CHAPTER

Exploring Mixtures
5

and their Separation

· CHEMISTRY · GRADE 9 · EXPLORATION

Complete notes — every topic, activity, box question, formula, table, and flowchart in
simple language
5
📋 Table of Contents
1. Introduction 9. — Paper Chromatography
2. 5.1 Classifying Mixtures 10. 5.4 Separating Heterogeneous Mixtures
3. 5.2 Solutions 11. — Separating Funnel
4. — Concentration & Formulas 12. — Sublimation
5. — Solubility 13. — Suspensions, Centrifugation, Coagulation
6. 5.3 Separating Homogeneous Mixtures 14. 5.4.4 Colloids
7. — Crystallization 15. 5.5 Tyndall Effect
8. — Distillation 16. At a Glance + RRR Answers

🌿 Introduction
❓ Think It Over (Opening Questions)
▸ Why do suspended particles settle in muddy water over time but not in milk?
▸ How is evaporation different from boiling?
▸ Why do you see bright rays of sunlight when it passes through small gaps in leaves of a dense tree?

▸ How is sugar obtained from sugarcane? → By techniques based on separation of mixtures

▸ How do doctors detect malaria? → By separating and studying components of blood (a few drops only)
▸ Many everyday activities depend on separating mixtures — from industry (sugar production) to medicine (blood tests)
▸ In this chapter, we explore properties of mixtures, their behaviour, and various techniques to separate them

5.1 How Can We Classify Mixtures?

Homogeneous Mixture (Solution) — A mixture with uniform composition throughout. You cannot distinguish between the components. Example: Sugar in water — the first sip
and last sip are equally sweet.

Heterogeneous Mixture — A mixture with non-uniform composition. Components are visibly different and may settle. Example: Sand in water — sand particles are visible and
settle with time.

▸ Other examples of homogeneous mixtures: vinegar (acetic acid in water), aerated drinks like soda (CO₂ in water)
▸ A solution always remains homogeneous
▸ Oil and water mixture → heterogeneous (they form separate layers)

🔬 Activity 5.1 — Group Experiment (Salt / Chalk / Milk in Water)

1. Group A: Add one spatula of common salt to 50 mL water. Stir. Label A.
2. Group B: Add one spatula of chalk powder to 50 mL water. Stir. Label B.
3. Group C: Add a few drops of milk to 50 mL water. Stir. Label C.
4. Observe: Are particles visible in each mixture?
5. Shine a laser pointer through each beaker and observe from the side (perpendicular to beam).
6. Predict: What happens if left undisturbed for a few minutes?
7. Filter each mixture. Is any residue left on filter paper?
8. Conclude: Are these the same type of mixtures or different?
⚠️ Safety: Do NOT look directly into the laser beam — it can cause irreversible eye damage.
🔍 Expected Observations:
🔹 A (Salt + Water) — Particles NOT visible; Laser beam path NOT visible; Solution remains clear; No residue on filter paper. → This is a solution.
🔹 B (Chalk + Water) — Particles visible; Laser path IS visible (pink glow); Particles settle on standing; Residue on filter paper. → This is a suspension.
🔹 C (Milk + Water) — Particles NOT visible to naked eye; Laser path IS visible (milky glow); Particles do NOT settle; No residue on filter paper. → This is a colloid.
💡 Conclusion: These are three different types of mixtures — solution, suspension, and colloid!

CLASSIFICATION OF MIXTURES

Mixture

↓
Homogeneous Heterogeneous

Solution Suspension / Colloid

e.g. salt water, vinegar e.g. chalk water / milk

5.2 Solutions
▸ Solutions are homogeneous mixtures
▸ Made by mixing a solute (substance that dissolves) with a solvent (substance that dissolves the solute)
▸ Example: Sugar + Water → Sugar is solute, Water is solvent

5.2.1 Concentration of a Solution

Concentration — The amount of solute dissolved in a given amount of solvent or solution. The "right proportion" of a solution.

▸ ORS (Oral Rehydration Solution) — specific amounts of salt and sugar in a fixed volume of water. Change the amount → it's no longer ORS!
▸ Pesticide spray — too little = crops not protected; too much = damages crops, soil, environment
▸ Concentration matters in medicine, agriculture, food, cosmetics, and even in making tea!

👨‍⚕️ Meet a Scientist — Dilip Mahalanabis (Indian)

An Indian paediatrician who first developed and implemented ORS (Oral Rehydration Solution) treatment for dehydration caused by diarrhoea and cholera. His ORS formula
revolutionised rehydration therapy and has saved millions of lives after WHO popularised it worldwide.
📝 Note: Not all sugary drinks at home or in the market are ORS.

