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GENERAL SCIENCE
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UPPSC RO/ARO Pre Re-Exam

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Sr. No. Topic Page Number

Physics
1. Units and Measurements, Instruments and Inventions 3
2. Scientific instruments and equipment and their important uses 6
3. Major invention and inventors 10
4. Technology and Scientific Principle 11
5. MECHANICS 12
6. Gravitation 17
7. Mechanical Properties of Materials 21
8. Heat and Thermodynamics 25
9. OPTICS 29
10. SOUND 34
11. Electric Current and Electromagnetism 36
12. Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity 40
13. Physics – Most Important Oneliners Facts 41
Chemistry
1. General Properties of Matter 53
2. Physical and Chemical Changes 53
3. Atomic Structure and Radioactivity 54
4. Solution 57
5. Classification of Elements 58
6. Metals, non-metals and their compounds minerals, ores 60
7. Alloys 64
8. Sulfur, Nitrogen, Ozone 65
9. Acid, Base and Salt 66
10. HYDROCARBONS 69
11. Polymers 72
12. The Explosive Substance 74
13. Fuel 75
14. Food Preservation, Nutrition, Medicine 77
15. Detergents and Chemical Compound 78
16. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 81
Important Inventions of Chemistry 85
Trade names and chemical formulas of chemical substances 85
17. Chemistry One Liner – Important Facts 87
18 Chemistry One Liner – Important Facts in Tabular form 94
Biology
1. Diversity in Living World 106
2. Cell and cell division 107
3. Digestive System 108
4. Respiratory system and circulatory system 112
5. Excretory system and Nervous system of Human 115
6. Endocrine System 118
7. Vitamins and Nutrition 122
8. Disease, Health and Treatment 123
9. Major Plant Disease 125
10. Plant Physiology and Reproduction 128
11. Plant Hormones and Plant Nutrition 129
12. Plants with some characteristics 131
13. Major Biologists and their contribution 131
14. Medical related institutions and centers 135
15. Important oneliner Facts of Biology 139
16. Biology One Liner – Important Facts in Tabular form 148
17. Miscellaneous – Physiscs, Chemistry and Biology Important onliners facts 164

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PHYSICS
Units and Measurements, Instruments and Inventions

Unit: -

• Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison with a certain basic, arbitrarily chosen, internationally
accepted reference standard called unit. The result of a measurement of a physical quantity is expressed by a number (or
numerical measure) accompanied by a unit.

There are two types of units –

• Fundamental Units - The units for the fundamental or base quantities are called fundamental or base units. The units of
all other physical quantities can be expressed as combinations of the base units. i.e., metre, kilogram, second.
• Derived Units - The units of all other physical quantities can be expressed as combinations of the base units. Such units
obtained for the derived quantities are called derived units. A complete set of these units, both the base units and derived
units, is known as the system of units. e.g., units of area, volume, density, speed, power, work, force, energy,
acceleration, momentum, etc.

Seven fundamental units - Two Supplementary Units -

Fundamental Quantities Name Symbol

Length Metre M
Physical Fundamental Symbol
Mass kilogram Kg
Quantity Units
Time Second s
Plane Angles Radian rad
Electric current Ampere A
Solid Angles Steradian sr
Thermo dynamic kelvin K
Temperature
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity Candela cd
This study material is only for UPPSC RO/ARO PRE RE-Exam, do not read it for any other exam.

There are two types of physical quantities -

• Scalar Quantities – A scalar quantity is a quantity with magnitude only. It is specified completely by a single number,
along with the proper unit. Those Physical quantities which have magnitude only, not directions, are called scalar
quantities.
Examples - Length, density, volume, area, work, distance, mass, speed, time, power, energy, pressure, electric current,
pressure, gravitational potential, electric potential, etc.
• Vector Quantities – A vector quantity is a quantity that has both a magnitude and a direction and obeys the triangle law of
addition or equivalently the parallelogram law of addition. So, a vector is specified by giving its magnitude by a number
and its direction. Examples - displacement, acceleration, force, momentum, velocity, linear momentum, angular
momentum, Torque or moment of force etc.

MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH

• A metre scale is used for lengths from 10–3 m to 102 m.

• A vernier callipers is used for lengths to an accuracy of 10–4 m.
• A screw gauge and a spherometer can be used to measure lengths as less as to 10–5 m.

Measurement of Large Distances

• Large distances such as the distance of a planet or a star from the earth cannot be measured directly with a metre scale. An
important method in such cases is the parallax method.

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MEASUREMENT OF MASS

• Mass is a basic property of matter. It does not depend on the temperature, pressure or location of the object in
space. The SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg). The prototypes of the International standard kilogram supplied by the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) are available in many other laboratories of different countries. In
India, this is available at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), New Delhi.

MEASUREMENT OF TIME

• To measure any time interval we need a clock. We now use an atomic standard of time, which is based on the periodic
vibrations produced in a cesium atom. This is the basis of the cesium clock, sometimes called atomic clock, used in the
national standards. Such standards are available in many laboratories.

Some SI Derived Units expressed in SI Base units

Physical quantity Unit Physical quantity Unit
Area Metre Square Concentration (of amount of Mole per cubic metre
substance)
Volume Metre cube Specific volume Cubic metre per kilogram
Speed, velocity Metre per second Luminance, intensity of Candela per Metre Square
illumination
Angular velocity Radians per second Kinematic viscosity Square metre per second
Acceleration Metre per second Momentum Kilogram metre per second
square
Angular Acceleration Radian per second Moment of inertia Kilogram Metre Square
square
Wave number Per metre Radius of gyration Metre
Density, mass density Kilogram per metre Linear/superficial/volume Per kelvin
cube expansivities
Current density Ampere per metre Flow rate Cubic metre per second
square
Magnetic field strength, magnetic Ampere per metre
intensity, magnetic moment
density

Some SI Derived Units expressed by means of SI Units with special names

Physical Quantity Unit Physical Quantity Unit
Magnetic moment Joule per tesla Molar Entropy, molar heat Joule per mole kelvin
capacity
Dipole moment Coulomb metre Exposure (X-and Y-rays) coulomb per kilogram gray per
second
Dynamic viscocity Poiseiulles or pascal Compressibility Per pascal
second or newton second
per square metre
Torque, couple, moment Newton metre Elasticity coefficient Newton per metre square
Surface Tension Newton per metre Pressure Gradient Pascal per metre
Power density, irradiance, heat Watt per Metre Square Surface energy Joule per kilogram
flux density
Heat capacity, entropy Joule per Kelvin Pressure energy Pascal cubic metre
Specific heat, specific entropy Joule per kilogram kelvin Impulse Newton second
Specific energy, Latent heat Joule per kilogram Angular Impulse Newton metre second
Radiation intensity Watt per Steradian Specific resistance Ohm metre
Thermal conductivity Watt per metre kelvin Surface energy Joule per metre square
Energy density Joule per cubic metre Dielectric constant Farad Per Meter
Electric field intensity Volt per metre Magnetism Henry per metre

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Electric charge density Coulomb per cubic metre Molar Energy Joule per mole
Electric flux density Coulomb per metre Angular Momentum, Joule second
square Planck's Constant

Units of Distance or Length Smallest unit of distance

1 km 1000 m 1 cm 10-2 m
1 mile 1.60934 km or 1.6 km 1 mm 10-3 m
(appro)
1m 1.0936 yd = 3.281 ft = 1 micron (µ) 10-4 cm = 10-6 m
39.37 inch
1 inch 2.54 cm 1nm 10-7 cm = 10-9 m
1 ft 12 inch = 30.48 cm 1 angstrom Å 10-8 cm = 10-10 m
1 yd 3 ft = 91.44 cm 1 fermi 10-13 cm = 10-15 m
Nautical mile 1.852 km Units of Area
1 astronomical unit (the 1.495x1011 metre 1 Acre 4840 square yard = 43560 square
distance between the Sun and foot = 4046.94 square metre
Earth is called "astronomical
unit").
1 light year (a light year is the 1 Light Year = 9.46x1015 m 1 Hectare 2.5 acre (approx.)
distance traveled by light in a
year in vacuum)
1 Angstroms 0.1 nanometer 1 Square Km 100 hectare
1 parsec (this is the largest unit 3.08x1016 m = 3.26 light 1 Square mile 2.6 square km = 256 hectare
to measure distance) year 632.58 acre
Units of Time
1 Ounce 28.35gram
1 pound 16ounce
1 kg 2.205pound = 1000 gram
1 quintal 100kg
1 lunar month 4 weeks = 28 days 1 Metric ton 1000 kg
1 solar month 30 or 31 days (febuary 28 1 Picogram 10-12 gram
or 29 days)
1 year 13lunar month 1 day 1 Milligram 10-3 gram
1 leap year 366days 1 Microgram 10-6 gram
Units of Volume 1 Nanogram 10-9 gram
1 Litre 1000 Cube Centimeter = 1 Femtogram 10-15 gram
0.2642 Gallon
1 Gallon 3.785 Litre
1 Barrel 158.9873 Litre
1 Barrel 42 US Gallon
Every year up to 65% changes are made in the course content.

The derived units of physical quantities are the following

Physical Quantity Formula Derived Units

Area [Link] M2 (or m square)
Volume [Link] m.m.m = m3
Density Mass/Volume Kg/m3=Kg.m-3
Velocity Displacement/Time m/s = ms-1
Acceleration ΔV/Δt m/s
= m/s2
s
Force Mass x Acceleration Kg x m/s2 (Kg-m s-2) or Newton
Work/Energy Force x Displacement Newton x meter (it is called joule also)
Power Work done/Time taken Joule/Second = Joule-Second-1

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Pressure Force/Area Newton/m2 (Pascal)

Heat Joule
Resistance Voltage applied /current generated Ohm
Impulse Force applied × Time interval Newton x second
Momentum Mass × Velocity Kg × m/s
Speed Distance / Time Meter/Second

Important Facts

1. Physics is a quantitative science, based on measurement of physical quantities. Certain physical quantities have been chosen
as fundamental or base quantities (such as length, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature, amount of
substance, and luminous intensity).

2. Each base quantity is defined in terms of a certain basic, arbitrarily chosen but properly standardised reference standard
called unit (such as metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, mole and candela). The units for the fundamental or base quantities
are called fundamental or base units.

3. Other physical quantities, derived from the base quantities, can be expressed as a combination of the base units and are called
derived units. A complete set of units, both fundamental and derived, is called a system of units.

4. The International System of Units (SI) based on seven base units is at present internationally accepted unit system and is
widely used throughout the world.

5. The SI units are used in all physical measurements, for both the base quantities and the derived quantities obtained from
them. Certain derived units are expressed by means of SI units with special names (such as joule, newton, watt, etc).

6. The SI units have well defined and internationally accepted unit symbols (such as m for metre, kg for kilogram, s for second, A
for ampere, N for newton etc.).

7. Physical measurements are usually expressed for small and large quantities in scientific notation, with powers of 10. Scientific
notation and the prefixes are used to simplify measurement notation and numerical computation, giving indication to the
precision of the numbers.

8. Certain general rules and guidelines must be followed for using notations for physical quantities and standard symbols for SI
units, some other units and SI prefixes for expressing properly the physical quantities and measurements.

9. In computing any physical quantity, the units for derived quantities involved in the relationship(s) are treated as though they
were algebraic quantities till the desired units are obtained.

Scientific instruments and equipment and their important uses

Instruments, Equipment Utilization

Phonograph device used to record sound waves
Phonometer Device used to measure sound intensity level.
Photometer device used to compare the illumination and intensity of two sources
Photographic camera photo capture device
Phototelegraph A phototelegraph is a device used to transmit photographs over long distances via telegraph
or telephone.
Pipette a thin glass tube for measuring a fixed volume of liquid
Polygraph lie detector
Potentiometer instrument for measuring the potential difference between two points in an electric circuit
Potometer Used to Measure Transpiration Rates in Plants
Pycnometer instrument for measuring the density and coefficient of expansion of liquids
Pyrometer Device used to measure high temperature
Pyrheliometer A pyrheliometer is a device that measures solar irradiance coming directly from the sun.
Quadrant A Quadrant is the instrument used for measuring altitudes and angles in navigation and
astronomy. A quadrant is an instrument that is used to measure angles up to 90°.
Radar To find the speed and direction of a distant aircraft

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Radiator A radiator is a heat exchanger used to transfer thermal energy from one medium to another
for the purpose of cooling and heating. The majority of radiators are constructed to function
in cars, buildings, and electronics.
Radiometer Instrument for measuring radiation
Radio Micrometer Instrument for measuring thermal radiation
Rain gauge Instrument to determine the amount of rain
Refractometer instrument for determining the refractive index of transparent media
Refrigerator food preservation equipment
Saccharimeter A saccharimeter is an instrument for measuring the concentration of sugar solutions.
Safety lamp lighting device used in mines to prevent accidents in mines
Screw gauge Used to measure fine wire gauge
Seismograph Instrument used to record seismic intensity
Seismometer Instrument used to measure seismic intensity
Sextant Instrument used to measure a height
Spectroscope spectrum analyzer
Speedometer Used to measure the speed of motor vehicles
Spherometer Instrument used for measuring the curvature of a surface
Sphygmomanometer The sphygmomanometer is an instrument that is used to measure arterial blood pressure.
Sphygmophone Instrument used to hear pulse rate loudly
Sphygmoscope to study the vibrations of the movement of the pulses
Stereoscope Instrument used for taking 2D images
Stethoscope Used to listen heart and lung sounds
Stop watch Used to measure correct period of time
Stroboscope A stroboscope, also known as a strobe, is an instrument used to make a cyclically moving
object appear to be slow-moving, or stationary.
Tachometer A tachometer is an instrument measuring the rotation speed of a shaft or disk, as in a motor
or other machine.
Taximeter taxi fare display
Thermostat Used to maintain constant temperature
Transformer The transformer, in a simple way, can be described as a device that steps up or steps down
voltage.
Transistor Amplifying and switching the electrical signals
Turbine A device by which mechanical work is done by converting the kinetic energy of a flowing
fluid into rotational energy.
Udometer or rain gauge used to measure rain
Ultrasonoscope Used to diagnose for brain tumors and heart defects
Viscometer to determine the viscosity of liquids
Voltmeter Instrument used for measuring potential difference between two points
Wattmeter Used for measuring electrical power
Wavemeter Used for measuring the wavelength of a radio wave
Xerox machine a machine used for photocopy and xerox
X-ray machine An X-ray machine is used in a common imaging test
Xylophone a musical instrument
Zincography used for printing on zinc
Vacuum cleaner dust cleaner
Van de graff generator high voltage generator
Venturimeter Used in the measurement of fluid flow
Video phone Such a telephone in which photo comes along with voice.
Telex Helpful tool in direct exchange of news between two countries
Telemeter Used to record distant physical events
Teleprinter manual reception of distant telegraphic messages
Telescope to see distant things closer
Theodolite To find the measure of transverse and vertical angles
Thermometer Used for measuring human body temperature

