ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2016-18 SYLLABUS

CAIE AS LEVEL
PSYCHOLOGY
(9990)
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE METHODOLOGY SYLLABUS
CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY (9990)

Strengths Weaknesses

1. Research Methods Valid representation of a

Di cult to replicate to test
for reliability as the event is
person’s behaviour
naturally occurring
1.1. Experiments
Each experiment consists of an experimental and control
An experiment is an investigation looking for a causal condition.
relationship in which an independent variable (IV) is An experimental condition is one or more of the
manipulated and is expected to be responsible for situations in an experiment which represent the di erent
changes in the dependent variable (DV). levels of the IV and are compared, either with one
There are three types of experiments: another or with the control condition.
Laboratory experiments: A research method in which A control condition is a situation in which the IV is absent.
there is an IV, DV, and strict controls. This looks for a This is compared to the experimental condition(s).
causal relationship and is conducted in a setting
which is not the usual environment for the participant
with regard to the behaviour they are performing.
1.2. Self-reports
Field experiments: This is conducted in a setting which
Self-reports consist of two main types — questionnaires
is the normal environment for the participant with
and interviews.
regard to the behaviour they are performing. The
Questionnaires are a research method that involves
researcher has control over a few variables, but it
asking questions, mainly written, to gain information
di cult to control all variables.
from the participants.
Natural experiments: An investigation looking for a
There are four types of questionnaires:
causal relationship in which the IV cannot be directly
Likert scales: questions asking whether the participant
manipulated by the experimenter. Instead, they study
likes or dislikes something.
the e ect of an existing di erence or change. This is
Rating scales: questions that require the participant to
not a true experiment as the experimenter cannot
represent their answer on the numerical scale
manipulate the levels of the IV.
provided to them.
Laboratory experiments:
Open questions: questions which allow the participant
to give detailed answers without any restrictions.
Strengths Weaknesses
Closed questions: questions which allow the
High levels of standardization
Arti cial Environment hence participant to respond using a few, stated responses
hence it can be replicated
it lacks ecological validity without the opportunity to expand on their answers.
easily to test for reliability
Interviews are a research method using verbal questions
High levels of control hence asked directly to the participants.
researches can be more Participants may show There are three types of interviews:
con dent that the IV is demand characteristics Structured: an interview with questions in a xed
directly a ecting the DV order which may be scripted. Consistency might also
be required in the interviewer’s posture, voice, etc.,
Field experiments: and hence these are highly standardized.
Semi-structured: an interview with a xed list of
Strengths Weaknesses questions, however, the interviewer could add more
Situational variables are questions if required to clarify or get details on any
Realistic setting hence high di cult to control so it is previous answers.
ecological validity tough know if the IV is Unstructured: an interview in which most questions
a ecting the DV depend on the respondent’s answers. A list of topics
Limited demand Issues in breaking ethics may be provided that need to be covered for the
characteristics so behaviour since the participants do not interview.
is more likely to be natural know that they’re taking part
and valid in a study Strengths Weaknesses
Questionnaires Participants are more
Natural experiments: likely to give truthful Participants may give
answers as it does socially desirable
Strengths Weaknesses not involve talking to answers
High ecological validity someone face to face
Di cult to know whether the
because the IV is naturally
IV caused an e ect on the DV
occurring

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CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY (9990)