5.2.2 How Do We Express Concentration?

▸ Concentration can be expressed in several ways — we learn percentage methods here (other methods in higher grades)
▸ Three ways using percentages:

A. MASS BY MASS PERCENTAGE (% M/M OR % W/W)

▸ Tells us: how many grams of solute are present in 100 grams of total solution
▸ Used for: homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures (e.g. milk powder, spice mixtures, packaged food labels)
▸ In industries, called % w/w; numerically equal to % m/m

FORMULA — MASS BY MASS %

% m/m = (Mass of solute ÷ Mass of solution) × 100

Example 5.1: 10 g salt dissolved in 90 g water

Mass of solution = 10 + 90 = 100 g
% m/m = (10 ÷ 100) × 100 = 10% m/m

B. MASS BY VOLUME PERCENTAGE (% M/V OR % W/V)

▸ Tells us: how many grams of solute are present in 100 mL of solution
▸ Used when: measuring volume of a liquid is easier than weighing (medicines, hospitals, labs)
▸ Example: 5% Glucose IV solution — 5 g glucose in 100 mL solution

FORMULA — MASS BY VOLUME %

% m/v = (Mass of solute ÷ Volume of solution) × 100

Example 5.2: 5 g glucose in 100 mL solution

% m/v = (5 ÷ 100) × 100 = 5% m/v

🧵 Threads of Curiosity — Saline Drip

A hospital saline drip is 0.9% m/v sodium chloride (common salt) in water. That means 0.9 g of salt in 100 mL solution. This concentration is safe for blood and replaces lost fluids
in the body (isotonic to blood).

C. VOLUME BY VOLUME PERCENTAGE (% V/V)

▸ Tells us: how many mL of solute are present in 100 mL of solution

▸ Used when: two miscible liquids are mixed (e.g. perfumes, cosmetics, vinegar)
▸ Vinegar = 5% v/v acetic acid in water

FORMULA — VOLUME BY VOLUME %

% v/v = (Volume of solute ÷ Volume of solution) × 100

Example 5.3: 1 mL pesticide in 100 mL total solution

% v/v = (1 ÷ 100) × 100 = 1% v/v

THREE METHODS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION — QUICK COMPARISON

Type Symbol Meaning Used For Formula

Mass by Mass % m/m or % w/w g of solute in 100 g solution Food labels, milk powder, spices (mass solute ÷ mass solution) × 100
Mass by Volume % m/v or % w/v g of solute in 100 mL solution Medicines, hospitals, labs (mass solute ÷ vol solution) × 100
Volume by Volume % v/v mL of solute in 100 mL solution Perfumes, vinegar, cosmetics (vol solute ÷ vol solution) × 100

⏸️ Pause and Ponder — Q1, 2, 3 (Answered)

1. Talcum powder has 4% m/m zinc oxide. How much in 300 g?
→ (4 ÷ 100) × 300 = 12 g zinc oxide

2. Orange juice: 2 tablespoons (15 mL each) in 150 mL juice. What is % v/v?

→ Volume of concentrate = 2 × 15 = 30 mL; Volume of solution = 150 mL
→ % v/v = (30 ÷ 150) × 100 = 20% v/v

3. Vinegar has 5% v/v acetic acid. How to make vinegar from glacial (100%) acetic acid?
→ Take 5 mL of glacial acetic acid and add enough water to make the total volume 100 mL. This gives 5% v/v vinegar.

5.2.3 Solubility of Substances

Solubility — The maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a fixed quantity of solvent (100 mL or 100 g) at a given temperature.

Saturated Solution — A solution that cannot dissolve any more solute at a given temperature. It has reached maximum solubility.

▸ Solubility of a solid in a liquid → generally increases with temperature

▸ Solubility of a gas in a liquid → generally decreases with temperature (why fizzy drinks go flat when warm)
▸ A graph of solubility vs. temperature is called a solubility curve

📊 Activity 5.2 — Solubility Curves of Compound A and B

– X-axis = Temperature (°C); Y-axis = Solubility (g per 100 g water)
– Compound B has much higher solubility than Compound A at all temperatures
– Both increase with temperature, but B increases much more steeply than A

📝 Fill in the blanks (answers):

(i) Solubility of compound 'A' at 20°C is less than its solubility at 60°C (A's solubility increases slowly with temperature)
(ii) Solubility of compound 'B' at 20°C is less than its solubility at 60°C
(iii) The solubility of compound B increases more than that of compound A with increase in temperature.
💡 Which dissolves more? Compound B dissolves MORE at any given temperature.

5.3 Methods of Separation of Homogeneous Mixtures

5.3.1 Crystallization

Crystal — A solid whose particles are arranged in a regular geometric pattern. e.g., rock salt, sugar (mishri), snowflakes, frost on windows.

Crystallization — Process of forming crystals from a saturated solution by cooling or evaporating the solvent. Used for separation and purification of solids.