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Thermopyle measuring radiation intensity

Altimeter Used to measure the altitude of planes
Ammeter instrument used to measure electric current in ampere
Anemometer Instrument Used to measure wind power and speed
Epidiascope An epidiascope is a type of opaque projector that can project both transparent and opaque
images.
Audiometer Instrument for measuring hearing capacity of persons
Sound Level Measure the intensity of sound.
Audiophone Instrument used for hearing aids
Sound level meter It is used to measure the Intensity of sound
Auriscope (otoscope) An otoscope or auriscope is a medical device which is used to look into the ears. Health care
providers use otoscopes to screen for illness during regular check-ups and also to investigate
ear symptoms.
Avometer radio fault locator
Accelerometer Used to measure the rate of increase of vehicle speed
Accumulator An accumulator is an energy storage device: a device which accepts energy, stores energy,
and releases energy as needed.
Actinometer To determine the intensity of sun rays
Aerometer Used to measure Weight and density of air and gases
Calipers Used to measure cylindrical diameter gauge
Calorimeter Used to measure the amount of heat
Carburetor A carburetor is a device used by a gasoline internal combustion engine to control and mix air
and fuel entering the engine.
Bolometer Used to measure thermal radiation
Barograph Used To graph the change in atmospheric pressure
Barometer atmospheric pressure gauge
Binoculars magnifying glass
Cardiogram Used to measure human heart rate.
Cardiograph It plots the heart rate
Cathetometer instrument for measuring height, level, etc. in scientific experiments
Cathode ray tube tubing equipment in the emission of electrons etc.
Chronometer instrument used to tell the exact time on ships
Commutator AC to DC converter
Compass box To find the north-south direction at a place
Coolidge tube used to produce x rays
Crescograph Instrument used to measure growth of plant
Cryometer Thermometer measuring low temperatures in and around 00 C
Cyclotron highly charged particle accelerator
Daniel Cell device used for direct current flow in a circuit
Density meter A density meter is a device which measures the density of an object or material.
Dialysis machine Artificial blood purifier.
Dictaphone To record your voice to listen to the other person
Dilatometer change of volume produced in an object
Dip circles Dip circles are normally use to determine the angle between the vertical component and
Earth's magnetic field. It is also called as Dip Needle, an instrument for measuring the
inclination or dip of the Earth's magnetic field.
Dynamo device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
Dynamometer measure the power generated by the engine
Electric meter device used to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy
Electroencephalogram (EEG) The electroencephalogram (EEG) is a medical test used to measure the electrical activity of
the brain. A number of electrodes are applied to your scalp. EEG can help diagnose a number
of conditions including epilepsy, sleep disorders and brain tumours.
Electron microscope Used to detect the presence of microscopic bacteria
Electroscope Used to detect the presence of electric charge

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Endoscope An endoscope is a medical device with a light attached. It is used to look inside a body cavity
or organ.
Escalator Moving mechanical ladder
Fathometer To measure the depth of the ocean
Fire extinguisher It is used to extinguish the fire
Fluxmeter Magnetic Flux Measuring Instrument
Galvanometer to detect the presence of electric current
Ganong spirometer in measuring the respiratory coefficient
Geiger-Muller (GM) counter to calculate the radiation of a radioactive source
Gravimeter The gravimeter is a device that measures the gravitational field of the Earth at precise points.
Gyroscope To find the speed of a moving object
Heart lung machine Useful in heart and lung surgery
Hydrometer in measuring the relative density of liquids
Hydrophone device used to detect underwater sound waves
Hygrometer measuring atmospheric humidity
Hygroscope Used to show change in atmospheric humidity
Incubator A transparent vessel in which a prematurely born child is kept by creating favorable
conditions.
Jack portable device used to lift heavy objects over a short distance
Kaleidoscope In the task of visualizing different types of geometrical figures
Kymograph To plot the graph of heart and lung speed pulse
Lactometer milk purity meter
Lightning-conductor Useful in high-rise buildings to protect against lightning
Loudspeaker Useful in converting a low pitch into a loud pitch
Mcmeter measuring the speed of an aircraft relative to the speed of sound
Magnetometer device for comparing magnetic fields
Manometer device can be used to measure the pressure difference between two points
Megaphone used to carry sound to distant places
Micrometer to find thousandths of a millimeter
Microphone converting sound waves into electrical waves
Microscope Used for Magnified view of microscopic objects
Microtome Used to cut something into very small pieces
Nephelometer A nephelometer or aerosol photometer is an instrument for measuring the concentration of
suspended particulates in a liquid or gas colloid. A nephelometer measures suspended
particulates by employing a light beam and a light detector set to one side of the source
beam.
Speedometer The odometer is an instrument used to measure the distance travelled by a vehicle whereas
speedometer is used to measure the speed of a vehicle.
Ondometer The ondometer is a device generally used to measure the wavelength of different radiations
and determine the nature of electromagnetic radiation.
Oscillograph device for plotting electrical and mechanical vibrations
Parachute an instrument Used in emergency landing
Periscope An optical device by which the observer can see the environment around him even while
being hidden. It is used by submarines, warships, cruisers by soldiers hiding in the
battlefield, and by artillery officers to visualise targets and monitor enemy activity.
The validity of this study material is only till the year 2024, do not read it after that.

Transformation of Energy by in various devices

Name of Apparatus Transformation of Energy

Dynamo Conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Electric motor Conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Microphone Conversion of sound energy into electrical energy.
Loudspeaker Conversion of electric energy into sound energy.
Solar cell Conversion of solar energy into electrical energy.

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Tubelight Conversion of Electrical energy into light energy

Electric bulb Conversion of Electrical energy into heat energy and light energy.
Electric cell Conversion of chemical energy into Electrical energy.
Candle Conversion of chemical energy into light & heat energy.
Sitar Conversion of mechanical energy into sound energy.
Electric Heater Conversion of Electrical energy into heat energy
Battery Conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy
Steam engine Conversion of heat energy into kinetic energy
Galvanic isolation Conversion of electrical energy into chemical energy
Electric Stove Conversion of Electrical energy into heat and light Energy
Electric Fan Conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy
Turbine Conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy
Windmills Conversion of wind energy into electrical energy
Electromagnet Conversion of electrical energy into magnetic energy
Thermoelectric Heat energy to Electrical energy
Photosynthesis Electromagnetic radiation energy to chemical energy
Hydroelectric dams Gravitational potential energy to Electrical energy
Photoelectric cell Light energy to electrical energy
Generator Mechanical energy to electrical energy
Telephone receiver, radio Sound energy to Electrical energy
Electric Iron Electric energy to heat energy
Photographic plate Light energy to chemical energy
Electric Lamp Conversion of Electrical energy into light and heat energy
Atomic bomb Conversion of nuclear energy into heat, light and sound energy
Rectifier Conversion of alternating current into direct current

Major invention and inventors

Device Inventors Device Inventors

Chronometer John Harrison Dialysis Machine Dr. Willem Kolff
Nuclear Furnace Enrico Fermi Photometer Edward Charles Pickering
Dynamo Michael Faraday Air Conditioner Willis Haviland Carrier
Gas engine Daimler Wireless Telegraphy Marconi
Cyclotron Lawrence Electric Bulb Edison
Lightning rod/conductor Franklin Transistor Shockley&Bardeen, walter
brattain
Camera Lens C. Chevalier Radar Robert Watson Watt
Gyroscope Foucault Submarine Cornelis Drebbel
Transformer Otto Blathy Bicycle Macmillan
Crescograph J.C. Bose Parachute Louis-Sébastien Lenormand
Steam Engine James Watt Machine gun James Puckle
Radio Marconi Ball Pen John J. Loud
Diesel Engine Rudolf Diesel Electric Fan Wheeler
Type Machine Sholes Microscope Jansen
Printing Machine J. Gutenberg Petrol Car Karl Benz
Micrometer William Gascoigne Spectroscope Bunsen&Kirchhoff
Scooter G. Bradshaw Seismometer Robert Mallet
Refrigerator Harrison and Munters Sextant John Campbell
Lift E. G. Otis Telephone Graham Bell
Thermionic Diode J.A. Flemming Gramophone Edison
E-mail Raymond Tomlinson Steam Boat Robert Fulton
Television J.L. Baired Thermometer Fahreinheit
Barometer Torricelli Military tank Swinton

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Aeroplane Wright Brothers Fountain Pen Waterman

Helicopter Igor Sikorsky Tape Recorder Valdemar Poulsen
Rail Engine George Stephenson Safety Razor Gillete
Jet Engine Frank Whittle

Inventions Inventors Inventions Inventors

Electric Current Alexander Volta Interference of light Thomas Young
Electromagnetic wave Heinrich Hertz Electric charge Benjamin Franklin
Current electricity & Electric Alexander Volta Wave Theory of light Christiaan Huygens
battery
Static electricity Thales Law of electric attraction Coulomb
Law of electric resistance Simon Ohm Logarithm Briggs & J. Napier
Modern X-ray tube Coolidge Mechanical equivalent of Joule
heat
Thermionic emission Thomas Alva Edison Speed of Light O. Roemer
Diode valve J.A. Fleming Cloud Chamber C.T.R. Wilson
Electric Charge R. A. Millikan
Dynamite Alfred Nobel Neutrino W.E. Pauli
Laser rays T.H. Maiman Safety lamp H. Davy
Photon Albert Einstein Radioactivity H. Becquerel
Induction coil H.D. Ruhmkorff Superconductivity Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
Law of Gravitation Newton Corpuscular theory of light Newton
Law of cooling Newton Law of pressure B. Pascal
Artificial disintegration of Enrico Fermi Speed of light in liquid Foucault
atom
Principle of Floatation Archemedes Laws of motion Newton
Nuclear fission Ottohahm and Interference of light Thomas Young
Strassmann
Electromagnetic induction Michael Faraday Celsius Scale Anders Celsius

Technology and Scientific Principle

Technology Scientific principle (s)

Steam engine Laws of thermodynamics
Nuclear reactor Controlled nuclear fission
Radio and Television Generation, propagation and detection of electromagnetic waves
Computers Digital logic
Continous operation of Laser Stimulated emission
Start of Laser Spontaneous emission
Production of ultra high magnetic fields Superconductivity
Rocket propulsion Newton’s laws of motion
Electric generator Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction
Hydroelectric power Conversion of gravitational potential energy into electrical energy
Aeroplane Bernoulli’s principle in fluid dynamics
Particle accelerators Motion of charged particles in electromagnetic fields
SONAR Reflection of ultrasonic waves
Optical fibres Total internal reflection of light
Non-reflecting coatings Thin film optical interference
Electron microscope Wave nature of electrons
Photocell Photoelectric effect
Fusion test reactor (tokamak) Magnetic confinement of plasma
Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope (GMRT) Detection of cosmic radio waves
Bose-Einstein condensate Trapping and cooling of atoms by laser beams and magnetic fields.

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MECHANICS

Mechanics is the area of mathematics and physics concerned with the relationships between force, matter, and motion among
physical objects. Forces applied to objects result in displacements or changes of an object's position relative to its environment.

Motion

• If the position of a body changes with time, then the body is said to be in motion. Rest and motion are related to each other.
If a moving object travels the same distance in equal time with velocity, the motion of the object is called uniform motion.
The body with the uniform speed is not accelerated. If a person drops a ball on a platform in a train running at the same
speed, the path of the ball will be parabolic. If an object covers an uneven distance in equal time intervals, then the motion
of the object is called non uniform motion.

The following are Newton's 3 laws of motion -

• First Law – A body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line in the same direction unless some
external force is applied to it. This law is also called the law of inertia.
Examples –
✓ When a moving bus stops suddenly, the passengers sitting in it tend to lean forward.
✓ When a stopped train suddenly starts, the passengers sitting in it tend to lean backwards.
• Second Law – The rate of change of linear momentum of a body is proportional to the force applied and it takes place in
the direction of the force.
“Thus, the acceleration of an object subject to a force is directly proportional to the net force, in the same direction as the
net force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object i.e., a=F/m
Example –
• A cricket player retracts his hands slightly when he catches the ball.
• Third Law - For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The Force applied by the first object to the other
object is known as an action while the force applied by the second object on the first object is known as reaction. The size
of the force on the first object equals the size of the force on second object. Newton’s third law of motion is also known
as ‘Action -Reaction’ Law.
Examples –
• During firing of a bullet the gun recoils back with a great force. SCSGYAN
• During pulling water from the well the rope breaks and the man falls behind the well.

Distance –

• Distance is total length between the initial and final position of the body in a particular interval of time without taking into
account the direction of the motion. This is a scalar quantity and is never –ve, and its S.I. unit is meter.

Displacement –

• The shortest distance between the initial and the final position of the motion of an object is called the displacement of that
object. This is equal to the change in the position of the initial and final position of the particle's position vector.
Displacement is a vector quantity and its unit is meter.
• The magnitude of displacement may or may not be equal to the path length traversed by an object. SCSGYAN

Difference between Distance & Displacement:

• In daily life Distance & Displacement are used in the same sense but in Physics both have a different meaning.
• The length of a specific path travelled between two points by an object is distance.
• A displacement is a vector whose length is the shortest distance between the initial to the final position of a point.
• Distance has only magnitude, while displacement has magnitude along with the direction. It is clear that distance is a scalar
quantity and displacement is a vector quantity.
• The travelled distance by an object can not be zero, but the final displacement may be zero. Displacement of an object will
be zero when the moving object comes to its initial point.

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Speed –

• The distance traveled by an object in unit time is called its speed. Speed is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is meter per second
(m/s).

The speed is mainly of the following types –

✓ Uniform Speed - When a particle travels the same distance at the same time interval, its speed is called uniform speed.
Note that for uniform motion, velocity is the same as the average velocity at all instants.
✓ Non-uniform Speed - When a particle travels an uneven distance at the same time interval, its speed is called Non uniform
or variable speed.
✓ Average Speed – Average speed is defined as total distance travelled by a body upon total time elapsed.
Average Speed = total distance travelled /total time elapsed
∆𝑠
Vav =
∆𝑡

Velocity –

• The distance that an object covers in a certain direction in unit time, that is, the distance it is displaced, is called the
velocity of that object. It is a vector quantity. Its SI unit is meter per second (m/s). Velocity can be positive, negative or
zero. This study material is not valid after the year 2024, after which it will become outdated.