Strengths Weaknesses A structured observation is a study in which the observer

A large sample can records only a limited range of behaviours. An
answer the unstructured observation is one in which the observer
Too many closed records a range of behaviours, which is usually con ned
questionnaire in a
short time span questions may force to a pilot study to re ne the behavioural categories.
A naturalistic observation is a study conducted by
which should an answer that does
increase the not re ect the watching the participants’ behaviour in their normal
representativeness participant’s opinion environment without interference from the researcher in
either social or physical environment. A controlled
and generalizability
observation is one which is conducted by watching the
of the ndings
participants’ behaviour in a situation in which the social
Lots of open
Participants may be or physical environment has been manipulated by the
questions will make
less likely to give researcher.
participants reveal General:
truthful answers as
reasons as to why
Interviews they are face to face
they behave in a Strengths Weaknesses
with the interviewer
particular way or
or because of social- If the participants are aware
have a particular
desirability of the observation, they may
opinion If participants are unaware of
not act ‘naturally’ but show
the observation taking place -
more socially desirable
increases ecological validity
1.3. Case studies behaviour. This can reduce
the validity of the ndings
A detailed investigation of a single instance, usually a It may be di cult to replicate
person, family or institute, that produced in-depth data As behaviours are ‘counted’, the study if it is naturalistic as
speci c to that instance. data can be analysed many variables cannot be
statistically with minimal bias controlled which reduces the
Strengths Weaknesses
reliability
As researchers are focused
As the research is focused on
on one individual, they can Participant observation:
one person, the case is
collect rich, in-depth data
unique which makes
which adds validity to the Strengths Weaknesses
generalisations di cult
ndings High ecological validity as the
There are ethical problems of
Attachments may be formed participants are observed in a
informed consent
between researcher and real-life setting
High ecological validity as participant which may reduce As the observers become
participants are studied in objectivity of data collected The presence of an outsider
involved with the group, they
their everyday lives and analysis of it. This could can change the behaviours of
are more likely to understand
reduce the validity of the the group members. This
the motives and reasons for
ndings. lowers the validity of the
behaviours which increases
ndings
the validity of the ndings
1.4. Observations
Non-participant observation:
A research method that involves watching human or
animal behaviour. Strengths Weaknesses
An observer can be overt/covert or they can be It can be di cult to make
participant/non-participant observers. Participants behaviour will detailed observations and to
Overt observers are when the participants know who the not be a ected by produce qualitative data that
researcher is and that they are being observed. A covert observation because the allows understandings as to
observer could be present in the group of participants observer is out of sight why the behaviours are
observing them but they do not know who it is. occurring
A participant observer is one who watches from the Researchers’ observations
perspective of being part of the social setting of the are more likely to be
participants. A non-participant observer does not become objective as they are
involved in the situation being studied. detaching from the people
An observation can be structured/unstructured or they are observing
naturalistic/controlled.
Structured observation:

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CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY (9990)

Strengths Weaknesses No correlation refuters to a situation where no de nite

The sampling of observed trend occurs and the two mentioned variables do not
The behavioural checklist appear to be related to each other.
behaviour tends to be
allows objective quantitative
restricted and does not give
data to be collected which Strengths Weaknesses
an idea of the reasons as to
can then be analysed The researchers easily Issues of causality because
why the behaviours are
statistically establish a cause and e ect there could be a third
occurring
relationship variable a ecting the changes
Unstructured observation: Correlations are restricted to
Correlations do not require
research that are quantitative
any manipulation so can be
Strengths Weaknesses and so they cannot be used
used where experiments are
Observers may easily be to measure why behaviours
They can generate in-depth, unethical or impractical
drawn to eye catching are occurring
rich quantitative data that
behaviours and hence may
can help explain why
not fully represent all the 1.6. Hypotheses and aims
behaviours are occurring
behaviours
An aim tells you the purpose of the investigation. It is
Naturalistic observation: generally expressed in terms of what the study intends to
show. It is written before the experiment is carried out
Strengths Weaknesses and does not predict the outcomes.
As participants are unaware A hypothesis is a testable statement predicting a
that they are being watched, Very little control over di erence between levels of the IV in an experiment or a
they should behave more extraneous variables which relationship between variables in a correlation.
naturally, removing the makes it di cult to draw a An alternative hypothesis is the testable statement which
chances of demand cause and e ect relationship predicts the di erence or relationship between the
characteristics variables in a particular investigation.
Replication may be di cult as There are three types of hypothesis.
High ecological validity as the there cannot be a totally A directional (one-tailed) hypothesis is a statement
observation takes place in a standardised procedure, predicting the direction of a relationship between
natural setting hence making it di cult to variables.
test for reliability A non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis is a
statement predicting only that one variable will be
Controlled observation: related to the other, not the direction of the
relationship.
Strengths Weaknesses A null hypothesis is a testable statement stating that
As the set-up is controlled, any di erence or correlation in the results is due to
An arti cial situation can chance.
the observers can be more
easily in uence participants’
con dent about what is
behaviour
causing the behaviours 1.7. Variables
Less chance of extraneous
Low ecological validity as the Independent variable (IV): the factor under investigation
variables a ecting
setting is arti cial in an experiment which is manipulated to create two or
participants’ behaviour
more conditions and is expected to be responsible for
changes in the DV.
1.5. Correlations Dependent variable (DV): the factor in an experiment
which is measured and is expected to change under the
A research method which looks for a causal relationship in uence of the IV.
between two measured variables. A change in one Operationalization is the de nition of variables so that
variable is related to a change in the other, although, the they can be accurately manipulated, measured or
changes cannot be assumed to be causal. None of the quanti ed and replicated.
variables are manipulated, they are only measured.
A positive correlation is a relationship in which the
increase in one variable accompanies an increase in the
1.8. Experimental design
other.
This is the way in which participants are allocated to the
A negative correlation is a relationship in which the
di erent levels of the IV.
increase in one variable accompanies a decrease in the
other.

