Electronics

Electronics comprises the physics, engineering, technology and applications

that deal with the emission, flow and control of electrons in vacuum and
matter. It uses active devices to control electron flow by amplification and
rectification, which distinguishes it from classical electrical engineering
which uses passive effects such as resistance, capacitance and inductance to
control current flow

The main difference between electrical and electronic circuits is that electrical
circuits have no decision making (processing) capability, whilst electronic
circuits do. An electric circuit simply powers machines with electricity.
However, an electronic circuit can interpret a signal or an instruction, and
perform a task to suit the circumstance.
For example, a microwave oven often bleeps when it has finished cooking, to
inform the user that his or her meal is ready.
 Branches of Electronics
• Digital electronics – involving the study of digital signals and the engineering of devices
• Analogue electronics – electronic systems with a continuously variable signal
• Microelectronics – the study and manufacture of very small electronic designs and components
• Circuit design – design complex electronic systems with individual transistors within an integrated circuit
• Integrated circuits – fabrication of a set of electronic circuits on one small flat piece by monolithic tech.
• Power electronics – application of solid-state electronics to the control and conversion of electric power
• Optoelectronics – study and application of electronic devices and systems that source, detect and control light, usually
considered a sub-field of photonics
• Semiconductor devices – Study to make the semiconductor devices more efficient
• Embedded systems – a combination of a computer processor, computer memory, and input/output peripheral devices
• Audio electronics – implementation of electronic circuit designs to perform conversions of sound to electrical signals, or vice
versa
• Telecommunications – transmission of information by various types of technologies over wire, radio, optical or other
electromagnetic systems
• Nanoelectronics – use of nanotechnology in electronic components (range between 1 nm and 100 nm)
• Bioelectronics – a field of research in the convergence of biology and electronics
 Vacuum Tube
• electron tube or valve and first developed by John
Ambrose Fleming in 1904. The vacuum tube is a
glass tube that has its gas removed, creating a
vacuum. Vacuum tubes contain electrodes for
controlling electron flow and were used in early
computers as a switch or an amplifier. The picture
shows a collection of different vacuum tubes used
with different devices.

• Vacuum tubes were also used in radios, televisions,

radar equipment, and telephone systems during the
first half of the 1900s. In the 1950s, the transistor
started to replace the vacuum tube.

Transistor Next to a Vacuum Tube

Electronic component
• Any basic discrete device or physical entity in an electronic system used to affect electrons or their
associated fields

Passive Devices
Passive components are electrical components that do not require any form of electrical power to operate.
Passive devices or components do not generate energy, but can store it or dissipate it. Passive devices are the
main components used in electronics such as resistors, inductors, capacitors and transformers which together are
required to build any electrical or electronic circuit.

Active Devices
An active device is any type of circuit component with the ability to electrically control electric charge flow
(electricity controlling electricity). In order for a circuit to be properly called electronic, it must contain at least
one active device. Active devices include, but are not limited to, vacuum tubes, transistors, silicon-controlled
rectifiers (SCRs), and TRIACs.
Functions of Active Devices
All active devices control the flow of electric charges through them. Some active devices allow a voltage to
control this current while other active devices allow another current to do the job. Devices utilizing a static
voltage as the controlling signal are, not surprisingly, called voltage-controlled devices.
Devices working on the principle of one current controlling another current are known as current-controlled
devices.
For the record, vacuum tubes are voltage-controlled devices while transistors are made as either voltage-
controlled or current controlled types. The first type of transistor successfully demonstrated was a current-
controlled device.