Speed & Velocity:

• Speed of an object is the distance traveled by it per unit time.

✓ So, Speed = distance / time
✓ The difference between speed and velocity is that speed has only magnitude and no specific direction. Whereas velocity
has magnitude as well as direction. Hence velocity is a vector quantity.

Acceleration:

• Acceleration – The rate of change of velocity of an object is called its acceleration. It is a vector quantity. Its direction is in
the direction of change of velocity, its unit is m/s2.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Acceleration =
Time interval
∆𝑣
a=
∆𝑡

Equations of one-dimensional motion –

• If an object starts moving at u velocity and after o time, v attains velocity, the acceleration of the object is a and the fixed
distance (s), then the following three equations are obtained for the speed of the object –
1. v=u+at
1
2. s=ut+ 𝑎𝑡2
2
3. v2=u2+2as
• Where u is the initial velocity of the body, a is the uniform acceleration of the body, v is the final velocity of the body after t
second and s is the distance travelled in this time. Distance travelled in nth second
1
s=u+ a(2n-1)
2

Motion under Gravtity –

• If an object is thrown upwards or dropped downwards, the object moves in the gravitational field of the Earth, this type of
motion is called gravitational motion. When writing equations of gravitational motion, instead of acceleration (a), we write
gravitational acceleration (g).
Equations of upward motion –

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1. v=u-gt
2. h=ut-(1/2) gt2
3. v2=u2-2gh
Equations of downward motion –
1. v=u+gt
2. h=ut+(1/2)gt2
3. v2=u2+2gh

Friction

• The property by virtue of which the relative motion between two surfaces in contact is opposed is known as friction.
• Types of Friction – There are four types of friction – 1. Static Friction, 2. Rolling Friction, 3. Sliding Friction, 4. Fluid Friction
• Rolling friction is much less than sliding friction. Ball bearing is a device that is used to enable rotational or linear
movement, while reducing friction.
• To reduce friction, lubricants like oil, grease are used. Pushing a roller is more difficult than pulling it.

Advantages of Friction

• Friction helps us to walk on a surface. We can’t walk on smooth or slippery surface as friction is absent there.
• Friction is essential for driving a car. The force of friction between the tyres of a vehicle and the road helps the vehicle to
stop.
• For skating friction is essential.
• The friction between a chalk and the black board helps us to write.
• Rubbing both hands to create heat is due to friction.
• Lighting a match stick is due to friction.

Methods of Reducing Friction

• Polishing the surfaces

• Using antifriction metals
• Using ball bearings
• Using a lubricant

Work, Energy, Power

Work:

• A work (by the action of a force) is said to be done if when acting, there is a displacement of the point of application in the
direction of force. If no displacement occurs after applying force, no work is done.
• The work done by the force is defined to be the product of component of the force in the direction of the
displacement and the magnitude of this displacement.
Work = F × Displacement due to force
• Work is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is joule. One joule is defined as the amount of work done when a force of 1 newton
is applied over a displacement of one meter. 1 Joule= 1 newton × 1 meter.
• If a person lifts a body above the surface of the earth, then the work done by him will be positive.
• If a person pushes a wall and it is not displaced, then he does not do any work (because his work is perpendicular to the
force of gravity).
• If the force and displacement are perpendicular, then the work done is zero. W= F× D Cos 900 = 0

Energy:

• Energy is the capacity for doing work. Different forms of energy are Mechanical energy, Heat energy, Light energy, Sound
energy, etc. It is scalar quantity. Its SI Unit is joule.

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Mechanical Energy:

• Mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic & potential energy in an object that is used to do work.
1. Kinetic energy
2. Potential energy
• The sum of potential and kinetic energy is called mechanical energy.
Mechanical Energy = Kinetic energy + Potential energy

Kinetic Energy:

• The kinetic energy of an object is the energy that it possesses due to its motion. If the mass of the body is m kg and speed v
m/sec, then Kinetic Energy K.E =½ mv2
• Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity.
• The kinetic energy of an object is a measure of the work an object can do by the virtue of its motion. This notion has been
intuitively known for a long time. The kinetic energy of a fast-flowing stream has been used to grind corn. Sailing ships
employ the kinetic energy of the wind.

Potential Energy:

• Potential energy is the energy in a body due to its position. It is clear that if any object under a force is shifted from one
position to another position, then during it, done work is stored as the potential energy of the object.
• P.E. = mgh where, m =mass of the object g=gravitational acceleration h=height

Examples of potential energy

• Water stored in the reservoir of a dam possesses potential energy.

• An apple or a mango hanging from the branch of a tree has a potential energy.
• A stretched bow and arrow system has potential energy.
• A wound spring of a watch has potential energy.
• A stretched bow-string possesses potential energy.

Power:

• Power is defined as the time rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. The average power of a force is defined as
the ratio of the work, W, to the total time taken “t”

Power (P) =Work (W) / Time (t)

• Power, like work and energy, is a scalar quantity.
• In the SI, its unit is called a watt (W). The watt is 1 J s–1. The unit of power is named after James Watt, one of the innovators
of the steam engine in the eighteenth century.
• There is another unit of power, namely the horse-power (hp). 1 hp = 746 W This unit is still used to describe the output of
automobiles, motorbikes, etc.

Force, Momentum, Impulse

Force –

• Force is the external factor that can change, or attempt to change, the initial state of an object i.e. the state of rest or the
state of uniform motion in a straight line. Force = mass × acceleration. The SI unit of force is Newton. Its CGS unit is Dyne.
1 N = 105 dyne.

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Centripetal Force –

• For a body to maintain motion in a circular path, a force is necessary towards the center of the circle, which is called
centripetal force.
F = mv2/r, where m = mass of the body, v = velocity of the body, r = radius of the circular path.

Examples –

• Electrons revolve around the nucleus.

• The particles of mud are thrown upwards in a tangential direction by the wheels of a cycle, scooter moving fast on the
mud. This is the reason why mud guards are fitted on their wheels.
• Planets orbiting around the Sun: Centripetal Force is provided by Gravitational force.
• Turning a car: Here the centripetal force is provided by the frictional force between the ground and the wheels.
• Going through a loop on a roller coaster: The force is provided by the Normal Force as the seat or wall pushes you
toward the centre.
• Spinning a ball on a string or twirling a lasso: Here the centripetal force is provided by the force of tension on the rope
pulls the object in toward the centre.
• The revolution of the moon around the earth.
• Ride in a roller coaster.

Centrifugal force –

• When a body moves on a circular path, to maintain its motion, a force is exerted from the center outwards, which is called
centrifugal force. It is a pseudo force. Centrifugal force unit is Newton.

Examples –

• A person sitting in a circular swing feels a push out along the radius of the wheel. SCSGYAN
• Centrifuge – With the help of this, light and heavy particles are separated. Following are the examples of this –
o - Cloth Dryer
o - cream dispenser
o - centrifugal absorbent
o - Centrifugal Pump

Momentum –

• Momentum of a body is defined to be the product of its mass m and velocity v, and is denoted by p:

Momentum (P) = Mass × Velocity

• Momentum is clearly a vector quantity.

• The direction of momentum is in the same direction as the velocity. Every moving object has momentum. The SI unit of
momentum is kg meter/second.
• The same force for the same time causes the same change in momentum for different bodies. This is a crucial clue to the
second law of motion.
• The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied force and takes place in the direction in
which the force acts.
• Suppose a light-weight vehicle (say a small car) and a heavy weight vehicle (say a loaded truck) are parked on a horizontal
road. We all know that a much greater force is needed to push the truck than the car to bring them to the same speed in
same time. Similarly, a greater opposing force is needed to stop a heavy body than a light body in the same time, if they are
moving with the same speed.
• If two stones, one light and the other heavy, are dropped from the top of a building, a person on the ground will find it
easier to catch the light stone than the heavy stone. The mass of a body is thus an important parameter that determines
the effect of force on its motion.

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Change in Momentum -

• The rate of change of momentum of an object is proportional to the external force acting on the object. Change in
momentum always happens in the direction of force. This is another form of Newton's second law of motion.
 F = ma

Which is Newton's second law of motion.

Law of conservation of momentum

• For two or more bodies in an isolated system acting upon each other, their total momentum remains constant unless an
external force is applied. Therefore, momentum can neither be created nor destroyed.

Law of Conservation of Energy –

• Energy may be transformed from one form to another but it can’t be created or destroyed and the total energy of any body
or system is constant. Also, whenever any energy in any form disappears, then the same amount of energy appears in
another form. This is called law of conservation of energy.

Collision –

• Collision or interplay of two or more particles in which a powerful force acts between them for a short time is called
Collission.

Impulse –

• If any external force is operative on an object or a body for a very short span of time, then the product of this external force
and time is called Impulse and the force is called Impulsive Force.

Impulse (J) = Force(F) x Time Interval(t)

• For example, when a ball hits a wall and bounces back, the force on the ball by the wall acts for a very short time when the
two are in contact, yet the force is large enough to reverse the momentum of the ball. Often, in these situations, the force
and the time duration are difficult to ascertain separately. However, the product of force and time, which is the change in
momentum of the body remains a measurable quantity. This product is called impulse. SCSGYAN

Difference between Weight and mass

Weight (W) Mass (m)

Gravitation force of Earth A measurement of the amount of matter
Its unit is Newton. Its unit is gram or kg.
It is a vector quantity It is a scalar quantity
Weight varies according to places It is constant at every place
This study material is only for UPPSC RO/ARO PRE RE-Exam, do not read it for any other exam.

Gravitation –

• Each and every body attracts each other by virtue of its mass. This is called Gravitation.

Newton’s Laws of Gravitation –

• Every body in the universe attracts every other body with a force which is directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
• The quotation is essentially from Newton’s famous treatise called ‘Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy’
(Principia for short).

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Gravitational Acceleration -

• The rate of change in velocity of a falling body due to the gravitational force of the earth is called gravitational acceleration.
Gravitational Acceleration (g) = GMe/R e 2
Where Me = Mass of Earth, Re = Radius of Earth, Where G = Gravitational Constant
• The value of ‘g’ differs at different places of Earth surface.
• The acceleration due to gravity (g) on the surface of the earth is 9.8 m/s2.
• The value of g is maximum at the pole of the earth.
• The value of g is minimum at the equator.
• The value of g is zero at the center of the earth.
• The value of g decreases as we move below or above the earth's surface.
• The value of the Earth's acceleration due to gravity g varies at different places on the Earth's surface.
• The value of g does not depend on the mass of the object. Therefore, if two objects of different masses are freely dropped
(in the absence of air) from above, they will produce the same acceleration. If these objects are dropped from the same
height, they will reach the earth simultaneously. However, due to buoyancy effect and viscous traction in the presence of
air, the acceleration of objects will be different. In this case the heavy object will reach the earth first.
• The mass of an object has no effect on the change in the acceleration due to gravity and remains constant. A change in the
acceleration due to gravity changes the weight of the object.
• The value of g decreases as the rotational speed of the earth increases. The value of g increases as the rotational speed of
the earth decreases.

Gravity and acceleration due to gravity of Earth:

• Gravity is attraction force by which Earth attracts any object towards its centre. It is a peculiar form of gravitation. When
an object is thrown or dropped freely, it falls towards the Earth due to the gravity of Earth and its falling rate is
continuously increasing due to the production of acceleration, which is known as gravitational acceleration. It is
represented by ‘g’. Its unit is metre/second2.

Planets –

• Planets are the celestial bodies revolving around the elliptical orbits of the sun in our solar system. (The heavy object that
revolves around the Sun is called the planet).

Kepler’s Law of Planetary Motion –

Kepler’s has the following 3 laws related to planetary motion –

1. Law of orbits - All planets move around the sun in an elliptical orbit, having the sun at one of the two foci of the ellipse.
This law was a deviation from the Copernicas model which allowed only circular orbits. The ellipse, of which the circle is a
special case, is a closed curve.
2. Law of areas: The line that joins any planet to the sun sweeps equal areas in equal intervals of time. This law comes from
the observations that planets appear to move slower when they are farther from the sun than when they are nearer.
3. Law of periods: The square of the time period of revolution of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis
of the ellipse traced out by the planet.

Satellite –

• Such celestial bodies which revolve around a planet are called satellites. It is of two types –
1. Natural Satellite 2. Artificial Satellite
• Moon is a satellite of Earth. The value of the acceleration due to gravity of the Moon is 1/6th of the value of g on Earth.
Therefore the weight of a person on the moon will be 1/6th of his weight on earth.

Orbital Velocity of Satellite –

• When a satellite revolves in a circular orbit around the earth, a centripetal force work on it. This force is the gravitational
force exerted by the earth on the satellite.
V0 = Re √𝒈/𝒓
• The value of the orbital speed of a satellite does not depend on the mass.

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• The orbital speed of the satellite is minimum at the maximum altitude.

• Orbital Velocity (v0) = √6.4 × 106 × 9.8 = 8 km/s

EARTH SATELLITES

• Earth satellites are objects which revolve around the earth. Their motion is very similar to the motion of planets around
the Sun and hence Kepler’s laws of planetary motion are equally applicable to them. In particular, their orbits around the
earth are circular or elliptic. Moon is the only natural satellite of the earth with a near circular orbit with a time
period of approximately 27.3 days which is also roughly equal to the rotational period of the moon about its own
axis.

GEOSTATIONARY AND POLAR SATELLITES

• Satellites in a circular orbits around the earth in the equatorial plane with T = 24 hours are called Geostationery Satellites.
Clearly, since the earth rotates with the same period, the satellite would appear fixed from any point on earth. It takes very
powerful rockets to throw up a satellite to such large heights above the earth.

Escape Velocity:

• Escape velocity is the minimum speed needed for a free object to escape from the gravitational influence of Earth and
object never comes back to Earth.
• The kinetic energy required for escape velocity is known as escape energy.
• It is clear that if any object is thrown above the surface of the earth at the minimum speed of 11.2 km/second, that object
will move in space and never comes back to the Earth.
• Atmosphere is not found on the Moon. The atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. The escape velocity on the Moon is 2.4
km/s and the escape velocity on Earth is 11.2 km/s. Since the velocity of gas molecules is higher than the escape velocity
on moon, they escape from there, that is why the atmosphere is not possible on the moon.

Relation between circular motion and Escape Velocity

• If the circular motion of a satellite revolving nearby to Earth is V 0 and the escape velocity of an object thrown from earth
surface is Ve, then- Ve = (2)^½ V0
• It is clear that a satellite revolving nearby to earth, if by any reason, its speed exceeds by (2)^½ (or about 1.414) times, it
will escape into space, leaving its orbit.