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CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY (9990)

An independent measures design is an experimental Strengths Weaknesses

design in which a di erent group of participants is used Trying to match people
for each level of the IV. If the IV is naturally occurring the exactly is impossible as there
researcher must use. This design is better suited will always be individual
A repeated measures design is an experimental design in when a repeated measures di erences from one person
which each participant performs in every level of the IV. It design may not work due to to another. Therefore the
cannot be used if the IV is naturally occurring. It also uses an order e ect occurring study may lack internal
counterbalancing (ABBA design). which may a ect results. validity if these di erences
A matched pairs design is an experimental design in
a ect the IV rather than the
which participants are arranged in pairs. Each pair is
experimental condition.
similar in ways that are important to the study and one
The sample may be smaller
member of each pair performs in a di erent level of the
as trying to nd a large
IV.
sample of people matching
Independent measures design:
across similar traits may be
Strengths Weaknesses di cult. This may mean the
ndings may lack external
As participants take art on
validity.
only one condition, they are
There may be participant
less likely to guess the aim of
variables a ecting the DV
the study hence reducing the
rather than the IV
1.9. Controlling of variables
e ects of demand
characteristics It is essential to control variables in order to be certain
More participants are about the nding of a study.
There are no order e ects An extraneous variable is a variable which either acts
required for this type of
that can reduce the validity of randomly, a ecting the DV in all levels of the IV, or
design as compared to
ndings systematically, a ecting only one level of the IV (called a
repeated measures
confounding variable), so can obscure the e ect of the IV,
Repeated measures design: making the results di cult to interpret.
A situational variable is a confounding variable caused by
Strengths Weaknesses an aspect of the environment.
Participant variables are another confounding variable
There is a chance of demand
Eliminates any participant caused by the individual di erences of participants.
characteristics as participants
variables as all of them take Control is a way to keep any potential extraneous
may work out the aim or
part in all conditions variables constant. These are required to ensure that the
change their behaviour.
results of the study are reliable.
Order e ects can a ect the
Fewer participants are ndings of the study and
needed as compared to reduce its validity. This could 1.10. Types of data
independent measures be overcome using
There are two types of data: qualitative and quantitative.
counterbalancing.
Qualitative data is descriptive in-depth data indicating the
quality of a psychological characteristic.
Matched pairs design:
Strengths Weaknesses
Strengths Weaknesses
In-depth, detailed accounts
Matching participants as
given in the words of
close as possible on Interpretation of data could
Trying to match participants’ participants are collected. It
measurable traits may help be subjective as these are
similar traits is very time can be argued that using
control for individual words rather than numbers
consuming. qualitative data is not
di erences a ecting the
reductionist
results.
As the data comes directly There may be researcher bias
from the participant we can - the researcher may only
understand why the select data that ts into the
participant thinks, feels or hypothesis or aim of the
acts in a particular way study

Quantitative data is the numerical data about the

quantity of a psychological measure.

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CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY (9990)