▸ Principle: Solubility of a substance changes with temperature. At lower temperature, less solute dissolves → excess solute comes out as crystals
▸ Example from Activity 5.2: Saturated solution of compound B at 60°C has 287 g per 100 g water. At 40°C, only 241 g dissolves → 287 – 241 = 46 g comes out as crystals
▸ Natural examples: Rock salt crystals, candy sugar (mishri), snowflakes, frost on windows, quartz crystals in caves (Mawsmai Cave, Sohra/Cherrapunji)
▸ Used for: Separating two solids dissolved in same solvent (when one is in small amount) and for purification of solids
▸ Key benefit: Removes unwanted impurities and gives a pure, well-shaped crystal

🔷 Activity 5.3 — Prepare Copper Sulfate Crystals

1. Take 1 g copper sulfate in a 100 mL beaker. Add 25 mL water and a drop of dilute sulfuric acid.
2. Gently heat in a water bath while stirring constantly.
3. Gradually add more copper sulfate until the solution becomes saturated.
4. Filter the hot solution to remove insoluble impurities. Collect filtrate in a clean beaker. Cover with a watch glass.
5. Allow the solution to cool slowly without disturbing → time for particles to arrange into large, shiny, well-shaped blue crystals.
6. Filter the crystals, rinse with cold water, and dry on a watch glass.
⚠️ Copper sulfate is toxic — do under adult supervision, do not touch with bare hands. Teacher should add sulfuric acid; handle it very carefully!
🔍 Observation: Beautiful blue, well-shaped copper sulfate crystals are formed.
💡 Why slow cooling? Slow cooling gives particles time to come together and form larger, better-shaped crystals. Rapid cooling in ice water → smaller, less well-formed
crystals.

🌊 Activity 5.4 — Salt from Seawater (Describe the Process)

– Seawater → allowed to evaporate (sun + wind) → becomes more and more concentrated → Saturated solution → further evaporation → Salt crystals separate out

Process description: Seawater is collected in large, shallow salt pans. Sun and wind cause the water to evaporate slowly. As water evaporates, the solution becomes more
concentrated and eventually saturated. Continued evaporation causes salt crystals to form and settle at the bottom. The crystals are then collected and dried.

🇮🇳 India's Scientific Contributions — Salt Crystallization

Crystallization of salt is an ancient process used by local communities in coastal India. The panga salt was obtained by boiling concentrated sea brines (brine = concentrated salt
water). The karkatch salt was obtained by evaporation of sea water. Different methods produced salt crystals of different sizes.

⏸️ Pause and Ponder — Q4 & Q5 (Answered)

4. Cooling saturated solutions of A and B from 80°C to 60°C — which deposits more solid?
Compound B deposits more solid, because from the solubility graph, B's solubility changes more dramatically with temperature. The difference in solubility between 80°C and
60°C is much larger for B than for A.
5. Will crystal size of common salt change if rate of evaporation changes?
Yes! Slow evaporation = larger, better-formed crystals (more time for particles to arrange). Fast evaporation = smaller, less perfect crystals (particles don't have time to arrange
properly).

🔬 Think as a Scientist — Crystal Size Hypothesis

Hypothesis: Hot saturated copper sulfate cooled rapidly (in ice water) forms smaller, less well-formed crystals than if cooled slowly at room temperature.
Design: Prepare a hot saturated solution of copper sulfate → divide into two equal parts → cool one rapidly in ice water and one slowly at room temperature → compare crystal size,
shape and appearance.

5.3.2 Distillation

Distillation — Separation of a homogeneous mixture of two miscible liquids by heating → vaporising the lower-boiling liquid → cooling the vapour → collecting the pure liquid
(distillate).

▸ Used for: Two miscible liquids that differ in boiling point by at least ~25°C
▸ Can also separate a liquid from a solution containing dissolved solids (e.g. getting pure water from salt water)
▸ Allows recovery of both the solvent and the solute
▸ Process: Heat the mixture → the liquid with lower boiling point vaporises first → vapour passes through a condenser (cooled by circulating water) → vapour condenses back
into pure liquid (distillate) → collected in a separate vessel
▸ The other liquid or dissolved solid remains in the distillation flask

Example — Acetone + Water:

Acetone boils at 56°C; Water boils at 100°C. Difference = 44°C (more than 25°C) → distillation works. Heat the mixture → acetone vaporises first → passes through condenser →
collected as pure acetone → water remains in flask.

DISTILLATION PROCESS

Mixture of 2 Miscible Liquids

↓ Heat
Lower B.P. liquid vaporises

↓ Vapour passes through condenser

Condenser (cooled by water)

↓ Vapour cools → condenses

Pure Liquid Collected (Distillate) + Other Liquid remains in Flask

🇮🇳 India's Scientific Contributions — Deg-Bhapka Method & Mitti ka Ittar

Kannauj, Uttar Pradesh = Perfume Capital of India. After the first rain, the earth gives off a pleasant smell. In Kannauj, this fragrance is captured by a traditional distillation method
called the Deg-Bhapka method (passed down through generations). The perfume produced is called Mitti ka Ittar (earthy fragrance) — in great demand in India and worldwide.
The Fragrance and Flavour Development Centre in Kannauj separates fragrance components from flowers, leaves and other plant parts and supports farmers in cultivating
fragrance-producing plants.