Energy of Satellite–

• The total energy of a revolving satellite in an orbit is the sum of its gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy.
• Gravitational Potential Energy U = - GMem/r
1 𝐺𝑀𝑒𝑚
• Kinetic Energy (K) =
2 𝑟
1 𝐺𝑀𝑒𝑚
• Total energy of the satellite, E = -
2 𝑟

Binding Energy of Satellite –

• The amount of energy required to migrate a satellite into its orbit is called the binding energy of the satellite.
• Binding energy of satellite = - Total energy of satellite = kinetic energy of satellite = GMm / 2r
• If the satellite's kinetic energy is doubled, the satellite will escape from its orbit.

Period of revolution of a satellite -

• The time required in which the satellite completes one rotation is called the period of revolution (T).
• A satellite whose duration is 24 hours is called a geostationary satellite.
• The geostationary satellite has a height of 36000 km above the earth surface.
Time period of a Satellite (T) = 𝟐𝝅√𝑹𝒆 + 𝒉)𝟑 /gR2e

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Simple Periodic Motion:

• When an object moves both sides in a straight line from its equilibrium state, then this motion is called simple periodic
motion,
• e.g. the movement of an object hanged with spring and motion of the simple pendulum.

Simple Pendulum-

• An ideal pendulum consists of a point mass suspended by a weightless, inextensible, perfectly flexible thread and free to
vibrate without friction.
• Applied pendulum in the lab is a solid sphere of any metal tied with light & thin thread with a rigid base.
• The solid sphere of metal is called bob, and the length between point of suspension and center of gravity of the sphere is
called effective length.
• Swinging of table fan is an example of oscillatory motion

Time period of a Simple Pendulum-

• The time period of a simple pendulum is represented by the following formula -

T = 2l/g
Where, l = Length of Simple Pendulum
g = acceleration due to gravity
• Time period (T) of a pendulum does not depend upon the mass of the sphere.
• Time period (T) of the pendulum is directly proportional to under root of effective length
• If the effective length of pendulum increases by four times, time period will be increased by two times.
• Time period (T) of the pendulum is inversely proportional to under root of gravitational acceleration (g).
For example- when a pendulum clock is carried on the mountain or in any mine, ‘g’ value decreases, time period increases
and the clock becomes slow. SCSGYAN
• The time period of a simple pendulum whose length tends to infinity is 84.6 minutes. It is the maximum limit of a simple
pendulum.

Second’s Pendulum - A Seconds pendulum is a pendulum whose time period is precisely 2 seconds.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

• Galileo Galilei, born in Pisa, Italy in 1564 was a key figure in the scientific revolution in Europe about four centuries ago.
Galileo proposed the concept of acceleration. From experiments on motion of bodies on inclined planes or falling freely, he
contradicted the Aristotelian notion that a force was required to keep a body in motion, and that heavier bodies fall faster
than lighter bodies under gravity. He thus arrived at the law of inertia that was the starting point of the subsequent
epochal work of Isaac Newton. Galileo’s discoveries in astronomy were equally revolutionary.
• In 1609, he designed his own telescope (invented earlier in Holland) and used it to make a number of startling
observations: mountains and depressions on the surface of the moon; dark spots on the sun; the moons of Jupiter and the
phases of Venus. He concluded that the Milky Way derived its luminosity because of a large number of stars not visible to
the naked eye. In his masterpiece of scientific reasoning: Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems, Galileo advocated the
heliocentric theory of the solar system proposed by Copernicus, which eventually got universal acceptance.
• With Galileo came a turning point in the very method of scientific inquiry. Science was no longer merely observations of
nature and inferences from them. Science meant devising and doing experiments to verify or refute theories. Science
meant measurement of quantities and a search for mathematical relations between them. Not undeservedly, many regard
Galileo as the father of modern science. SCSGYAN

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

• Isaac Newton was born in Woolsthorpe, England in 1642, the year Galileo died. His extraordinary mathematical ability and
mechanical aptitude remained hidden from others in his school life. In 1662, he went to Cambridge for undergraduate
studies. A plague epidemic in 1665 forced the university town to close and Newton had to return to his mother’s farm.
There in two years of solitude, his dormant creativity blossomed in a deluge of fundamental discoveries in mathematics
and physics: binomial theorem for negative and fractional exponents, the beginning of calculus, the inverse square law of
gravitation, the spectrum of white light, and so on. Returning to Cambridge, he pursued his investigations in optics and
devised a reflecting telescope.

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• In 1684, encouraged by his friend Edmund Halley, Newton embarked on writing what was to be one of the greatest
scientific works ever published: The Principia Mathematica. In it, he enunciated the three laws of motion and the universal
law of gravitation, which explained all the three Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. The book was packed with a host of
path-breaking achievements: basic principles of fluid mechanics, mathematics of wave motion, calculation of masses of the
earth, the sun and other planets, explanation of the precession of equinoxes, theory of tides, etc. In 1704, Newton brought
out another masterpiece Optics that summarized his work on light and colour.
• The scientific revolution triggered by Copernicus and steered vigorously ahead by Kepler and Galileo was brought to a
grand completion by Newton. Newtonian mechanics unified terrestrial and celestial phenomena. The same mathematical
equation governed the fall of an apple to the ground and the motion of the moon around the earth. The age of reason had
dawned. Every year up to 65% changes are made in the course content.

Newton’s Principia

• Kepler had formulated his third law by 1619. The announcement of the underlying universal law of gravitation came about
seventy years later with the publication in 1687 of Newton’s masterpiece Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica,
often simply called the Principia.
• The Indian born astrophysicist and Nobel laureate S. Chandrasekhar spent ten years writing a treatise on the Principia. His
book, Newton’s Principia for the Common Reader brings into sharp focus the beauty, clarity and breath taking economy of
Newton’s methods.

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Elasticity

• A solid has definite shape and size. In order to change (or deform) the shape or size of a body, a force is required. If you
stretch a helical spring by gently pulling its ends, the length of the spring increases slightly. When you leave the ends of the
spring, it regains its original size and shape.
• The property of a body, by virtue of which it tends to regain its original size and shape when the applied force is
removed, is known as elasticity and the deformation caused is known as elastic deformation. However, if you apply
force to a lump of putty or mud, they have no gross tendency to regain their previous shape, and they get permanently
deformed. Such substances are called plastic and this property is called plasticity. Putty and mud are close to ideal plastics.
• Robert Hooke, an English physicist (1635 - 1703 A.D) performed experiments on springs and found that the elongation
(change in the length) produced in a body is proportional to the applied force or load. In 1676, he presented his law of
elasticity, now called Hook’s law.

On the basis of the property of elasticity, Substances are of two types:

• Perfectly elastic substance –Substances which regains perfectly its normal state after withdrawing the applied force.
• Perfectly plastic substance – Substances which does not regain its normal state after withdrawing the external force, but
deformed forever.
• In reality, no Substance is perfectly elastic nor perfectly plastic but lies between the limit of these two properties. On whole
quartz fibre can be considered as perfectly elastic Substance and wax is perfectly plastic Substance.

Limit of Elasticity –

• The maximum limit of the external force (deforming force) which when its applied on a rigid body, elastic characteristic
are maintained, is called elastic limit. Different elastic limits are to be found for different bodies. SCSGYAN

Stress:

• During the application of external force on a matter to change its shape or size, an internal reaction force of equal amount
is produced in the opposite direction on every section.
• This force tries to resume a normal state of matter and it is known as stress.
• If force (F) is applied vertically on a substance with area of cross section (A)
Then, Stress = F/A

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Its SI unit is newton/metre2.

Strain

• Strain is the amount of deformation experienced by the body in the direction of force applied, divided by the initial
dimensions of the body. The relative change in the unit size of an object is called deformation. Strain is a ratio of two
similar quantities. It doesn't have a unit.

Hooke’s Law-

• If the strain in a Substance is nominal, applied stress on the that Substance is directly proportional to strain developed in
it. The ration of stress and strain is a constant value, known as elasticity coefficient (E).
E= stress/strain

Pressure:

• Smaller the area on which the force acts, greater is the impact. This impact is known as pressure.
Pressure = Force /Area
• Pressure is a scalar quantity. The unit of pressure is newton/meter2 or pascal or dyne/cm2. The dimension of pressure is
[ML–1 T–2]. French scientist Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) made precursor studies in the fluid pressure field. Therefore, the SI
unit of pressure is named Pascal (pascal, symbol Pa) in his honor. Another common unit of pressure is the atmosphere
(atmoshphere, symbol atm), that is, the pressure exerted by the atmosphere at sea level (1 atm = 1.013×105 Pa).

Atmospheric Pressure –

• The pressure of the atmosphere at any point is equal to the weight of a column of air of unit cross-sectional area extending
from that point to the top of the atmosphere. At sea level it is 1.013 x 105 Pa (1 atm). For the accurate measurement of
atmospheric pressure, Italian scientist Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647) was the first to create a unitary device and
measured the atmospheric pressure.
• Atmospheric pressure Pa = ρgh (where ρ is the density of mercury and h is the height of the column of mercury in the
tube).
• In the experiment it is found that the mercury column in the barometer has a height of about 76 cm at sea level equivalent
to one atmosphere (1 atm). A common way of stating pressure is in terms of cm or mm of mercury (Hg). A pressure
equivalent of 1 mm is called a torr (after Torricelli). 1 torr = 133 Pa.
• The mm of Hg and torr are used in medicine and physiology. In meteorology, a common unit is the bar and millibar. 1 bar =
105 Pa
• The layer of gases around the Earth is called the Earth's atmosphere.
• Barometers are used to measure atmospheric pressure.
• A sudden drop in atmospheric pressure is expected to produce a storm.

Density -

• Density of an object depends on its mass and volume. Density can be found by using the equation:
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔
Density =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆

• The SI unit of density is kg/m3. It is a positive scalar quantity. Liquids are incompressible, so the density of a liquid is
almost constant at all pressures. In contrast, gases exhibit a drastic change in density with a change in pressure.
• The density of water at 40 C (277 K) is 1.0×103 kgm-3. The relative density (specific gravity) of a substance is the ratio of
the density of that substance to that of water at 40 C. Relative density is a dimensionless positive scalar physical quantity.
For example, the relative density of aluminum is 2.7. Whereas its density is 2.7x103 kg m-3.

Pressure within liquid at any point-

• Pressure at a point, situated at h depth from the free surface of the liquid is –
P=h×d×g
Where, d is density of liquid and g is gravitational acceleration.

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Laws of liquid pressure

• The liquid pressure is the same at all points inside a liquid on a horizontal plane.
• The pressure of the liquid at any point inside the liquid is the same in all directions.
• The pressure exerted by a liquid is always perpendicular to the surface in contact with the liquid.
• The liquid pressure at any point inside the liquid does not depend on the size and area of the surface.

Surface Tension:

• Surface Tension is the elastic tendency of a fluid surface which makes it to acquire the least surface possible. It is measured
in force per unit length.
• Its SI unit is – newton/meter.
• The value of surface tension of any liquid depends upon its nature, temperature and the medium present on another side
of the liquid surface.
• Surface tension decreases with rise in temperature.
• It becomes zero at the critical temperature. Ideal fluids have zero surface tension.
• If the liquid has negligible weight, its shape will be completely spherical. For example – rain water drops and soap bubbles.
• The reason is drops occupy that form, in which its potential energy is minimum.
• If only surface tension acts on a drop, its potential energy will be minimum with less area. The rain-water drop will
become spherical.

Cohesive and Adhesive Force:

• According to molecular theory, every matter is made up of small particles, known as molecules. These molecules attract
each other.
• Cohesive forces are the intermolecular forces of attraction which act between the molecules of the same substance. For
example - rain falls in the form of droplets, rather than a fine mist, because water has strong cohesion, which pulls its
molecules tightly together, forming droplets.
• Adhesive force is the force of attraction between molecules of different substances. For example, glue and fevicol are
adhesive in nature, because their particle exerts force on the particles of other substances.
• The adhesive force between oil & water is less than the cohesive force of water but higher than cohesive force of oil, so
when the water is dropped on oil surface, its drops occupy spherical shape by shrinking, while when oil is dropped on the
water surface, it spreads widely in form of the thin film.

Capillarity:

• The capillary tube is a glass tube with a very small diameter, opened at both ends.
• The tendency of a liquid to rise or fall as a result of surface tension in the capillary tube is known as capillarity.
• Liquids which wet the glass, rise up and liquids which does not wet the glass, fall down in the capillary tube.
• For example – when the capillary tube is kept standing in mercury, the mercury level falls down in tube in comparison to
the surface of external mercury.

Examples of capillarity –

• Water and minerals absorbed by plant roots reach the leaves and twigs through xylem tissues –which act as capillary
tubes.
• Drawing of ink to the nib from bottom in a fountain pen. The nib is slitted in the middle, which acts as a capillary tube.
However, writing through a refill pen is possible due to gravity and it does not depend upon surface tension.
• Lighting of candles and wick of a lamp.
• Blotting paper which is used to absorb spilled liquid.

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Viscosity:

• Most of the fluids are not ideal ones and offer some resistance to motion. This resistance to fluid motion is like an internal
friction analogous to friction when a solid moves on a surface. It is called viscosity.
• The SI unit of viscosity is poiseiulle (Pl). Generally, thin liquids, like water, alcohol, etc., are less viscous than thick liquids,
like coal tar, blood, glycerine, etc.
• In three horizontal layers a, b and c, a is with minimum velocity, b has more than a and c is with maximum velocity.
• An internal force acts on different layers, try to slow down the velocity of the layer which is just above it.
• To maintain the flow of liquid, the external force is applied against viscous force.
• The property of liquid which opposes the relative movement among different layers of liquid is known as viscosity.
• Concentrated liquids like honey and glycerine have greater viscosity, so their flow stops rapidly, than a low viscosity fluid.
• When temperature increases, the viscosity of liquid decreases.
• The viscosity of gas increases by increasing its temperature.
• Viscosity on an ideal fluid is always zero. No viscosity is there in solids.

Buoyant Force:

• When a solid is pour into the liquid, there is a loss of weight in that solid. This apparent loss is due to a force which is
exerted by the liquid on the matter in the upper direction. This force is known as the buoyant force.
• The center of upthrust of a matter is the centroid of the displaced volume of liquid.

Archemedes’ Principle:

• This principle can be summarised as; ‘the loss of weight of a body submerged (partially or fully) in a fluid is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced’.
• Archemedes’ Principle - it states the upward force that is exerted on a body immersed in a liquid, whether fully or partially
submerged, is equal to the weight of the liquid that the body displaces and it acts in the upward direction at the center of
mass of the displaced liquid.

Apparent weight of the object = Actual weight – Weight of liquid displaced

= actual weight – buoyant force

• The volume of a submerged object is equal to the volume of water displaced by it.