Strengths Weaknesses Strengths Weaknesses

As the data are numerical, it As the data are numerical, Researchers may
allows easier comparison and they miss out on why gain a ‘perfect
statistical analysis to take participants chose the sample’ but still have
place answers that they did the problem that
Numerical data are objective Using quantitative data can participants will not
and scienti c so there is only be seen as reductionist as it take
minimal chance of involves researchers reducing
psychologists miscalculating complex ideas and 1.12. Validity
the data and drawing invalid behaviours to a number or
conclusions percentage Validity is the extent to which the researcher is testing
what they claim to be testing.
1.11. Sampling of participants Internal validity is how well an experiment controls
confounding variables. This allows the researcher to be
A population is a group, sharing one or more more con dent about the causal relationship.
characteristics, from which a sample is drawn. Ecological validity is the extent to which the ndings in
A sample is the group of people selected to represent the one situation would generalise to other situations. This is
population in a study. in uenced by whether the situation represents the real
Sampling technique is the method used to obtain the world e ectively and whether the task is relevant to real
participants for a study from the population. There are life.
three types of sampling techniques. Mundane realism is the extent to which a task represents
Opportunity sampling is when the participants are the real-world situation.
chosen because they are available at the time and Face validity is a measure of validity indicating whether a
place where the research is taking place. measure appears to test what it claims to.
Volunteer (self-selected) sampling is when Concurrent validity is when a test correlates well with a
participants are invited to take part in studies via measure that has previously been validated.
advertisements or emails. Generalizability is de ned as how widely the ndings of a
Random sampling is when all members of the study apply to other settings and populations.
population are allocated number and a xed amount Demand characteristics are features of an experiment
of these are chosen in an unbiased way, for example, that give away the aims. This could cause participants to
picking out numbers from a hat. change their behaviour and hence reduce the validity of
the study.
Strengths Weaknesses Objectivity is an unbiased viewpoint that is not a ected
Large numbers of by an individual’s feelings, beliefs or experiences, so
participants can be Researchers are should be consistent between di erent researchers. This
obtained relatively unlikely to gain a would increase the validity of the study.
Opportunity Subjectivity is a personal viewpoint which may be biased
quickly and easily wide variety of
sampling by one’s feelings, beliefs or experiences and may di er
because researchers participants to allow
use people who are for generalisation between researchers. Since this is not consistent, it may
around reduce the validity of the study.

Participants are more Researchers are

likely to participate if unlikely to gain a 1.13. Reliability
they have already wide variety of
Volunteer volunteered so the participants to allow This is the extent to which a procedure, task or measure
sampling drop-out rate should for generalisation is consistent.
be lower, making because participants Internal reliability refers to whether the procedures are
generalisations will only be of a standardised so that each participant experiences the
stronger certain type same thing.
External reliability is the extent to which the results of a
Random Obtaining details of
procedure can be replicated from one time to another,
sampling the TP to use to draw
Researchers can gaining consistent results.
the sample may be
generalise the target Inter-rater/inter-observer reliability refers to the extent to
di cult - a
population (TP) with which two researchers interpreting qualitative responses
representative
more con dence will produce the same records from the same raw data.
sample cannot be
There are two methods to test the reliability of a study:
guaranteed
the split-half method and the test-retest method.

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CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY (9990)