🔭 Ready to Go Beyond — Fractional Distillation (Petroleum)

– Petroleum refinery — processes crude oil to get various useful products
– Fractional distillation = separating components with small differences in boiling points (less than 25°C)
– Crude petroleum → furnace → fractional distillation column → different fractions collected at different heights based on their boiling points
– Products (from top to bottom): Petroleum gas → Petrol → Aviation fuel (Kerosene) → Diesel → Lubricating oil → Bitumen
– Gaseous fraction = filled in steel cylinders under high pressure → liquefies → used as LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) for domestic fuel

5.3.3 Paper Chromatography

Paper Chromatography — A method to separate components of a mixture by using differences in how fast they move through paper when carried by a solvent. Used to separate
coloured substances, dyes, inks, pigments.

▸ Greek origin: chroma = colour, graphein = to write → Chromatography means "writing with colour"
▸ First used to separate coloured substances like dyes and inks
▸ Works on: differences in interaction of components with the solvent AND the paper
▸ The solvent carries substances up the paper; they separate based on how fast they move
▸ Can also use: green food colour (solvent = 2% m/v salt solution); spinach leaf extract; flower petal pigments
▸ Water may not work as solvent always → may need alcohol or mixture of solvents

🎨 Activity 5.5 — Paper Chromatography of Black Ink

1. Take a 3 cm wide strip of chromatographic paper (or filter paper).
2. Draw a straight horizontal line 2 cm from the bottom with a pencil.
3. Put a spot of black sketch pen ink at the centre of the pencil line.
4. Put a thin layer of water at the bottom of a gas jar, beaker, or measuring cylinder.
5. Place the paper strip vertically so the lower end dips into the water. Water level must be BELOW the ink spot.
6. Observe as water rises up the paper (capillary action).
🔍 Observation: As water rises, the black ink separates into different colour spots (e.g. blue, red, orange, green) at different heights on the paper.
💡 Inference: Black ink is NOT a single substance — it is a mixture of different dyes. Different dyes move at different speeds up the paper (based on their interaction with
paper and solvent), so they separate at different heights.

⏸️ Pause and Ponder — Q6 (True/False, Answered)

6. (i) Salt can be separated from salt solution by evaporation or distillation. → TRUE — Evaporation removes water to get salt. Distillation lets you collect pure water AND keep
the salt.
7. (ii) Distillation can be used even when boiling points are the same. → FALSE — If boiling points are the same, both liquids vaporise together and cannot be separated.
Distillation requires at least ~25°C difference.
8. (iii) Solvent level should be ABOVE the sample spot at the beginning. → FALSE — The solvent level must be BELOW the sample spot. If it is above, the sample will dissolve
directly into the solvent instead of separating.
9. (iv) Evaporation and crystallization are the same processes. → FALSE — In evaporation, only the solvent is removed (often by heating). In crystallization, a saturated solution
is cooled slowly to get pure solid crystals. They are different!

5.4 Separating Heterogeneous Mixtures

5.4.1 Separation of Two Immiscible Liquids — Separating Funnel

Immiscible Liquids — Liquids that do NOT mix with each other and form separate layers. Example: Oil and Water, Mustard oil and Water.

▸ Immiscible liquids form separate layers based on density — the denser liquid is at the bottom, the less dense one is on top
▸ Oil is less dense than water → oil floats on top
▸ Tool used: Separating Funnel

🫙 Activity 5.6 — Separate Mustard Oil from Water

1. Pour a mixture of 5 mL mustard oil and 20 mL water into a 50 mL separating funnel.
2. Let it stand undisturbed. Observe.
3. Two separate layers form: yellow mustard oil on top, water on bottom.
4. Open the stopcock slowly to drain the lower layer (water) into a container.
5. Close the stopcock when water is almost fully drained.
6. Collect the small portion containing both liquids — discard it.
7. Open the stopcock again to collect the oil layer separately.
💡 Why does oil stay on top? Mustard oil is less dense than water, so it floats above water. They don't mix (immiscible).

💭 What if… Two Immiscible Liquids Have the Same Density?

If two immiscible liquids have the same density, they would NOT clearly form separate layers — they would remain as a mixed, unstable system. One would not consistently float
above the other. Separation in a separating funnel would be extremely difficult or impossible by this method alone.

▸ Gas mixtures — gas particles move freely in all directions → mix uniformly → most gas mixtures are homogeneous (e.g. hydrogen + oxygen used in rocket fuel)
▸ Heterogeneous gas mixtures: smoke (solids in air), fog (tiny water droplets in air), dust in air
▸ Most solid-solid mixtures are heterogeneous; separated using a property of one solid (e.g. magnetism separates iron from sawdust)

5.4.2 Sublimation

Sublimation — When a solid is heated below its melting point, it changes directly from solid → vapour WITHOUT passing through the liquid state.

Deposition — The reverse of sublimation. When the vapour is cooled, it changes directly from vapour → solid WITHOUT becoming a liquid.