Law of Floatation:

• When a solid is immersed in liquid, the following two forces act on it-
1. The weight of solid acts perpendicularly inwards.
2. Upthrust force of liquid acting upwards on solid, in perpendicular direction.
• The value of F (upthrust) is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the solid.
• The sinking or floating of any object in liquid depends upon the relative values of these two forces. Conditions are as
follows-
• If W > F – resulting force (W – F) it will act inwards – object will sink.
• If W = F –object will float.
• If W < F – leaving object free, it will start to come upward.
• How much portion of solid will remain in liquid, depends upon the relative density of liquid and solid which can be
calculated as follows-
Volume of sinked solid portion/Total volume of solid =
Density of solid/Density of liquid

From the above equation. It is clear that solid will sink less in liquid with high density and will sink more in liquid with less
density. The validity of this study material is only till the year 2024, do not read it after that.

• If the density of both solid and liquid are equal, solid will float.
• The liquid which is having less density will float on the liquid having more density.

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Pascal’s Law –

• This is a natural consequence of the fundamental laws of fluid mechanics and it is called Pascal’s law. Under the application
of Pascal’s law hydraulic lift, hydraulic brakes, hydraulic press etc are important.
• French scientist Blaise Pascal discovered that if all points are at the same height, the pressure at all points of a liquid at rest
will be the same.

Critical Velocity –

• The flow of a liquid remains steady or orderly only till its velocity doesn’t’ exceed a certain limiting value of it which is
called its critical velocity.

Bernoulli’s Theorem –

• This states that for all points along a streamline in an incompressible and non-viscous fluid flowing steadily, the sum of
pressure energy, potential energy and kinetic energy per unit volume is constant.
• Venturimeter is based on Bernoulli’s theorem by which the rate of flow of the liquid is measured through a pipe.

Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) –

• Daniel Bernoulli was a Swiss scientist and mathematician who along with Leonard Euler had the distinction of winning the
French Academy prize for mathematics ten times. His most well-known work was in hydrodynamics, a subject the
developed from a single principle: the conservation of energy. His work included calculus, probability, the theory of
vibrating strings and applied mathematics. Daniel Bernoulli has been called the founder of mathematical physics.

Robert Hooke (1635-1703 A.D.) –

• Robert Hooke was born on July 18, 1635 in Freshwater, Isle of wight. In his series of observations presented in
Micrographic, he suggested wave theory of light and first used the word ‘cell’ in a biological context as a result of his
studies of cork.
• Robert Hooke is best known to physicists for his discovery of law of elasticity.

Heat and Thermodynamics

Heat:

• Heat is that energy which is transferred from one system to another system as a result of their difference in temperature.
Due to different temperature of two bodies thermal energy transferred from the body having higher temperature to the
body of lower temperature.
• A quantitative idea of the transfer of heat energy is obtained by noting that 1 kg of water releases about 42000 J of energy
when it cools by 10° C.

Calories –

• The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water from 14.5 0 C to 15.50 C is called 1 calorie.
Similarly, the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water from 14.50 C to 15.50 C is called 1 kilo-
calorie. 1 kilo-calorie = 103 calories.

Specific Heat Capacity –

• This is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance through 10 C.

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Specific heat capacity of water

• The old unit of heat was calorie. One calorie was earlier defined as amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g
of water by 1°C. With more precise measurements, it was found that the specific heat of water varies slightly with
temperature.
• The specific heat capacity (cp) of water is approximately 4182 J/kg°C at 20 °C (room temperature).

Latent Heat:

• The amount of heat per unit mass transferred during change of state of the substance is called latent heat of the substance
for the process.

Latent heat is of two types-

1. Latent heat of fusion.

2. Latent heat of vaporization.
• Energy required for converting solid into liquid phase is called latent heat of fusion. The value of latent heat of ice is 3.34 ×
105 joule/kg.
• Energy required for converting liquid into vapour is called latent heat of vaporization. The value of latent heat of water is
22.5 × 105 joule/kg.
• When water turns into vapour, it absorbs the latent heat. By experiments, it has been observed that burning from steam
burns more severe compared to boiling water, although both are at the same temperature i.e. at 100 0 C. The reason is that
steam has more latent heat compared to boiling water.
• So, when steam falls on the skin it forms water after condensation, it releases 22.5 × 105 joule /kg heat more than boiling
water. By releasing more heat compared to boiling water, steam burns the skin more severely and inflicts more pain.

Temperatue –

• Temperature is a thermal state of an object, which expresses the direction of flow of heat. Heat always transfer from a
substance of higher temperature to a substance of lower temperature.
• The measurement of temperature of -400 is the same in Fahrenheit and Celsius.
• The measurement of temperature of -25.60 is the same in Fahrenheit and Rheumer.
• The measurement of temperature at 574.250 is the same on the Fahrenheit and Kelvin scales.
• The measurement of temperature of 00 is the same in the Celsius and Reumer scale.

Measurement of temperature: Thermometer is an apparatus used for measuring the temperature. To measure temperature,
following thermometers are in use-

1. Celsius (Centigrade) Scale: A scale of temperature in which 1000 C represents the boiling point of water.

2. Kelvin Scale: On Kelvin Scale, ice melting point is 273K while the boiling point of water is 373K. It is clear from above that 00C
temperature on the Celsius scale is equal to 273K on the Kelvin scale.

So, temperature on Kelvin scale=temperature on Celsius scale +273

K=C +273

3. Fahrenheit Scale: On this scale melting point of Ice is 320F and boiling point of water is 2120F is mentioned.

4. Rankine Scale - The higher point and lowest point of this scale are 672 Ra and 4160 Ra respectively, the total number of parts
on this scale is 212.

5. Reaumur Scale - In this scale the higher point and the lowest point are 00 R 800 R respectively.

Relation between Celsius and Fahrenheit Scale

• If C is the temperature in degree Celsius and F is that in Fahrenheit

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Relationship between Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Reaumur Scale –

𝐶 𝐾 − 273 𝐹 − 32 𝑅
= = =
5 5 9 4

Conduction

• Conduction is the mechanism of transfer of heat between two adjacent parts of a body because of their temperature
difference. Suppose, one end of a metallic rod is put in a flame, the other end of the rod will soon be so hot that you cannot
hold it by your bare hands. Here, heat transfer takes place by conduction from the hot end of the rod through its different
parts to the other end. Gases are poor thermal conductors, while liquids have conductivities intermediate between solids
and gases. SCSGYAN

Radiation

• Conduction and convection require some material as a transport medium. These modes of heat transfer cannot operate
between bodies separated by a distance in vacuum. But the earth does receive heat from the Sun across a huge distance.
Similarly, we quickly feel the warmth of the fire nearby even though air conducts poorly and before convection takes some
time to set in.
• The third mechanism for heat transfer needs no medium; it is called radiation and the energy so transferred by
electromagnetic waves is called radiant energy. In an electromagnetic wave, electric and magnetic fields oscillate in space
and time. Like any wave, electromagnetic waves can have different wavelengths and can travel in vacuum with the same
speed, namely the speed of light i.e., 3 × 108 m s–1.
• This is how heat is transferred to the earth from the Sun through empty space. All bodies emit radiant energy, whether
they are solid, liquid or gas. The electromagnetic radiation emitted by a body by virtue of its temperature, like radiation by
a redhot iron or light from a filament lamp is called thermal radiation.

Convection –

• Convection is a mode of heat transfer by actual motion of particles. It is possible only in fluids. Convection can be natural or
forced. In natural convection, gravity plays an important part. When a fluid is heated from below, the hot part expands and,
therefore, becomes less dense. Because of buoyancy, it rises and the upper colder part replaces it. This again gets heated,
rises up and is replaced by the relatively colder part of the fluid. The process goes on. This mode of heat transfer is
evidently different from conduction. Convection involves bulk transport of different parts of the fluid.

Thermometry –

• The branch of physics in which temperature is studied is called thermometry.

• Thermometers are instruments with which the temperature of an object can be measured.

Temperature effects on matter:

• By the increase in temperature solid state converts into liquid state and liquid state converts into a gaseous state while
due to a decrease in temperature, gaseous form converts into liquid form and liquid converts into a solid form.

Melting:

• A process in which solid converts into liquid by heating.

• The temperature at which solid matter melts and converts into a liquid at atmospheric pressure is known as its melting
point. For example- ice melts at 00C into water. So, the melting point of ice is 00C.
• Different solids have a different melting point. For example- The melting point of ice- 00C. The melting point of wax- 630C.
The melting point of Iron- 15350C
• The melting point of any solid shows the extent of the force of attraction between their particles (atoms or molecules). The
high melting point of solid shows that it has a high force of attraction between particles. SCSGYAN

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Sublimation:

• On heating when a solid changes directly into vapour and on cooling when vapour changes directly into solid then that
phenomenon is known as sublimation.
• Some substances having this property are Ammonium chloride, Iodine, Camphor and Naphthalene, etc.

Boiling:

• Process in which Liquid converts into vapours fastly by heating is known as boiling.
• The temperature at which liquid boils and converts into vapours very fastly at atmospheric pressure is termed as boiling
point.
• Different liquids have different boiling points.
For example-
Alcohol – 780C
Water - 1000C
Mercury – 3570 C

Condensation:

• The condensation process is the change of physical condition of matter from gas to liquid and it is the contrast
phenomenon of vaporization.

Freezing:

• On cooling a liquid, the temperature at which it turns into a solid is known as its freezing point.
• The freezing point of water is 00C.
• The freezing point of the liquid and the melting point of solid is the same.
• For example- water freezes at 00C and ice melts at 00C i.e. both points are same.

Evaporation:

• The process in which liquid turns into vapours below its boiling point is termed as evaporation It may occur at room
temperature.
• Wet clothes dry due to evaporation of water.
• The pond water dries up by evaporation of water.
• Temperature increase enhances the rate of evaporation.
• The rate of evaporation of any liquid is maximum at its boiling point.
• In case of low humidity in the air, the evaporation rate is high and water evaporates very soon, while higher humidity in
the air results into a low rate of evaporation.

Cooling by Evaporation:

• A liquid filled in the pot when evaporates, it receives latent heat of vapourization and the pot becomes cool.
• A good example of cooling by evaporation is cooling of earthen pots.
• The earthen pot has many minute pores in its wall. The water diffuses out from the pores and evaporates continuously.
The required heat for evaporation is taken from the water itself, it leads to a lowering of temperature in the remaining
amount of water.
• The sweating process is more fast in the summer season. Cotton clothes are the best absorbent of water. It absorbs the
sweat of our body. Evaporation of sweat provides cooling to our body.
• Synthetic clothes such as polyesters are unable to absorb water in excess quantity, so these are unable to provide cooling
to our body. Due to this reason, cotton clothes are given priority in the summer season.
• The fan increases the rate of evaporation of sweat so we feel the cooling.
• In Desert Room Cooler, the cooling effect is produced due to evaporation of water. It cools more in hot and dry days
because in hot days, higher temperature increases the rate of evaporation.

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Optics

Light

• Light is an external cause due to which any object becomes visible for human eye. For the illumination or visibility of an
object light incidents on it (up to 1/6th second) and then after reflection it comes to the eye and object becomes visible.
• Light is reflected from all surfaces.
• Light is a type of energy, which is transmitted in the form of electromagnetic waves. This is a transverse wave.
• An object becomes visible to us when the light after striking the object reaches our eyes. Light itself is not visible, but light
makes objects visible to us.
• We can only see light in a transformed medium.
• The speed of light is the highest in vacuum (3x108 m / s).
• Around 1676, Danish astronomer Ole Roemer became the first person to prove that light travels at a finite speed. Ole
Roemer first successfully measured the speed of light in 1976.
• Sunlight reaches the Earth in 8 minutes and 20 seconds.
• Light waves can propagate through a vacuum because light waves are electromagnetic waves.
• Wavelength of visible spectrum ranges from 3900 Å to 7800 Å or about 4 ×10-7 to 7.8×10-7 metre.

Speed of light in different mediums

Medium Speed of light in m/s Medium Speed of light in m/s
Vacuum 3 × 108 Nylon 1.96x108
Water 2.25 × 108 Oil of Tarpeen 2.04x108
Glass 2 × 108 Rock Salt 1.96x 108
Diamond 1.24 × 108 - -
This study material is not valid after the year 2024, after which it will become outdated.

Reflection of Light

• When a light ray incidents on a smooth and polished surface, then it gets reflected almost in a different direction, such
incidence of light ray is called reflection of light. Substances with polished and shining surface reflects more light than the
rough surface of the matter.
• Silver is the better reflector of light.
• The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. Incident ray, reflected ray and the normal drawn at the point of
incidence to the reflecting surface, lie in the same plane.
• Regular reflection takes place when light is incident on smooth, polished and regular surfaces. Diffused/irregular
reflection takes place from rough surfaces.
• Beautiful patterns are formed in a kaleidoscope because of multiple reflections.

Mirror:

• A smooth well polished reflecting surface is called the mirror. Image formed in a plane mirror undergoes lateral
inversion. Two mirrors inclined to each other give multiple images.

Mirrors are of two types-

1-Plane Mirror – A mirror that reflective surface is plane is called a plane mirror.

• A plane mirror is a thin, flat and smooth sheet of glass with a shining layer of silver on one side.
• The mirror used to see the face is a plane mirror.
• Our face image formed in the plane mirror can not be obtained on screen, it can only be observed in the mirror.
• So, the image formed in a plane mirror is an example of virtual image.
• Such an image is also known as imaginary or unreal image.
• The size of the image formed in the mirror is just equal to the size of the object.
• The image and objects are at the same distance from the mirror at opposite sides.
• The image seen in a plane mirror laterally inverted mirror image of the object. If a person is reflected in a plane mirror, the
image of his right hand appears to be the left hand of the image.

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2-Spherical Mirror – In spherical plane the constructed mirror is called spherical mirror in which one side of the mirror has a
layer of mercury or coating of lead oxide. A thin layer is painted and pasted to one side and another side is used as a reflecting
surface. These are of two types- Concave Mirror and Convex Mirror.

Concave Mirror

• A concave mirror is a spherical mirror, which has a reflecting surface, curved inwards. Concave mirrors reflect and focus
incoming light rays (parallel) at a point, called the focus point. Depending on the distance of an object from the reflecting
surface, different types of images are formed. Concave mirrors are also called converging mirrors since light rays converge
after reflection at concave mirrors.
• Concave mirrors are used as headlights, torches, head mirrors, solar furnaces, microscopes, telescopes, etc.
• The image formed by concave mirror is real, inverted and of the same size as that of the object. The position of the object
should be at the centre of curvature.