Active components
➢ Transistors
➢ Diodes
➢ Integrated circuits
➢ Optoelectronic devices
➢ Display technologies (LED, OLED, Plasma, LCD, CRT)
➢ Vacuum tubes (valves) (Triode, Tetrode, Pentode, Hexode, Heptode, Octode, Klystron)
➢ Discharge devices
➢ Power sources (Battery, Photovoltaic device, Thermoelectric generator, Piezoelectric generator)
 Passive components

➢ Resistors
➢ Capacitors
➢ Magnetic (inductive) devices (Inductor, coil, choke, Variable inductor, Transformer, Magnetic amplifier
(toroid) Motor / Generator, Solenoid, Loudspeaker and microphone)
➢ Memristor (Resistor that has memory)
➢ Networks (RC network LC Network)
➢ Transducers, sensors, detectors
➢ Antennas
Common electronic symbols

Active Passive Active/Passive

Function of source:
➢ Supply ac or dc current
➢ Supply constant current
➢ Supply constant potential

𝑊
𝑉= 𝑉 = 𝐽𝐶 −1
𝑄

𝑄
𝐼= 𝐴 = 𝐶𝑆 −1
𝑡
 Function of resistor:
➢ Resist the flow of current
➢ Same resistance for both
direction of current

𝑉
R=
𝐼
Resistor color code
 Function of capacitor:
➢ Store charge
➢ Store energy in the form of
electric field
➢ Offer frequency dependent
resistor (reactance)
➢ Adjust phase relationship in
ac current-voltage

𝑄
C=
𝑉
Capacitor coding system:

𝐹 100 1 𝑝𝐹 = 1 × 10−6 𝜇𝐹
𝑑𝐹 101 = 1 × 10−3 𝑛𝐹
Code: 103 𝑐𝐹 102
Capacitance: 10 × 103 = 10000 𝑝𝐹 𝑚𝐹 103 1 𝑛𝐹 = 1 × 10−3 𝜇𝐹
= 0.01 𝜇𝐹 𝝁𝑭 𝟏𝟎𝟔 = 1 × 10−3 𝑝𝐹
𝒏𝑭 𝟏𝟎𝟗
𝒑𝑭 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 1 𝜇𝐹 = 1 × 103 𝑛𝐹
𝑓𝐹 1015 = 1 × 106 𝑝𝐹
𝑎𝐹 1018
➢ Type J – Dipped Tantalum Capacitors.
➢ Type M – Electrolytic 4 Band Capacitors.
➢ Type K – Mica Capacitors.
➢ Type N – Electrolytic 3 Band Capacitors
➢ Type L – Polyester/Polystyrene Capacitors.
Function of diodes:
➢ Directional flow of current
➢ Generate light
➢ Sense light
➢ Filter ac supply
Interior of LED RGB LED
Function of Inductor:
➢ Store energy in the form
of magnetic field
➢ LC network
➢ Signal generation and
picking up
Function of transformer:
➢ Step up or step down ac
supply keeping the power
constant
Function of transistor:
➢ Amplify signal
➢ High frequency switching
(up to 500 kHz)
➢ Generate signal of different
shape
Function of unipolar transistor:
➢ Powerful amplification and
very high frequency
switching (25 kHz to Few
MHz)
Function of switch:
➢ Make/break the
circuit
➢ Flow current to
selective throw
Function of relay:
➢ Make/break circuits upon
electrical signal
➢ Kind of electric switch
Function of source:
➢ Generate light if current
flow through this
Function of fuse:
➢ Breakdown circuit by self
destruction when current
exceeds maximum limit
Function of source:
➢ Supply ac or dc current
➢ Supply constant current
➢ Supply constant potential
 Crystal Oscillator Hall effect sensor
➢ Generate precise high ➢ Sense magnetic field
frequency when voltage
applied to the electrodes
Function of source:
➢ Receive/transmit
electromagnetic signals
Electronic circuit
An electronic circuit is composed of individual electronic components, such as resistors, transistors,
capacitors, inductors and diodes, connected by conductive wires or traces through which electric
current can flow.
To be referred to as electronic, rather than electrical, generally at least one active component must
be present. The combination of components and wires allows various simple and complex
operations to be performed: signals can be amplified, computations can be performed, and data
can be moved from one place to another
Analog electronic circuits
Analog electronic circuits are those in which current or voltage may
vary continuously with time to correspond to the information
being represented. Analog circuitry is constructed from two
fundamental building blocks: series and parallel circuits.