▸ Used to separate a sublimable substance from a non-sublimable one

▸ Examples of sublimable substances: Camphor, Naphthalene (mothballs), Dry ice (solid CO₂)
▸ Dry ice (solid CO₂) → used for ice cream storage; sublimes at room temperature

🔥 Activity 5.7 — Sublimation of Camphor from Sand

1. Take a spatula of camphor + sand mixture in a clean, dry china dish. Place on wire gauze on tripod stand.
2. Take a clean, dry glass funnel and plug its nozzle with cotton.
3. Keep the funnel inverted over the china dish.
4. Light the burner under the wire gauze. Heat gently for a few minutes.
5. Observe the inner wall of the funnel.
🔍 Observation: White, solid camphor deposits form on the inner wall of the funnel. Sand remains in the china dish.
💡 Why? Camphor sublimes (solid → vapour) on heating → vapour rises, cools on the funnel wall → deposits (vapour → solid) back as camphor. Sand does NOT sublime, so it
stays in the dish.

SUBLIMATION VS EVAPORATION — KEY DIFFERENCES

Feature Sublimation Evaporation

State change Solid → Vapour (directly) Liquid → Vapour

Liquid state involved? No — skips liquid state Yes — starts from liquid
Temperature needed Below melting point Below boiling point
Reverse process Deposition (vapour → solid directly) Condensation (vapour → liquid)
Examples Camphor, naphthalene, dry ice, iodine Water, alcohol, acetone
Used for Separating sublimable solid from non-sublimable solid Removing liquid to get the solute

▸ Alloys — Metals melt at high temperature → can mix → cool and solidify into a new material
▸ Definition: A homogeneous mixture of two or more metals, or a metal + non-metal, is called an alloy
▸ Physical methods CANNOT separate the components of an alloy
▸ Alloys are stronger, more rigid, or more corrosion-resistant than pure metals
COMMON ALLOYS AND THEIR COMPOSITION

Alloy Composition Key Property

Brass ~80% Copper + 20% Zinc Harder than pure copper; used in musical instruments, locks
Bronze ~80% Copper + 20% Tin Harder than brass; used in sculptures, coins
Stainless Steel Iron + C (0.03–0.8%) + Chromium (16–18%) + Nickel (10–14%) + Molybdenum (2–3%) Corrosion-resistant; used in utensils, surgical tools

⏸️ Pause and Ponder — Q7 & Q8 (Answered)

7. Why do immiscible liquids form separate layers in a separating funnel?
Because they do not dissolve in each other (immiscible) and have different densities. The denser liquid sinks to the bottom; the less dense one floats on top. Gravity causes this
separation.
8. Is sublimation different from evaporation? Justify.
Yes! In sublimation, a solid directly converts to vapour without becoming liquid. In evaporation, a liquid converts to vapour. Sublimation skips the liquid state entirely. Also,
sublimation happens below the melting point of the solid, while evaporation occurs from the liquid surface below the boiling point.

5.4.3 Suspensions — Centrifugation & Coagulation

Suspension — A heterogeneous mixture where solid particles do NOT dissolve but remain suspended in the medium (liquid). Particles are visible to the naked eye and settle on
standing. Example: Muddy water, sawdust in water, tea leaves in water.

▸ Particles in suspension are larger than solution particles

▸ If muddy water is left undisturbed → heavier mud particles settle → but water may still appear cloudy
▸ Filtration through cotton or filter paper → removes larger particles, but water often stays cloudy
▸ For very fine particles → need centrifugation and/or coagulation
A. CENTRIFUGATION

Centrifugation — Process of spinning a mixture in a tube at high speed. The centrifugal force (outward force in circular motion) causes heavier particles to move outward and
settle at the bottom of the tube; lighter liquid stays at the top.

▸ Think of it like the Phugadi/Kikli spinning game — when you spin with a partner and feel pulled outward → similar outward force acts in centrifugation
▸ During spinning: tubes become horizontal → centrifugal force pushes heavier particles to the outer/bottom end
▸ Used in labs: Separating components of blood (red blood cells, plasma, platelets, white blood cells)
▸ Used in industry: Chemical industries for separating mixtures

🔭 Bridging Science and Society — The Paperfuge

A paperfuge is a hand-powered centrifuge made from a cardboard disc and string. It can spin blood samples at very high speed without electricity. It separates heavier blood
components from lighter ones, just like an electric centrifuge. This low-cost tool can detect diseases like malaria and anaemia in remote areas without access to electricity or
expensive equipment.

🛠️ Activity 5.8 — Make a Mini Centrifuge Model

Make your own centrifuge with a cardboard disc and thick thread. Wind the thread, then pull the handles to spin the disc. Observe how heavier particles placed on the disc
move outward. This demonstrates the centrifugal force that drives centrifugation.
💡 Heavier particles move outward (away from centre) when the disc spins rapidly.

B. COAGULATION

Coagulation — Process where fine suspended particles clump together (aggregate) to form larger clumps, which then settle by gravity. Done by adding a coagulant.