Convex Mirror

• The spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved outwards is called convex mirror. It is also called diverging mirror.
• Convex mirrors are also popularly called the fish eye mirror or diverging mirror. Its reflective surface bulges in the
direction of the light source. A convex mirror has the ability to reflect all the light that falls on them in the outward
direction. So, the type of image formed by these mirrors is always imaginary/virtual.
• Uses of Convex mirror:
1. When convex mirrors are used, the magnification of objects becomes simple.
2. It is used in sunglasses.
3. Convex mirrors are used in the rear-view mirrors of all the vehicles.
4. It's utilised in ATMs and other places for security reasons.
5. It's used as a reflector for street lights.
6. They are used in telescopes too.
7. Convex mirrors are also used in making magnifying glasses.

Image –

• The light rays moving from any point of the object after reflection or refraction, the point at which it appears or appears to
meet, is called the reflection of the first point. When an object is placed in front of a mirror, its actually shape is formed in
the mirror, the shape formed in the mirror is called the image of the object.
• There are two types of image –
• Real image - When the light rays moving from a point object actually meet at another point after reflection, it is
called the image at another point which is the actual image of that point object. This type of image can be obtained on
screen.
• Virtual image - When the light rays moving from a point object do not actually meet at another point after reflection
but appear to be coming from another point, the image at this point is called the virtual image of that point object.
This type of image cannot be obtained on the screen but can be photographed.

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Refraction of Light:

• When a light ray travels from one optical medium to another optical medium, it suffers a change of direction at the surface
of separation of the two media. This is known as refraction of light. Refraction occurs due to the change in the speed of
light in going from one medium to another medium. When light travels from rarer to denser medium, that means when
light travels from air to glass, the refracted ray bends towards the normal. In this case, angle of incidence would be greater
than angle of refraction. If light ray travels from denser medium to rarer medium, then it will bend away from the normal.
Here, angle of incidence would be less than the angle of refraction.

Laws of refraction of light

• The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent media at the point of incidence, all lie
in the same plane.
• The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant, for the light of a given colour and for
the given pair of media. This law is also known as Snell’s law of refraction.

Examples of Refraction

✓ An immersed rod in water seems relatively small in size and bent at the surface when it is observed from outside.
✓ A coin within a pot with water seems above from its original position.
✓ Twinkling of stars.

Lens:

• Lens is a homogenous medium surrounded by two curved surfaces or one curved and another plane surface. Curved
surface may be spherical, cylindrical or elliptical, but these are mostly spherical.

Generally, Lensesa are of two types -

1. Convex Lens- Convex lens is thick in center but thin at corner. Convex lens is also known as a converging lens because it
converges the parallel light rays at one point. Its focal length is positive. Objects appear closer and larger and their images
are real and inverted through a convex lens. Convex lens is used to correct far-sightedness/ hypermetropia, an eye defect
in which near objects are not clearly visible but long-distance objects are clearly visible.

2. Concave Lens- Concave lens is thin at the centre but thick at the corner. It is also known as a diverging lens because it
diverges the parallel light rays. Its focal length is negative. Objects appear smaller and farther through the concave lens and
their images are virtual. Concave lens is used in flood lights. Concave lens is used to correct near-sightedness/ myopia, an
eye defect in which far objects are not clearly visible but near objects are clearly visible.

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Dispersion of light -

• The white light of the sun is a mixed light of seven different colors. These seven colors are violet, Indigo, blue, green,
yellow, orange and red. When the white light of the Sun passes through a prism, it spilits into its seven constituent colours
of light along with the bending towards the base of the prism after refraction. This process is called the dispersion of light.
• The path of each light beam is different when it comes out of the prism and thus, they appear distinct and clear. Among the
colors obtained from sunlight, the violet color is at the bottom and the red color is at the top, that is violet colour is
deviated the most and red colour is lowest deviated.

• It is noteworthy that the speed of light of different colors is same in vacuum or air but different in any other material.
Therefore, the refractive index of a material is different for different colors of light.
• In glass, violet light has the lowest speed and red light has the highest speed. For this reason, the refractive index of glass is
highest for violet light and lowest for red light.
• Violet color has the shortest wavelength and highest frequency, while red color has the longest wavelength and lowest
frequency.

Critical Angle

• When a light ray passes from a denser medium to a rarer medium, the value of the angle of refraction for a particular angle
of incidence becomes 900. This angle of incidence is called critical angle. Its value depends on the nature of both the
medium and the color of the light. The critical angle for visible light at the glass-air interface is approximately 420.

Total Internal Reflection:

• When a ray of light passes from a denser medium to a rarer medium, if the value of the angle of incidence is made greater
than the critical angle, then the phenomenon of being completely reflected from the surface separating the mediums and
returning to the same medium is called total internal reflection. Violet light has the lowest critical angle. Red colored light
has a higher critical angle.
• A useful application of total internal reflection is in optical fibres.

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Scattering of Light:

• The uneven propagation of light in all directions through a medium containing very fine particles of dust and other
substances is called Scattering of light.
• When sunlight passes through the atmosphere, tiny particles in the air scatter blue (shorter wavelengths) more strongly
than red. The scattered blue light enters our eyes. If there were no atmosphere on Earth, no scattering would occur, then
the sky would appear black.
• The blue color of the sky, the blue color of deep sea water, red colour of the sun at sunrise and sunset, etc. are examples of
scattering of light.

Doppler Effect

• Due to the relative motion between a wave source and the observer, the frequency of the wave appears to the observer to
be changed. This apparent change in the frequency of the wave is called the Doppler effect or Doppler shift.
• As the source moves away from the observer, the frequency measured by the observer will decrease and the wavelength
will increase. On the other hand, if the source is approaches the observer, then the frequency measured by the observer
will increase and the wavelength will decrease.
• For light, the apparent increase in wavelength due to the Doppler effect is called red shift and the apparent decrease in
wavelength is called blue shift.
• The Doppler effect is used to measure the velocities of distant celestial objects and artificial satellites.
• The doppler effect is also used in medical diagnosis (doppler ultrasound), because the normal ultrasound cannot
detect the flow of blood.

Human Eye –

• The human eyes are like a camera with the help of which we see the objects. It consists of the following main parts –
• Sclera – Human eyes are externally very hard and these are covered with an opaque white membrane which is called
sclera.
• Cornea – The front part of sclera is concave which is called cornea. Maximum refraction of light occurs in cornea.
• Iris – Behind the cornea a color opaque membrane is located which is called Iris. Iris regulates the size of Pupil.
• Pupil – In the middle of the Iris there is a sharp hole, which is called pupil. Pupil regulates the amount of light entering
the eye. This study material is only for UPPSC RO/ARO PRE RE-Exam, do not read it for any other exam.
• Choroid - There is a black colored membrane on the inner side of the lower part of the white layer called choroid.
• Eye Lens – The Biconvex eye lens is made of many layers whose refractive index increase from outside to inside and its
mean refractive index is approximately 1.44. The eye lens is confided within the muscular region and it is capable of
adjusting its focal length.
• Retina - The innermost part of the eye corresponding to the choroid is a vein made of afferent nerves called the retina.
On this retina, there are millions of cones and rods cells are found.
• Aqueous humor is a clear liquid found between the cornea and the lens of eye, whereas vitreous humor is a clear
gelatinous mass found in the rear part of the eyeball between the lens and retina.

Braille system

• Visually challenged persons can read and write using the Braille system. Visually challenged persons develop their other
senses more sharply to improve their interaction with their environment.

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• There is Braille code for common languages, mathematics and scientific notation. Many Indian languages can be read using
the Braille system.
• Louis Braille, himself a visually challenged person, developed a system for visually challenged persons and published it in
1821.

Sound

Sound

• The speed of sound is different for different type of mediums. Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves. The speed
of these waves in the air is approximately 332 m/sec.
• Sound is that form of energy which produces a hearing sensation.
• Sound travels in the form of waves. Vibrating substances produce sound. The substance through which sound travels is
called medium.
• Sound waves are mechanical waves (longitudinal waves). Medium (solid, liquid or gas) is necessary for their propagation.

Speed of Sound:

• The speed of sound is independent of pressure, that is, the speed remains unchanged with increase or decrease in
pressure.
• Speed of sound depends upon the nature of the medium through which it propagates. Speed of sound varies in different
mediums. Sound propagates very slowly in gas. Sound propagates faster than gas in a liquid. Sound speed is fastest in
solids. Sound does not propagate in vacuum. Sound can travel about 15 times faster in steel than in air.
• Speed of sound depends upon temperature. Increase in temperature results in increase in the speed of sound (in summer
season the speed of sound is more than that of winter season).
• Humidity of air plays a very important role in the speed of sound. The Speed of sound in humid air is more than that of dry
air.

Speed of sound in some mediums-

Medium Speed of sound m/s. (at 00 C) Medium Speed of sound m/s. (at 00 C)
CO2 260 Water 1493
Air 332 Sea Water 1533
Steam (1000C) 405 Iron 5130
Alcohol 1213 Glass 5640
Hydrogen 1269 Aluminium 6420
Mercury 1450

Speed of sound in different medium at 250C

State Substance Speed in State Substance Speed in State Substance Speed in

m/s m/s m/s
Solids Aluminium 6420 Liquids Water (sea) 1531 Gases Hydrogen 1284
Nickel 6040 Water (distilled) 1498 Helium 965
Steel 5960 Ethanol 1207 Air 346
Iron 5950 Methanol 1103 Oxygen 316
Brass 4700 Sulphur dioxide 213
Glass (Flint) 3980

Frequency range of Sound:

• Longitudinal waves have been classified into three types on the basis of their frequency range. These are as follows:

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Audible sound Waves:

• The range of sound audibility in humans ranges from about 20Hz to 20,000Hz. Humans cannot hear waves below 20Hz
because these waves are not able to sensitize the eardrum.
• The frequency of waves above 20,000 Hz is so high that the oscillation of the eardrum is not high enough to accept these
waves.

Infrasonic Waves:

• Frequency of such sound waves is below the frequencies of audible sound i.e. below 20 Hz.
• Generally, it has been observed that, before the earthquake some animals start to behave abnormally. Actually,
earthquake produces infra sounds of low frequency before producing main shock waves, which probably alert the
animals.

Ultrasonic Waves:

• Ultrasonic waves are such sound waves whose frequency is more than 20,000 Hz. Such sound waves are beyond the
normal hearing range of human.
• A number of animals are capable of emitting ultrasonic frequencies and use it for several purposes. For examples – bats,
whales, dolphins, mice, etc.

Applications of Ultrasonic Waves:

• A dog whistle (Galton whistle) is a whistle that emits ultrasound and is used for training and calling dogs.
• Ultrasonic waves are widely used in the field of industries and medicines.
• Image of the heart is obtained by reflecting the ultrasonic waves from different angle/part of the heart. This technique is
known as Echocardiography test.
• Ultrasound waves are used to breakdown the kidney stone into smaller pieces. These pieces are excreted through urine
outside of the body.
• Ultrasound is used for cleaning a zig-zag tube.
• SONAR (Sound Navigation & Ranging) device is helpful in determining the distance of any object positioned in water and
to measure the direction and speed of any object by using ultrasonic waves.
• Ultrasonic waves are used in the detection of cracks in metal blocks.
• Ultrasonic waves are used to kill bacteria in liquid.
• Ultrasonic waves for determining the depth of the sea.
• Ultrasonic waves is also used to see what is happening to the components inside a nuclear reactor.

Sound Intensity:

• Sound intensity is defined as the power carried by sound waves per unit area in a direction perpendicular to that area.
• The SI unit of intensity, which includes sound intensity, is watt/square meter (w/m2).
• The unit of sound intensity is bel, but 1/10th part of bel is commonly used, which is termed as decibel (dB).
• Reflection of sound due to repetition of sound is called resonance.

Echo:

• A sound or sounds caused by the reflection of sound waves bouncing back to the listener is known as an echo.
• The impulse of sound remains in existence for 0.1 second in mind.
• The minimum distance between the source of sound and the observer (listener) is 17.2 m.

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• After some time shouting or clapping loudly near a reflective object such as a building or a wheel, the same sound is heard
again after some time. Therefore, this sound heard is called resonance.

Mach Number:

• It is the ratio of the speed of a body to the speed of sound in the surrounding medium.
• It is often used with numerals as Mach 1, Mach 2 etc.
• Mach Number
= speed of object /speed of sound in air
• Subsonic Aircraft: An aircraft whose speed is less than the speed of sound.
• Supersonic Objects: The objects with March Number between 1-5, e.g. missiles.
• Hypersonic Objects: The objects whose Mach number is more than 5, e.g. Brahmos- ІІ missile.

Unit of sound intensity

• The decibel is the unit of sound intensity. The World Health Organization has described sound up to 45 decibels as the
safest for human health.
• Sound intensity is measured in decibel.

Source of Sound Intensity (db) Source of Sound Intensity (db)

Whisper 15-20 Press 100-105
Normal conversation 40-60 Archestra 100-110
Loud Speaker 70-80 Rocket 160-170
Heated arguments 70-80 Missile 180-190
Heavy motor vehicle, motor bike 90-95 Siren 190-200

Electric Current and Electromagnetism

Electrostatics -

• The branch of physics in which we study the properties of moving charge at a constant speed is called Electrostatics.

Charge –

• Charge is a fundamental property of matter. It is impossible to separate it from matter. If one object is rubbed with
another, it gets the property of attracting other substances, then we say that the object is charged. Franklin (static
electric field) is the smallest unit of charge, while Faraday is the largest unit. (1 Faraday = 96500 coulomb).

Electric current –

• The rate of flow of electric charge in a conductor is termed as electric current. Electric current (i) = charge (q) / time (t)
• The direction of the flow of positive charge is considered the direction of flow of electric current.
• Thus, the direction of flow of electric current is just opposite to that the direction of flow of electrons.
• SI unit of electric current is Ampere. 1 Ampere = 1 coulomb/second. It is a scalar quantity.

Types of Electric Current: Electric Current is of two types-

1. Direct Current (DC) – If an electric current flowing in a circuit has a single direction only, it is called direct current. A
battery is a suitable example of DC power supply.
2. Alternating Current (AC)- An electric current that reverses its direction many times a second at regular intervals,
typically used in power supply.
Main advantage of AC over DC is that AC can be transmitted to a long distance without much loss of electrical energy.

Current Density

• Current density is referred to as the total amount of current which is flowing through one unit value of a cross-sectional
area. If this is of uniform current flow, then the amount of current which is flowing through a specific conductor is the
same at all points of the conductor, even if the conductor area differs.

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• Current density formula can help to determine the amount of current in a specific portion of the conductor.
• Current Density (J) = I/A
• The SI unit of current density is Ampere/meter2.
• Current Denisty is a vector quantity.