Digital electronic circuits

In digital electronic circuits, electric signals take on discrete values,
to represent logical and numeric values. These values represent
the information that is being processed. In the vast majority of
cases, binary encoding is used: one voltage (typically the more
positive value) represents a binary '1' and another voltage (usually
a value near the ground potential, 0 V) represents a binary '0'.
Digital circuits make extensive use of transistors, interconnected to
create logic gates that provide the functions of Boolean logic: AND,
NAND, OR, NOR, XOR and combinations thereof.
Block diagram of amplifier

Schematic/circuit diagram of amplifier

Multilayer PCB
 PCB (Printed Circuit Board) Making
Step 1: Laser print the mirror image of schematic diagram in a
tracing paper
Step 2: Iron the paper putting on the CCB (Copper Clad Board)
Step 3: Dip the PCB into the Etching solution (Ferric chloride
solution, FeCl3) for approximately 30 min
Step 4: Clean and rub with sand paper.

CCB PCB
Male to male jumper wire Male to female jumper wire Female to female jumper wire
Some popular electronics projects

Auto plant irrigation circuit

Single stage amplifier
 Water level controller
The circuit is completely automatic which starts the pump motor when the water level in the over head tank goes below
a preset level and switches OFF the pump when the water level in the over head tank goes above the full level.
 Rain alarm project
Rain Alarm Project is a simple but very useful project that detects Rain (Rain Water) and automatically triggers an alarm or
buzzer.
 FM Transmitter
An FM transmitter allows a phone to broadcast music stored in its memory on FM frequencies, so that it can be tuned into a
nearby FM receiver such as a a car radio.

+ 9.0 V
 AM receiver
An AM receiver detects amplitude variations in the radio waves at a particular frequency, then amplifies changes in the
signal voltage to operate a loudspeaker or earphone.
 Walkie Talkie
A walkie-talkie, also commonly referred to as handheld transceiver is a small, portable hand-held two-way
radio transceiver, which enables voice communication across a specified radial distance without using physical wire
connections across the devices.
 Some more projects...
1) Water Level Controller 22) Thermistor Temperature Sensing Alarm
Cell Phone Detector 23) Remote Operated Alarm Circuit
2) Bidirectional Visitor Counter 24) Metal Detector Robotic Vehicle
3) Password based Circuit Breaker 25) Sun Tracking Solar Panel
4) Temperature Controlled DC Fan 26) Mosquito Repellent Circuit
5) Auto Intensity Control of Street Lights 27) Simple FM Radio Jammer Circuit
6) Line Following Robotic Circuit 28) Automatic Street Light Controller Circuit Using Relays and
7) Digital Tachometer LDR
8) 5 Channel IR Remote Control System 29) DTMF Based Home Automation System Circuit
9) Density Based Traffic Signal System 30) Digital Temperature Sensor
10) Automatic Washroom Light Switch 31) Digital Stopwatch Circuit
11) Automatic Door Bell With Object Detection 32) RFID based Attendance System
12) Water Level Indicator 33) TV Transmitter Circuit
13) Password Based Door Lock System 34) Transistor Intercom Circuit
14) Auto Night Lamp 35) Ding Dong Sound Generator Circuit
15) Mobile Jammer Circuit 36) TV Remote Control Jammer
16) Metal Detector Circuit 37) Remote Control Circuit through RF
17) Rain Alarm Circuit 38) Simple 100W Inverter Circuit
18) Automatic Plant Irrigation System 39) LED Flasher Circuit
19) Lead Acid Battery Charger Circuit
20) Motion Detector Circuit …………………………………………………………………To be continued……..
21) Digital Voltmeter Circuit