▸ Alum (Fitkari) is a common coagulant used in water purification

▸ Process: Alum added to muddy water → fine particles clump together → larger clumps settle (sedimentation) → clear water above → separated by decantation or filtration
▸ Everyday example — Making Paneer (Cheese): Add lemon juice or vinegar (acid coagulant) to hot milk → milk proteins coagulate → curds (paneer) form and separate from
whey
▸ Sewage treatment also uses sedimentation, coagulation, and filtration

COAGULATION PROCESS — STEP BY STEP

Muddy Water (fine particles)

↓ Add Alum (Coagulant)

Fine particles clump together

↓ Sedimentation (gravity)
Clumps settle at bottom

↓ Decantation / Filtration
Clear Water + Settled Impurities

5.4.4 Colloids

Colloid — A mixture that is between a solution and a suspension. Particles (1–1000 nm) are too small to settle but large enough to scatter light. Particles remain uniformly
dispersed. Examples: Milk, blood, tomato sauce, ice cream.

▸ Blood is a colloid — not a solution (too heterogeneous) but not a suspension (cells don't settle, can't see with naked eye)
▸ The medium in a colloid is called dispersion medium; the dispersed substance = dispersed phase
▸ Unlike suspension, colloid particles do NOT settle over time
▸ Emulsions — colloids where both dispersed phase and dispersion medium are liquids

🧵 Threads of Curiosity — Emulsions

– Oil-in-water emulsions — oil droplets dispersed in water: Milk, vanishing cream
– Water-in-oil emulsions — water droplets dispersed in oil: Butter, body lotion, cold cream
– Medicines are sometimes made as emulsions so they can dissolve in water and are easy to take (and reduces greasy feeling)
– Emulsifying agents stabilise emulsions (e.g., proteins in milk and butter)
– Make a DIY emulsion: shake a few drops of cooking oil + water + a few drops of soap solution → soap acts as emulsifier!

ACTIVITY 5.9 — TABLE 5.1: PROPERTIES OF SOLUTION, SUSPENSION AND COLLOID (COMPLETED)

[Link]. Property Solution Suspension Colloid

1 Nature Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous (appears homogeneous)

2 Particle size Less than 1 nm More than 1000 nm 1–1000 nm
3 Visibility Not visible (even under microscope) Visible to naked eye Not visible to naked eye
4 Separation by filtration Cannot be filtered Can be filtered Cannot be filtered
5 Settling Does not settle Settles on standing Does not settle
6 Tyndall effect Does NOT show (particles too small) Shows (large particles scatter light) Shows (moderate particles scatter light)

⏸️ Pause and Ponder — Q9 & Q10 (Answered)

9. What type of mixture are clouds?
Clouds are made of tiny water droplets or ice crystals floating in air. These particles are larger than solution particles but don't settle quickly. Clouds show the Tyndall effect
(light scattering). Therefore, clouds are a colloid (specifically, a type called aerosol — liquid dispersed in gas).
10. Why do cities with lots of smoke and dust look hazy?
Smoke and dust particles in air are colloid-sized particles. When light passes through them, they scatter the light in all directions (Tyndall effect). This scattering makes the air
appear hazy and reduces visibility. The more smoke/dust → more scattering → hazier sky.

5.5 Tyndall Effect

Tyndall Effect — The scattering of light by particles in a colloid or suspension, making the path of the light beam visible. Named after scientist John Tyndall who first explained
it.

▸ When light passes through a solution → path of light beam NOT visible (particles too small to scatter light)
▸ When light passes through a suspension or colloid → path IS visible (particles scatter light)
▸ From Activity 5.1: Beaker A (salt water) = NO Tyndall effect; Beaker B (chalk water) = YES; Beaker C (milk water) = YES
▸ Everyday examples of Tyndall effect:
– Bright rays of sunlight through gaps in leaves of a dense tree → light scattered by dust and water droplets in air
– A beam of light entering a dark room through a small hole → light scattered by dust particles
– Floodlights in a sports stadium → beam visible due to dust in air
– Headlights of a car on a foggy night → beam visible due to fog (colloid)

🩸 Bridging Science and Society — Donate Blood

– Donated blood is tested, blood group identified, then separated into components using centrifugation
– Components: Plasma (top, light yellow), Platelets + White blood cells (middle layer — buffy coat), Red blood cells (bottom, heavy, dark red)
– Each component is stored separately in blood banks and supplied when needed
– The body naturally replaces donated blood within a few weeks — making blood donation safe
– Blood connects all parts of the body → transports nutrients, gases, hormones

📌 At a Glance — Chapter Summary

▸ Mixtures are classified as homogeneous or heterogeneous, and also as solutions, suspensions, or colloids
▸ Crystallization → gets a pure solid from its saturated solution; based on difference in solubility at different temperatures
▸ Distillation → separates two miscible liquids with at least 25°C difference in boiling points; also separates liquid from dissolved solids
▸ Paper Chromatography → separates compounds by differences in their rates of movement on paper
▸ Separating Funnel → separates two immiscible liquids based on different densities
▸ Sublimation → solid directly becomes vapour (below melting point); Deposition = reverse (vapour back to solid)
▸ Centrifugation → rapid spinning separates heavier solid particles from a solid-liquid mixture
▸ Coagulation → addition of coagulant makes fine particles clump and settle in heterogeneous mixtures
▸ Tyndall Effect → scattering of light by dispersed particles in colloid or suspension