Electromotive Force (emf):

• Electromotive force is the electrical intensity or pressure developed by a source of electrical energy such as a battery or
generator.

Electromotive force of some cells

Cell EMF
Voltaic Cell 1.08 Volt
Daniel Cell 1.08 Volt
dry cell 1.50 Volt
Leclanche Cell 1.50 Volt
Lead accumulator 2.00 Volt
cell
cell car battery 12.00 Volt
Every year up to 65% changes are made in the course content.

Voltage (Electric Potential):

• The work done to bring a unit positive charge from infinity to a particular point in the electric field is termed as the voltage
of that particular point. Electric Potential, V = W/q0
• Its unit is Joule / coulomb or volt, it is a scalar quantity.

Potential Difference:

• The difference in electric potential between two points in an electric field; the work has to be done in transferring unit
positive charge from one point to other. Its SI unit is also Volt.
V = W/q volt

Resistance:

• Resistance is a physical quality of conductor which resists the flow of electric current in the conductor. Its unit is Ohm (Ὠ).
It is represented by ‘R’.

Ohm’s Law:

• At a constant temperature, the potential difference applied across the conductor is directly proportional to the current
flowing in it.
I = V/R, where R is the resistance.
• The resistance of metals increases with increasing temperature.
• When voltage is applied to the head of a conductor, electric current starts flowing through it.
• German scientist Georg Simon Ohm established a relation between the applied potential difference and the resulting
electric current by experiment, this relation is called Ohm's law. According to this law, if there is no change in the physical
state of a conductor, such as temperature etc., then the electric current flowing in the conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference applied across its ends. V=IR where the constant R is called the resistance of the conductor.

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Difference Between Resistivity and Resistance

Resistance Resistivity
The property of any conductor that opposes the flow The property of a conductor that opposes the flow of electric current
of electric current through it and depends on the through them and is independent of the shape and size of the materials
shape and size of the materials, temperature, and but depends on the nature and temperature of the materials is called
nature of the materials is called resistance. resistivity.
It is represented by the letter R It is represented by the Greek letter ρ (rho)

SI unit is Ohm (Ω) SI unit is Ohm-meter (Ω-m).

It is not a constant term for the given substance. It It is a term constant for the given substance. It is not changed by
can be changed by changing the length and cross- changing the length and cross-sectional area of the material.
sectional area of that material.
Resistance is defined as an object’s complete A more conventional phrase to describe an object’s resistance is its
opposition to current flow. resistivity. It is the amount of resistance a given thing offers per cubic
metre.

Electric Generator:

• Electric Generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. It works on the principle of
electromagnetic induction.

Transformer:

• It is a device based on mutual induction. It increases or decreases the voltage of alternating current.
• The transformer is not useful for direct voltages.
• The transformer changes the alternating voltage (low voltage to high voltage).
• Soft iron is used in this device.

Transformers are two types:

1. Step-up Transformer- it converts low voltage to high voltage of alternating

current. For example, step up transformers are used to increase the voltage level
in power plants and in electronics circuits, inverters, etc.
2. Step-down Transformer-it converts the high voltage into the low voltage of
alternating current. For example, step down transformers is used in televisions,
inverters, voltage stabilizers, CD players, music stereos, doorbells, X-ray tubes,
power generating stations and main adapters and chargers for cell phones.

Electric Motor:

• An electric motor is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy, usually by employing electromagnetic
phenomena. Electric motors are used in electric fans, washing machines, mixer, grinder, water pumps and many other
devices.

Capacitor

• A capacitor is an equipment in which a sufficient amount of charge can be stored without changing the shape and size of
the conductors.
• Capacitance of capacitor is proportional to the charge (q) on the capacitor plates and the voltage (V) between them. C=q/V

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Electric Conductivity

• The measure of the ability of substances to conduct electric current is called electrical conductivity or specific conductance.
• When the potential is changed between the two ends of a 'conductor' made of a material, the rotating charge present in it
starts to flow which is called an electric current.
• Transistors, diodes and integrated circuits can all be classified as semiconductors because they are made from
semiconductor materials, Silicon and Germanium being the most common. An early type of transistor and diode were
made of Germanium, but silicon is used today for the vast majority of devices.
• The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor at absolute zero temperature is zero and they behave like an insulator. At
this temperature the electric resistivity becomes infinite. SCSGYAN
• The elements (Germanium, Silicon) whose electrical conductivity varies between conductors and dielectric are called
semiconductors. At absolute zero temperature, a semiconductor behaves like a perfect dielectric.
• The electrons far from the nucleus exhibit weaker force of attraction.
• Due to poor exhibit weaker force of attraction, such electrons are easily removed from their original state.
• Such electrons are known as free electrons or conduction electrons.
• The electrons which are not bound to the nucleus of an atom and free to move when external energy is applied are called
free electrons.
• In General Physics, any electron that is not attached to an ion, atom or molecule and is free to move under the influence of
an applied electric or magnetic field is called free electron.
• A metal with a good number of a free electrons is a good conductor of electricity.
• Silver is the best conductor of electricity.
• Other metals –copper, gold and aluminium are respectively good conductors of electricity.
• Electric conductivity is also found in some liquids and gases.
• In metals, electric conductivity is due to the movement of free electrons, while in liquid & gases it is due to the movement
of positive and negative ions.
• In gases, electric conductivity takes place only at a definite pressure range (approx. 10 mm Hg to 10-3 mm Hg).
• Above the maximum limit of pressure (10mm Hg) and below the minimum limit (10-3 mm Hg) of pressure, gases are bad
conductor of electricity.

Insulators: The flow of charge is not possible in substances in which the number of free electrons is very less or zero. Hence
those materials are Bad Conductors or Insulators.

Semiconductor: There are some materials whose electrical conductivity is much higher than that of insulators, but much less
than that of conductors. These are called semiconductors, such as silicon, germanium, selenium etc. The characteristic of these
materials is that their resistivity decreases with increasing temperature. That is, their resistance temperature-coefficient is
negative. Thus, the effect of temperature on the conductivity of semi conductors is opposite to that of the conductors.

Semiconductors are of two types – Elemental or natural (intrinsic) semiconductor and extrinsic semiconductor. A
semiconductor in which no impurities have been added is called a pure semiconductor. Thus, pure germanium and silicon are
semiconductors in their natural state. In these, the conduction of electricity is due to the motion of both electrons and holes.

Superconductivity:

• An unusual relationship between resistivity and temperature is observed in some materials. As the material is cooled, the
resistivity of the material, like that of pure metals, gradually decreases, but upon cooling below a particular temperature,
the resistivity rapidly decreases to zero.
• For example, the resistivity of mercury suddenly becomes zero at 4.2 K. This phenomenon is called superconductivity, and
the cooled material is called superconductor. This phenomenon occurs only at very low temperatures (from 10 K to 0.1 K).
• The temperature at which the resistivity suddenly becomes zero is called the transition temperature, which varies for
different materials.
• The property of superconductivity is not found in all substances. Substances that are generally good conductors, such as
copper, silver, gold, lithium and sodium, do not have the property of superconductivity even at temperatures down to a
fraction of less than 1 K. In contrast, some metals and alloys, such as tungsten, cadmium, aluminium, tin and lead, are
superconducting at temperatures of 0.01 K, 0.56 K, 1.19 K, 3.7 K and 7.2 K, respectively.

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Application of Superconductivity:

• Powerful superconducting electromagnet used in Magnetic trains. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR) machines.
• Magnetic confinement fusion reactors (e.g. tokamaks). Bean steering and focusing magnets used in particle accelerators.
Low loss of power cables.

Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity

Nuclear Fission:

• The process of breaking of a heavy nucleus into two or more smaller nuclei is called nuclear fission. In the event of nuclear
fission, the total mass of the fissionable nuclei is less than the mass of the larger nucleus, this difference in masses gets
collected in the energy generated during nuclear fission.
• When atoms of an element are bombarded with neutrons, the nuclei of the atoms generally undergo artificial
disintegration, and light particles (such as alpha particles, beta particles, protons, etc.) are emitted from them. Sometimes a
neutron gets absorbed by the nucleus and turns the nucleus into one of its heavier isotopes and energy is emitted in the
form of photons.
• Nuclear fission is the process in which a heavy nucleus captures a neutron and breaks into two lighter nuclei of
comparable masses. In this process, a huge amount of energy is released in the form of some fast neutrons and kinetic
energy of fission fragments and --rays. This process is the basis of atomic bomb and nuclear reactor.
• The main fact relating to nuclear fission is that huge amount of energy is released. This energy is known as ‘Nuclear
Energy’.
• During this process on fission of 1 gram Uranium, 5 × 1023 MeV energy is released which is equal to the energy produced
by exploding 20 tonne Trinitrotoluence (TNT).

Atom Bomb:

• Nuclear Bomb is a more suitable name for Atom Bomb. It is such a device in which uncontrolled chain reaction is
maintained in the fissile matter by fast- moving neutrons. As a result of this process in a very short time, a huge amount of
energy is released.
• In atom bomb, two segments of uranium235 or Plutonium239 are used. The mass of these segments is less than their critical
mass and are kept separately. Critical mass is the smallest amount of fissile material needed for a sustained nuclear chain
reaction. The critical mass of a fissile material depends upon its nuclear properties, its density, its shape, its enrichment,
its purity, its temperature and its surroundings.

Nuclear Reactor or Atomic Furnace:

• A plant in which self-sustained controlled chain reaction is maintained and at a fixed rate, energy is obtained. Such,
energy is utilized for several purposes such as to produce electricity and for research works.

A modern reactor has the following main parts-

1. Fuel: It is the main part of the reactor. The matter which undergoes for fission reaction. For this purpose 92U235 or
94Pu239 is used.
2. Moderator: It reduces the speed of fast neutrons, thereby turning them into thermal neutrons capable of sustaining a
nuclear chain reaction. Heavy water (D2O), Graphite or Beryllium oxide are used as a moderator. Heavy water is the best
moderator. SCSGYAN
3. Coolant: A large amount of energy is released during fission which results in an increase of the plant’s temperature. To
decrease the temperature of the plant, coolants such as air, water or carbon dioxide is flown through the reactor.
4. Control Rods: These absorb the slow-moving neutrons. When theses rods are pushed into the reactor, the fission rate
slows down and when they are withdrawn from the reactor, fission rate increases. For this purpose Cadmium or Boron
rods are used.
Note - Heavy water (D2O) is used as both moderator and coolant, in the nuclear reactors.

Nuclear Fusion:

• When two or more light nucleus, moving with very high speed, mutually fused to form a heavy nucleus, this process is
termed as nuclear fusion. The mass of the nucleus formed after fusion reaction is less than that of the masses of original

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fusing nuclei. The loss in mass is converted into energy.

• For example- when two deuterons (1H2 –heavy hydrogen nucleus) fused with each other, a triton (1H3 –nucleus of tritium)
is formed.
• Energy released by fusion of heavy hydrogen nuclei is more than the energy released by the fission of equal mass of
uranium235.

The validity of this study material is only till the year 2024, do not read it after that.

Hydrogen Bomb

• It is a nuclear fusion bomb based on the fusion of heavy-hydrogen nuclei. Since fusion occurs at very high pressure and
very high temperature, a fission (atomic) bomb has to be used as an igniter with the fusion bomb.
• The process of fusion in a hydrogen bomb is a well-known process. The use of which can only be subversive. In fact, the
source of immense energy of the Sun is the fusion of light nuclei.

Solar Energy

• The major source of solar energy is the sun. Nuclear fusion reactions occur in the Sun. In this process, two nuclei of
hydrogen combine to form the nucleus of helium. The energy generated in this process is solar energy.
• The sun continuously emits energy, this is why its temperature remains constant due to the thermal energy generated in
the fusion. Hydropower, solar energy and wind power are sources of renewable energy, while fuel cells are natural energy
sources.

Radioactivity -

• Some elements automatically emit invisible rays. Such substances are called radioactive substances and this phenomenon
is called radioactivity. This phenomenon was discovered by Henry Bacquerel. The rays emanating from radioactive
substances are called radioactive rays. There are three types of radioactive rays - alpha rays, beta rays, gamma rays.

Physics – Most Important Oneliners Facts

• A capacitor is defined as a passive component which is used for storing electrical energy. A capacitor is made of two
conductors that are separated by the dielectric material. These dielectric materials are in the form of plates which can
accumulate charges. One plate is for a positive charge while the other is for a negative charge. Capacitors are designed to
last approximately 20 years. Energy stored in a capacitor is electrical potential energy (in the form of electric charge).
• Water has a high dielectric constant but a very low dielectric strength.
• Capacitors allow only AC signals to pass when they are charged blocking DC signals.
• Capacitors can be used in Signal Processing, Power Conditioning, Energy Storage and as sensors.
• Objects of different masses falling freely near the surface of the Moon will have the same speed at any instant and, due to
gravity, they will have the same acceleration. The velocity of an object can be understood as the rate of change in the
direction of the object with respect to a frame of reference and time.
• If in a material one dimension is reduced to the Nano range while the other two dimensions remain large, the structure so
obtained is known as Quantum well.
• The waves produced by a motor boat sailing in water are longitudinal and transverse
• Principle of superposition can be applied to waves (All types)
• Conservation of charge is expressed by Kirchhoff's first law.
• More than two networks meet at a node.
• Resistor has 4 color bands. The 4 bands are green, blue, red and gold.
• Biot-Savart’s law is an equation that gives the magnetic field produced due to a current carrying segment.
• Net magnetic moment in the diamagnetic material is zero.
• Cyclotron was invented to investigate the nuclear structure by E.O Lawrence and M.S Livingston in 1934.
• Magnetic field is a vector quantity.
• There are two types of rare earth magnets: 1. Samarium-cobalt 2. Neodymium
• Rubber moulds are used in manufacturing of neodymium alloy and this process is known as Isostatic pressing
• Neodymium is the strongest magnet in the world.
• Ceramic magnets are obtained from strontium and barium ferrite
• Signal bandwidth of over 100 GHz is offered by optical fiber

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• Transformer uses the principle of mutual induction.