The split-half method involves the results of the rst half of the study at the end so that they leave in the same
of the questionnaire or interview to be the same as the psychological state that they arrived in
results of second half when the questions are the same in Protection: Participants should not be exposed to any
both halves but presented in di erent a manner. greater physical or psychological risk than they would
The test-retest method is a way to measure the expect in their day-to-day life
consistency of a test or task by using it twice and then Informed consent: An ethical guideline stating that
comparing the results of each time to check how similar participants should know enough about a study to decide
they are. whether they want to agree to participate
Right to withdraw: An ethical guideline relating to
1.14. Data analysis ensuring that participants know that they can remove
themselves and their data from the study at any time.
Measures of central tendency: a mathematical way to nd Deception: An ethical guideline as participant’s should not
out the typical or average score from a data set. This be deliberately misinformed about the aim or procedure
includes the mean, median and mode. of the study. If this is unavoidable, the study should be
Mean is calculated by adding all the scores in a data set planned to minimise the risk of distress and participants
and dividing them by the number of scores in the data should be thoroughly debriefed.
set. Con dentiality: An ethical guideline stating that
Median is the middle score of a data set when it is ranked participants’ results and personal information should be
in order (ascending order). kept safely and not released to anyone outside the study
Mode is the most frequent score in a data set.
Measures of spread: a mathematical way to describe the 2.3. Ethical guidelines in relation to
variation or spread within a data set. This includes the
range and the standard deviation.
animal participants
Range is the di erence between the largest and smallest
Based on British Psychological Society’s guidelines for
values with an addition of 1.
Psychologists working with animals (2012)
Standard deviation is a calculation of the average
Replacement: Researchers should consider replacing
di erence between each score and the mean of the data
animal experiments with videos or computer simulations.
set.
Species and strain: Psychologists should choose a species
Normal distribution is an even spread of a variable that is
that is scienti cally and ethically suitable for the intended
symmetrical about the mean, median and mode. It forms
use. Knowledge of the animal’s previous experience is
a bell-shaped curve and is symmetrical.
also essential.
Bar charts are graphs used for data in discrete categories
Numbers: According to the Animal Scienti c Procedures
and total or average scores. There are gaps between the
Act (1986), psychologists should always use the smallest
columns as the data is not related in a linear way.
number of animals that still accomplish the research aims
A histogram is used to illustrate continuous data.
and goals. These could be calculated via a pilot study and
A scatter graph is a way to display data from a
statistical programs.
correlational analysis.
Procedures: Psychologists should consider research that
enriches rather than harms. Procedures that may cause
2. Ethical Guidelines discomfort, injury, stress, etc. need a Project Licence
which can be gained after a cost-bene t analysis.
Pain and distress: Research causing physiological or
Ethical Issues: Problems in research that raise concerns
psychological pain or distress should be avoided.
about the welfare of participants
Whatever procedure is in use, any adverse e ects on
Ethical Guidelines: Pieces of advice that guide
animals must be recognised and assessed, and
psychologists to consider the welfare of participants and
immediate action taken wherever necessary.
wider society
Housing: Isolation & crowding should be avoided. Caging
should recreate aspects of the natural environment that
2.2. Ethical guidelines in relation to are important to the welfare of the animal and must take
human participants into account the social behaviour of the species.
Reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli: Researcher
Based on British Psychological Society’s (BPS) Code of should consider the animal’s normal eating and drinking
Human Research Ethics (2014) habits and its metabolic requirements. When using
Privacy: An ethical guideline related to avoiding the deprivation and aversive stimuli, the researcher should
invasion of the participant’s personal physical space make sure that there is no alternative way of motivating
Debrie ng: An ethical procedure giving all participants a the animal that is consistent with the aims of the
full explanation of the aims and potential consequences experiment and that the levels of deprivation is no

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CAIE AS LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY (9990)

greater than that needed to achieve the goals of the Strengths Weaknesses
experiment. If there is an interaction Studies might be unethical in
Anaesthesia, Analgesia & Euthanasia: Animals should be between both sides, then order to gain more valid
protected from pain relating to surgery and euthanized if
that is useful too results
su ering lasting pain. Procedures that are likely to cause
Studies need high ecological
pain and discomfort should be performed only on
validity to be of more use to
animals that have been adequately anaesthetised, and
this debate, but this can be
analgesics should be used before and after such
di cult if it is a laboratory
procedures to minimise pain and distress whenever
experiment
possible.

3.3. Nature versus nurture

3. Issues and Debates
Nature refers to the extent to which behaviour, feelings
3.1. The application of psychology to or thinking results from innate, genetic factors.
Nurture refers to the extent to which behaviour, feelings
everyday life or thinking results from environmental in uences such as
learning or other people.
The practical use of a theory, or the ndings of a study, to
help improve processes or people’s lives, for example, in Strengths Weaknesses
terms of bettering physical or mental health, safety, If we nd out which
production at work or sales by a company. behaviours are which side of It is not always easy to
Conducting useful research: the debate, that can help to separate out what is nature
explain human behaviour and what is nurture
Strengths Weaknesses
more clearly
It can be used to improve Studies might be unethical to
If behaviour is seen to be
human behaviour gain more valid results If there is an interaction
purely down to nature
Studies need to be high in between both sides, then
(genetics) this can be very
ecological validity to be of that is useful too
socially sensitive
more use to society but this
Studies might be unethical in
can be quite di cult if they
order to gain more valid
are conducted in a laboratory
results

3.2. Individual and situational 3.4. The use of children in psychological

explanations research
The extent to which a person’s beliefs or behaviours are
Giving consent is important for children under 16 & a risk
controlled by factors, such as their personality or
assessment must take place
physiology that are unique to them (individual
Refer to Ethical guidelines for human participants
explanation) or by factors in the setting, such as the
(Chapter 2 card 2)
people or place (situational explanation).

Strengths Weaknesses 3.5. The use of animals in psychological

If we nd out which research
It is not always easy to
behaviours are which side of
separate individual and
the debate, that can help to Refer to Ethical guidelines for animal participants
situational factors
explain human behaviour (Chapter 2 card 3)

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CAIE AS LEVEL
Psychology (9990)

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