📊 All Separation Methods — Master Reference Table

Method Used For Principle Key Condition Example

Crystallization Separating solid from solution; Solubility decreases on cooling → Both solids soluble in same Copper sulfate from solution; salt
purifying solids crystals form solvent from sea water
Distillation Two miscible liquids; liquid from Liquids have different boiling points Boiling point difference ≥ 25°C Acetone + Water; pure water from salt
dissolved solid water
Fractional Mixture of several miscible liquids Small differences in boiling points Boiling point difference < 25°C Crude petroleum refining
Distillation
Paper Separating coloured/dissolved Different rates of movement with Components must be soluble in Dyes in black ink; pigments in leaves
Chromatography components solvent on paper the solvent
Separating Funnel Two immiscible liquids Different densities → form separate Liquids must be immiscible Oil + Water; mustard oil + water
layers
Sublimation Sublimable solid from non-sublimable One substance can sublime, other One component must sublime on Camphor + Sand; naphthalene + salt
solid cannot heating
Centrifugation Solid-liquid mixture (very fine Centrifugal force separates by density Mixture spun at high speed Blood components; muddy water
particles)
Coagulation Fine suspended particles in liquid Coagulant makes particles clump Suitable coagulant must be Alum for muddy water; acid for milk
together available (paneer)

✏️ Revise, Reflect, Refine — All Questions Answered

Q1: Correct Classification (Hm/Ht)

Answer: (iv) Muddy water — Ht, Milk — Ht, Blood — Ht, Brass — Hm ✓
(i) Wrong — Smoke is heterogeneous, not homogeneous. (ii) Wrong — Brass is homogeneous (an alloy), Vinegar is homogeneous, Muddy water is Ht. (iii) Wrong — Milk and Blood
are colloids = heterogeneous.

Q2: Which mixtures show Tyndall Effect?

Answer: (iii) a and c ✓
(a) Air + dust particles → heterogeneous (suspension/colloid) → YES Tyndall effect. (b) CuSO₄ + water → true solution → NO Tyndall effect. (c) Starch + water → colloid → YES
Tyndall effect. (d) Acetone + water → true solution → NO Tyndall effect.

Q3: Complete Table 5.2 — Solution / Suspension / Colloid

Solution Suspension Colloid

Properties: Small-sized particles (less than 1 nm); Properties: Large-sized particles (more than 1000 nm Properties: Moderate-sized particles (1–1000 nm);
Transparent; Particles remain evenly distributed; Does not diameter); Settles down when left undisturbed; Separates Particles remain evenly distributed; Does not settle;
settle; Cannot be separated by filtration; Does NOT scatter by filtration; Heterogeneous mixture; Scatters light Cannot be separated by filtration; Scatters light
light (Tyndall effect)
Examples: Salt solution, Brass Examples: Sand in water, Mud Examples: Milk, Smoke, Butter

Q4: Solve Problems

1. Cake recipe — express concentration:
Total dry mixture = 75 + 420 + 5 = 500 g
Sugar: % m/m = (75 ÷ 500) × 100 = 15% m/m
Flour: % m/m = (420 ÷ 500) × 100 = 84% m/m
Sodium bicarbonate: % m/m = (5 ÷ 500) × 100 = 1% m/m
2. Brass has 70% copper by mass. In 120 g brass:
Copper = (70 ÷ 100) × 120 = 84 g; Zinc = 120 – 84 = 36 g

Q5: Cooking Oil + Water — Separate?

Yes, oil and water form separate layers. Oil (density ~0.91 g/mL, less than water) floats on top; water sinks to the bottom. Method: Use a separating funnel. Pour the mixture in,
allow to settle, drain water from the bottom tap, then collect oil separately from the top.

Q6: Assertion-Reason (Tyndall Effect)

Answer: (iii) A is true, but R is false. ✓

A is TRUE — Solutions do NOT exhibit the Tyndall effect. But R is FALSE — The reason is wrong. Solution particles are SMALLER than 1 nm (not larger than 100 nm). Particles need
to be at least 1 nm or more to scatter light. Solution particles are too small to scatter light.

Q7: Methods of Separation Table (Answers)

Mixture Method Reason

Mud from muddy water Centrifugation / Coagulation + Filtration Mud particles are fine; filtration alone insufficient; centrifugation uses force to separate; alum
coagulates fine particles
Plasma from blood Centrifugation Blood is a colloid; spinning separates heavier RBCs from lighter plasma by centrifugal force
Naphthalene and sand Sublimation Naphthalene sublimes on heating; sand does not — they separate
Chalk powder and Dissolve in water + Filtration + Salt dissolves in water; chalk does not → filter to get chalk; evaporate water to get salt
common salt Evaporation/Crystallization
Common salt and water Evaporation or Distillation Evaporation gives salt; distillation gives both pure water and salt
Oil from water Separating funnel Oil and water are immiscible; they form distinct layers by density
Pigments of the flower Paper Chromatography Different pigments have different rates of movement on paper with solvent

Q8: Separate Liquid A (B.P. 60°C) and B (B.P. 90°C)

Method: Distillation — Difference in boiling points = 30°C (more than 25°C), so distillation works. Set up a distillation apparatus. Heat the mixture; at 60°C, liquid A vaporises,
passes through condenser, and is collected as distillate. Liquid B (b.p. 90°C) stays in the distillation flask. Refer to Fig. 5.12 in textbook for labelled diagram.

