1> |0> |1> |01>
|1> |0> |1> |0> |10>
 |1> |1> |1> i|1> i|11>

Controlled Z gate (C-Z)

Controlled Z gate is two qubit quantum logic gate, it has two inputs, one is controlled input
and second one is target input. As per the two input quantum CZ logic gate operation “if |a> is
true then do |b>”. If the controlled input is set to |1> then the target input is operated by
quantum Z operation, the target input changes as per as Z operation in the output. The CZ
gate is represented by the following symbol.

The Z operation generally given |𝑎 > |𝑏 > = |𝑎 > |𝑎⨁𝑏 >. The Z gate unitary operator can
be obtained as follows.

|00 > |0 > ⨂|0 > 100 0

|01 > |0 > ⨂|1 > 010 0
|𝜓 >= = = ( ) = 𝑆 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
|10 > |1 > ⨂|0 > 001 0
|11 > |1 > ⨂|1 > 000−1

In the above discussion first two inputs are set as |00> and |01> which means the controlled
input set to |0> hence the output is same. But in third fourth inputs the controlled input set as
|1> hence the CZ operation operates on the corresponding inputs. The CZ unitary operation
can be obtained by fourth column fourth element of identity matrix replaced by -1.

Discussion of C-Z operation

When the above C-Z unitary operator operates on the four input sates of C-Z quantum logic
gate such as |00>, |01>, |10> and |11> then the output can be obtained as follows.

100 0 1 1+0+0+0 1
010 0 0 0+0+0+0 0
𝐶𝑍 |00 >= ( )( ) = ( ) = ( ) = |00 > −𝑛𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
001 0 0 0+0+0+0 0
000−1 0 0+0+0+0 0

100 0 0 0+0+0+0 0
010 0 1 0+1+0+0 1
𝐶𝑍 |01 >= ( )( ) = ( ) = ( ) = |01 > −𝑛𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
001 0 0 0+0+0+0 0
000−1 0 0+0+0+0 0

100 0 0 0+0+0+0 0
010 0 0 0+0+0+0 0
𝐶𝑍 |10 >= ( )( ) = ( ) = ( ) = |10 > −𝑛𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
001 0 1 0+0+1+0 1
000−1 0 0+0+0+0 0
 100 0 0 0+0+0+0 0
010 0 0 0+0+0+0 0
𝐶𝑍 |11 >= ( )( ) = ( ) = ( ) = − |10 > −𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑑
001 0 0 0+0+0+0 0
000−1 1 0+0+0−1 −1

If we observe the C-Z operation we can easily understand that which the fourth column,
fourth element +1 of identity matrix is replaced by -1.

Truth table

Inputs Outputs
Qubit states
|a> |b> |a> |𝑎⨁𝑏 >
|0> |0> |0> |0> |00>
|0> |1> |0> |1> |01>
|1> |0> |1> |0> |10>
|1> |1> |1> |1> -|11>

Problems

1. A linear operator ‘x’ operates such that x|0>=|1> and x|1>=|0>. Find the matrix
representation ox ‘x’.

1 0
Solution: - Let given two basis states |0 > = ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |1 > = ( ) . ‘x” is matrix assume
0 1
2 × 2 matrix because the basis because the basis consists of two rows hence to exist matrix
multiplication and ‘x’ is assumed as unitary operator.

𝑥11 𝑥12 1 0
Hence 𝑥 = (𝑥 𝑥 ) , |0 > = ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |1 > = ( )
21 22 0 1
𝑥11 𝑥12 𝑥11 𝑥12 1 0
(𝑥 𝑥 ) |0 > = (𝑥 𝑥 ) . ( ) = ( )
21 22 21 22 0 1
𝑥 +0 0 𝑥11 0
( 11 ) = ( ) ⇒ (𝑥 ) = ( ) ⇒ 𝑥11 = 0, 𝑥21 = 1
𝑥21 + 0 1 21 1
𝑥11 𝑥12 𝑥11 𝑥12 0 1
(𝑥 𝑥 ) |1 > = (𝑥 𝑥 ) . ( ) = ( )
21 22 21 22 1 0

𝑥 +0 0 𝑥12 0
( 12 ) = ( ) ⇒ (𝑥 ) = ( ) ⇒ 𝑥12 = 0, 𝑥22 = 1
𝑥22 + 0 1 22 1
𝑥11 𝑥12 0 1
Hence the linear operator defend by its matrix elements as 𝑥 = (𝑥 𝑥 ) = ( )
21 22 1 0
 0−𝑖
2. Given 𝐴 = ( ), prove that𝐴+ = 𝐴.
𝑖 0

0−𝑖 0𝑖
Solution: Given 𝐴 = ( ) , 𝐴∗ = ( )because 𝐴+ is the transpose of complex conjugate
𝑖 0 −𝑖 0
of matrix. Hence we get

0 −𝑖
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴+ = ( )
𝑖 0
1 1
√2 √2
3. Show that matrix 𝑈 = ( 𝑖 𝑖 )is unitary matrix.
−
√2 √2

Solution: A matrix is said to be unitary if and only if 𝑈. 𝑈 + = 𝑈 + . 𝑈 = 𝐼

1 1 1 −𝑖
√2 √2
Consider 𝑈 = ( 𝑖 𝑖
+
) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑈 = 𝑇𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 (𝑈)∗ = (√2
1 𝑖
√2
)
−
√2 √2 √2 √2