Q9: Compare Evaporation, Crystallization and Distillation

Feature Evaporation Crystallization Distillation

What is Solute (solid) Pure solid (crystals) Pure liquid (distillate) + other component
obtained
Solvent No — evaporates away No — evaporates Yes — collected as distillate
recovered?
Used for Getting solid from solution (not concerned Getting very pure solid; separating two solids in Separating two miscible liquids; getting pure liquid from
about purity) same solvent solution
Prefer when Only solute needed (e.g. salt from seawater) High purity solid needed (e.g. copper sulfate) Both components needed or liquid must be pure (e.g.
pure water, acetone)

Q10: Blood as Colloidal Mixture

1. If blood behaved like a true suspension inside the body? → The blood cells would settle to the bottom of blood vessels over time (like sand in water). They would not stay
uniformly distributed. The heart would need to constantly stir blood to keep cells in suspension. Blood could not effectively transport oxygen throughout the body. This would
be dangerous and life-threatening.
2. Dispersed phase and dispersion medium in blood: → Dispersed phase = blood cells (RBCs, WBCs, platelets) + proteins; Dispersion medium = plasma (the liquid part of blood).

Q11: Separate Sand + Common Salt + Naphthalene (Correct Sequence)

Step 1 (Fig. 1): Sublimation — Heat the mixture. Naphthalene sublimes and collects on the inverted funnel wall. Sand and salt remain. Gives: Pure naphthalene + (Sand + Salt).
Step 2 (Fig. 2): Add water + Filtration — Dissolve the remaining mixture in water. Salt dissolves; sand does not. Filter: Sand stays on filter paper; salt solution passes through.
Step 3 (Fig. 3): Evaporation/Crystallization — Evaporate the filtrate (salt solution) to get pure salt crystals.
Final: Sand, Naphthalene, Common Salt are all separated.

Q12: Why is Distillation Effective for Water + Acetone?

Acetone (b.p. 56°C) and water (b.p. 100°C) are miscible but have a boiling point difference of 44°C (more than 25°C). When heated, acetone vaporises first at 56°C → passes through
condenser → collected as pure acetone. Water remains in the flask. The large difference in boiling points ensures clean separation with minimal mixing of vapours.

Q13: Solubility Table Questions (Answered)

1. Mass of KNO₃ for saturated solution in 50 g water at 40°C?
From table: Solubility of KNO₃ at 40°C = 62 g per 100 g water
For 50 g water = 62 × (50/100) = 31 g KNO₃
2. Saturated KCl in water at 80°C cooled to 25°C — what happens?
KCl solubility at 80°C = 54 g/100 g water; at 25°C (approximately between 20°C = 35 and 30°C = 37.4) ≈ 36 g/100 g water. Excess KCl = 54 – 36 = ~18 g will separate out as crystals.
She will observe crystals forming in the solution as it cools.
3. Effect of temperature on solubility:
Generally, solubility of all four salts increases with temperature. KNO₃ shows the most dramatic increase (21 → 167 g = ~8× increase). NaCl shows very little change (36 → 37 g).
KCl and NH₄Cl show moderate increases. KNO₃ is most suitable for purification by crystallization.

Q14: Sugar Solution Concentration (A, B, C)

1. Student A: 20 g sugar in 80 g water → Total = 100 g → % m/m = (20/100) × 100 = 20% m/m
2. Student B: 20 g sugar in 100 g water → Total = 120 g → % m/m = (20/120) × 100 = 16.67% m/m
3. Student C: 30 g sugar in 80 g water → Total = 110 g → % m/m = (30/110) × 100 = 27.27% m/m
4. Most concentrated: Student C (27.27%) — has the most sugar relative to the total mass of the solution.

Q15: Examine Fig. 5.26 (Distillation Apparatus)

1. Separation technique 'S': Distillation

2. Labels: A = Distillation flask; B = Water condenser (with water inlet/outlet); C = Conical flask (collecting vessel/distillate)
3. Mixtures that can be separated by distillation (need B.P. difference ≥ 25°C):
(a) Water (100°C) – Acetone (56°C): diff = 44°C → YES ✓
(c) Acetone (56°C) – Alcohol (78°C): diff = 22°C → borderline NO (less than 25°C → need fractional distillation)
(e) Alcohol (78°C) – Chloroform (61°C): diff = 17°C → NO ✗
(f) Alcohol (78°C) – Benzene (80°C): diff = 2°C → NO ✗
(b) Water – Salt → YES (liquid from dissolved solid)
(d) Sand – Salt → NOT by distillation
Best answer: (a) water–acetone and (b) water–salt

Chapter 5 — Exploring Mixtures and their Separation | Grade 9 Science (Exploration) | Complete Detailed Notes
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