1 1 1 −𝑖 1 11 1
√2 √2 √2 √2
+ 22 − 2 1 0
+
Let 𝑈. 𝑈 = ( 𝑖 𝑖 ).( 1 𝑖 ) = (21
11 1) = ( 0 )
− − 22 + 2 1
√2 √2 √2 √2 2

1 0
Hence 𝑈. 𝑈 + = ( ) = 𝐼 similarly it can be proved 𝑈 + . 𝑈 = 𝐼
0 1

Hence 𝑈. 𝑈 + = 𝑈 + . 𝑈 = 𝐼

4. Find the inner product of states |1> and |0> and draw conclusions on the result.

Solution: The inner product of two basis states is given by < 𝜙|𝜓 >here < 𝜙| is the
transpose of complex conjugate of |𝜓 > and vice versa.

1 0
We know that |0 >= ( ) , < 0 | = (1 0 ), |1 > = ( ) , < 1| = (0 1)
0 1
1
∴ < 1|0 >= (0 1). ( ) = (0 + 0) = 0
0

Thus two basis states are orthogonal

𝛼1 𝛽
5. Given |𝜓 > = (𝛼 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝜙 > = ( 1 ) 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 < 𝜓|𝜙 > = (< 𝜙|𝜓 >)∗ .
2 𝛽2

𝛼1 𝛽
Solution: Given |𝜓 > = (𝛼 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝜙 > = ( 1 )
2 𝛽2
 < 𝜓| = |𝜓 >∗ = (𝛼1 𝛼2 )∗ = (𝛼1∗ 𝛼2∗ ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝜙 > = < 𝜙|∗ = (𝛽1 𝛽2 )∗ = (𝛽1∗ 𝛽2∗ )

𝛽1
< 𝜓|𝜙 > = (𝛼1∗ 𝛼2∗ ) . ( ) = 𝛼1∗ 𝛽1 + 𝛼2∗ 𝛽2 (1)
𝛽2

𝛼 ∗ 𝛼∗
(< 𝜙|𝜓 >)∗ = (𝛽1∗ 𝛽2∗ )∗ . (𝛼1 ) = (𝛽1 𝛽2 ). ( 1∗ ) = 𝛼1∗ 𝛽1 + 𝛼2∗ 𝛽2 (2)
2 𝛼2

From equations 1 and 2 it can be proved that < 𝜓|𝜙 > = (< 𝜙|𝜓 >)∗

6. Using matrix multiplication show that on applying Hadamard gate twice to a |0> results
in its original gate.

1 1 1
Solution: - consider Hadamard gate operator as 𝐻 = ( )
√2 1−1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1+1 1−1 1 0
Let 𝐻. 𝐻 = 𝐻 2 = ( ). ( ) = 2( )=( )=𝐼
√2 1−1 √2 1−1 1−1 1+1 0 1

Hence when𝐻. 𝐻 = 𝐻 2 |0 > = 𝐼 |0 > = |0 >

𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

7. Using two X-gates in series show that two not gates in series are equivalent to a
quantum wire.

Solution: -Two quantum NOT operation on the basis states |0> and |1> form a quantum
wire.

Hence we have to show that 𝑋. 𝑋 |0 > = 𝑜𝑟 𝑋. 𝑋 = 𝐼

01
We know that 𝑋 = ( ) then
10

01 01 0 + 10 + 0 10
𝑋. 𝑋 |0 >= ( ) . ( ) |0 > = ( ) . |0 >= ( ) . |0 >= |0 >
10 10 0 + 01 + 0 01

Hence two NOT gates in series results in quantum wire.

8. Show that Hadamard gate is unitary.

1 1 1 1 1 1
Solution: - Consider 𝐻 = ( ) H to beunitary only 𝐻 + = ( )
√2 1−1 √2 1 −1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + 11 − 1 10
𝐻. 𝐻 + = ( ). ( )= ( )= ( )=𝐼
√2 1−1 √2 1 −1 2 1 − 11 + 1 01

𝐻. 𝐻 + = 𝐻 + . 𝐻 = 𝐼 Hence Hadamard gate is unitary.

9. Two qubits are passed through CNOT gate. If the first qubit is the control qubit then
what is the output for the states (i) |00> (ii) |01> and (iii) |11>

Solution: - The operation of CNOT gate operation on the input basis states can be
represented as |x, y> = |x, x⨁y> and ⨁ which is called tensor addition mod 2.

CNOT gate output is high when the control qubit input is high or true, hence in the given
states of first two states the control qubit is low hence output is same as the input. In the
third basis state control input is high or true hence it operates on target input the output
changed to |10>.

10. Show that S-gate can be formed by connecting two T-gates in series.

𝜋 1 0
Solution: The T-gate is also called as 8 gate and is given by 𝑇 = ( )
0𝑒 𝑖𝜋⁄4

0 1⁄
1 0 1 2 1 0 2
𝑇 = ( 𝑖𝜋⁄ ) = ( 𝑖𝜋⁄ ) = ( 𝑖𝜋 ) = √𝑆
0𝑒 4 0(𝑒 2 ) 0𝑒 ⁄2

𝑇 2 = 𝑆 𝑜𝑟 𝑇 = √𝑆