• In the speedometer, a small magnet connected to the main shaft of the vehicle
• Lenz’s law is used to explain how electromagnetic circuits obey the conservation of energy and Newton’s third law.
• UV rays are used to detect forged bank notes. Real bank notes don’t turn fluorescent under the UV light.
• Electromagnetic radiations can transmit energy in vacuum or using no medium at all
• Infrared radiation is used for night vision and is used in security camera.
• The power of the concave lens is negative
• Image obtained from the projector on the screen is an example of real image
• Medical instruments like ‘endoscopes’ use the total internal reflection of light through an optical fiber bundle to image
internal organs.
• Dispersive Power is maximum in Flint Glass
• Multiple lenses are used in microscope and Telescope
• Echocardiography works on the basis of Doppler effect.
• Doppler effect is observed in all type of waves including longitudinal and transverse waves.
• Frequency of light remains unchanged during refraction.
• Particle nature of light can be used to explain photoelectric emission. The photoelectric effect establishes the quantum
nature of radiation
• A flying bird possesses both kinetic and Potential energy.
• De-broglie theory is confirmed by the Davisson-Germer experiment.
• Davisson-Germer experiment uses nickel crystal.
• Fermi level is the measure of the energy of least tightly held electrons within a solid.
• Photoelectric effect was discovered by Heinrich Hertz in 1887 but it was described by Einstein
• Germanium is known as indirect band gap semiconductors.
• The loss of quality and strength of the signal while travelling through the channel/ medium during electronic
communication is known as Attenuation
• Remote Sensing uses Electromagnetic waves in its applications.
• SONAR is used to locate hidden objects, submarines or icebergs under the sea. The full form of SONAR is Sound Navigation
and Ranging.
• Thermoresister is a device which acts like an electronic thermometer. This device changes its resistance with the change in
temperature.
• Crescograph is an instrument to measure the growth of plants, which was invented by Indian scientist Jagdish Chandra
Bose in the year 1900.
• A Geiger muller counter is a type of particle detector that measures ionizing radiation.
• In computer context, a byte is a unit of digital information. Richter is a mathematical scale for measuring the intensity of
earthquake waves. Bar is a unit of pressure it is equal to 100 kg (105) pascal.
• Cusec (Cusec-Cubic Feet Per Second) is the unit of measurement of the rate of water flow.
• The thickness of the ozone layer in the atmosphere is measured in Dobson. A Dobson unit represents the ozone layer of 10
micro meters (m) at standard temperature and pressure.
• An ideal rigid body is a body whose particles do not change the distance between them even when a force is applied.
• No person can move on a frictionless surface because friction is necessary for any kind of motion. However, on a
completely frictionless surface, a person can bring himself in motion by whistling. To blow the whistle, the person will
release air in one direction, as a result of which he will start moving in the opposite direction.
• To drive a loaded vehicle, a greater force (than the one required to keep it moving) is required because the friction gets
reduced as the vehicle gains speed.
• If any objects have the same kinetic energy and the same restraining forces are applied to them, then they will stop at the
same distance.
• Moving with uniform acceleration on a flat road, the free surface tension of the oil present in the tanker will assume the
shape of a parabolic curve.
• The blowing wind has only kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of winds can be converted into other forms of energy such as
electrical or mechanical energy.
• The energy produced by the blowing wind is called wind energy. Windmills are installed in windy places to produce wind
energy, by which the kinetic energy of the wind is converted into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy can be
converted into electrical energy with the help of a generator.

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• The electrical resistivity of a material shows the ability of that material to resist the flow of electric current. Materials with
low resistivity allow electric charge to move easily. Its SI unit is ohm-meter (m)
• Ampere is the unit of measurement of electric current.
• Knot is a unit of measurement of the speed of a ship. The distance used in navigation is measured in nautical miles. Calorie
is a unit of measurement of the amount of heat.
• Synchronous (geosynchronous communication) satellites move in the equatorial plane, in a circular orbit, at a distance of
about 4.22 x 104 km from the center of the Earth.
• If the gravitational force of the earth acting on a body near the surface of the earth suddenly disappears, then the weight of
the object will become zero. But the mass will remain the same.
• Acceleration due to gravity is minimum at the equator.
• The Earth is the center of the universe", was the view held by Aristotle.
• Due to the gravitational force of the earth, rain falls on the earth from the sky.
• Astronauts are unable to stand upright due to low gravity in space. In long space missions under low gravity, astronauts
suffer muscle wasting and bone density. Decreased bone density leads to weakening of the bones.
• Under ideal conditions (neglecting air resistance), the weight of an object does not change when it is dropped from the top
because its mass and the acceleration due to gravity remain unchanged.
• For a body falling freely from rest (zero) with the force of gravity, the equation S=1/2gt2 is suitable, which is the equation
of the parabola.
• Two types of forces act on an artificial satellite revolving around the earth. One is the centripetal force and the other is the
turbulent force. The centripetal force is the gravitational force of the spherical Earth, due to which the satellite receives the
necessary centrifugal acceleration for its motion, orbits the earth in a circular or elliptical orbit and does not fall down on
the earth.
• Artificial satellites can be accurately tracked from Earth by Doppler tracking. This tracking is done with the help of
transmitter and receiver. This tracking is made possible with the help of Doppler effect.
• The force of gravity is the weakest of the four fundamental forces, while the strong nuclear force is the strongest of all the
fundamental forces.
• Brahmagupta was a post-Gupta mathematician and astronomer. He created the Brahma Siddhanta and was the first to say
that the earth attracts all things towards itself.
• Gravity is the tendency of matter to be attracted to each other. Sir Issac Newton propounded three laws of motion and the
theory of gravitation. Newton said on the basis of his fundamental discoveries that not only the earth, but every particle of
the universe attracts another particle towards itself. The mutual attraction between the particles was called gravitational
force.
• While studying the motion of a body under the gravitational influence of another body, these two quantities are conserved
(a) angular momentum (b) total mechanical energy. Linear momentum is not conserved.
• Astronauts experience weightlessness in space satellites. This is not because the force of gravity is less in that location of
space. Rather, the reason for this is that both the astronaut and the satellite fall freely towards the earth.
• Venturiometer is a device for measuring flow velocities in an incompressible liquid.
• Stress in the restoring force on the unit area and the fractional difference in the dimension is the strain. There are
generally three types of stress (a) tensile stress – longitudinal stress (associated with tension) or compressive stress
(associated with compression), (b) shear stress, and (c) hydrological stress.
• For low deformation, in most materials the stress is directly proportional to the strain. This is called Hooke's law. The
constant of proportionality is called the coefficient of elasticity. Three elasticity coefficients—the Young's coefficient, the
shear coefficient, and the volume coefficient—are used to describe the elastic behavior of bodies when deformation forces
are applied. A class of solids called elastics do not obey Hooke's law. When a body is under tension or compression,
Hooke's law comes into play.
• When two forces are applied parallel to the upper and lower faces, the solid body is deformed in such a way that the upper
face is displaced to the side with respect to the lower face.
• An iron ball floats on mercury, but sinks in water, because the relative density of mercury is greater than that of iron, while
that of water is less than that of iron.
• Statics is the branch of mechanics that deals with the state of rest.
• Heat is a form of energy that flows between a body and its changing medium due to the difference in temperature between
them. The degree of hotness of a body is quantitatively represented by temperature.
• The liquid remains hot or cold for a long time in a thermos flask because there is no loss of heat by conduction, convection
and radiation.

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• Compressed air is a bad conductor of heat

• Compressed gas is used in air conditioners to cool the room or other place.
• Radiation is the fastest method of heat transfer.
• The toaster uses infra-red radiation and toasts the bread by the convection method.
• Dew does not form in a strong windy night, because the rate of evaporation is faster due to strong wind, so the dew
particles evaporate.
• Silver has the highest thermal conductivity.
• Warm air is lighter than cold air. Thermal radiation is also known as infrared radiation. During the day the air gets heated
due to the process of radiation. The air is mainly heated through convection, while the atmosphere is heated by radiation.
Thermal radiations are similar to alpha radiations.
• The reason for the flow of sea breeze and land breeze is "convection".
• The glass or steel used in thermos is kept warm by applying silver plating.
• Adding an impurity like salt to water increases its boiling point. On the other hand, the addition of impurities generally
lowers the melting point.
• Ethylene glycol is used as an antifreeze in automatic engines. When ethylene glycol is mixed with water, the freezing point
of the mixture drops below 00 C, preventing water freezing in automatic engines in cold countries.
• Absolute zero is theoretically the lowest possible temperature. At this temperature the molecular energy is minimum. The
absolute zero temperature is defined as 00 K on the Kelvin scale and -273.150 C on the Celsius scale.
• Cast iron, ice, antimony, bismuth, brass etc. shrink in volume on melting. Such solids continue to float in their own throat
fluid.
• Thermostat is a device that controls the temperature of a system. With its help, the temperature of a system can be kept at
the desired level.
• Modern frost-free fridges have a dehumidification process whereby the excess moisture inside the fridge is absorbed and
becomes ice and melts again and comes out of the fridge in a liquid form. This is the reason why sealed biscuits become
crunchy when kept in the fridge for a while.
• Black hole is an infinitely dense mass of matter, which is invisible due to its inability to reflect light. Its gravitational field is
so strong that light cannot enter here. This is the reason why the black hole cannot be seen with binoculars.
• When a metal is heated, it expands and on heating its expansion increases. On heating of a metal ring, its outer diameter as
well as inner diameter increases. Therefore, on heating it, the ball will be able to come out.
• When a glass rod is kept in steam, along with its length, its width (diameter) also increases.
• There are innumerable microscopic holes in the walls of the earthen pot. Water keeps seeping through these holes, due to
which there is always, wetness on the surface of the pitcher. The evaporation of water coming out of the holes continues.
The surface on which evaporation takes place cools down i.e. the temperature of that surface drops.
• The body temperature of a healthy human being is 36.9 °C or 98.6 °F. If the body temperature is lower or higher than this,
then the person falls ill.
• Due to the low melting point of alcohol, its freezing point is very low in cold places, due to which it remains in the liquid
state even when the temperature is very low below zero. This is the reason why alcohol thermometers prove to be better
than mercury for cold countries.
• The main utility of sweat in humans is to regulate the body's temperature (thermoregulation). The sweating rate in an
adult can be as high as 2-4 liters per hour or 10-14 liters per day. Cooling is experienced by the evaporation of sweat from
the skin.
• The rate of heat loss of an object is called the rate of cooling.
• In summers, when the weather is humid, a humid summer is experienced.
• The dry condition gives a sense of low humidity.
• The velocity of sound in air increases with increase in humidity because the density of air decreases with increase in
humidity. This study material is not valid after the year 2024, after which it will become outdated.
• At higher altitudes, atmospheric pressure is lower, so water begins to boil at a temperature below 1000 C. Adding salt to
water increases the boiling point of water. Due to which the food gets cooked quickly.
• Although wool fibers are made up of a special type of protein, heat conduction occurs due to the air in between these
fibers.
• When a polyethylene balloon filled with hydrogen is released from the Earth's surface, the density of the air decreases as
we go higher in the atmosphere, so the size of the balloon will increase.
• When the refrigerator door is kept open, many types of gases come out of it, which increase the temperature of the room.

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• Wood or ebonite handles are used in cooking utensils such as pressure cookers because wood or ebonite are poor
conductors of heat. Ebonite is a strong substance.
• There are three methods of heat transfer – conduction, convection and radiation.
• For an ideal conductor, the thermal resistance is zero.
• The density of sea water is higher than the density of river water. Therefore, when the ship enters the sea water, more
upthrust force is applied, due to which the ship rises a bit.
• The size of a bubble depends on the pressure of the gas in it and the radius and thickness of the water film. The pressure of
the gas in the smaller bubble is greater than that in the larger bubble, so the smaller bubble will become smaller when
brought into contact with each other in the tube, while the larger bubble will become larger.
• Hydraulic brakes, hydraulic presses and hydraulic lifts are based on Pascal's law. According to Pascal's law, if the
gravitational effect is considered negligible, then the pressure remains the same everywhere inside a liquid in equilibrium.
• When the air bubble rises from the bottom of the lake and starts coming upwards, the pressure starts decreasing upwards
as compared to the bottom, due to which the volume of the air bubble increases.
• Various products of industrial use are obtained by continuous fractional distillation of crude petroleum. This process is
called finishing. Asphalt is produced during the refining of petroleum.
• At 40 C the volume of water is minimum and density is maximum. Anomalous expansion of water plays an important role
in the freezing of only the upper surface of lakes and rivers.
• Most of the liquids increase in volume on heating but decrease in density, but the behavior of water is exactly the opposite
between 0 °C to 4 °C.
• Sea water is salty due to the abundance of sodium chloride and other salts. As a result, the density of sea water is high and
buoyancy is also high in it. Therefore, it is easy to swim in sea water.
• Technetium is a chemical element whose atomic number is 43. Technetium is the first artificially produced element. This
element was first produced in the year 1937.
• The separation of cream from milk after churning is due to centrifugal force.
• In winter, when the upper layer of the lake cools down to 00 C, it becomes ice, but the water below remains in the liquid
state at 40 C. This allows water to remain at 40 C below the ice in lakes or ponds, in which fish and other aquatic animals
live. Hooke's law is valid only in the linear part of the stress-strain curve.
• Young's elasticity coefficient and shear coefficient are relevant only for solids, because only solids have length and shape.
• The volume elasticity coefficient is relevant for all solids, liquids and gases. It is concerned with the change in volume when
each part of the body is under the same stress so that the shape of the body remains the same.
• The value of Young's coefficient for metals is higher than for alloys and elastics. In materials with a higher Young's
coefficient, more force is required to cause a slight change in length.
• In daily life, we have this belief that the substances which are more ductile, they are more elastic, but this is false. In fact,
those materials which are less ductile for a given load are considered to be more elastic.
• Stress is not a vector quantity because like force, stress cannot be determined from any particular direction. The force
acting on a part of a body towards a certain point has a definite direction.
• The fundamental property of liquids is that they flow. Liquids have no resistance to change in their shape. Hence the shape
of the vessel determines the shape of the liquid.
• Liquid is incompressible and has its own free surface. The gas is compressible and it expands and fills the entire available
volume (space).
• Due to refraction in the Earth's atmosphere, stars appear to twinkle to us.
• The image formed on the screen of the cinema is always real.
• Corneal transplantation in humans is never rejected by the body because the cornea lacks blood vessels.
• An object placed in normal light appears to be of the same color as the light of which it is sent to our eye by reflection or
refraction.
• We can see ourselves in the mirror because light is reflected from the mirror.
• Fiber optics communication is a system in which information is sent from one place to another through optical fibers in the
form of points of light.
• When a concave mirror is immersed in water, its focal length increases.
• The image formed by Plane Mirror is always Virtual and Erect.
• Whenever the image is real, it will be inverted and if the image is virtual, it will be upright.
• Visible light is that part of electromagnetic radiation that can be seen by the human eye. A normal human eye can clearly
see electromagnetic radiation between 380 nm to 760 nm wavelength.
• The human eye is most sensitive to wavelengths of about 5000A0 or 500 nm (nanometers) of visible light.

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• When a light wave travels from air to glass or from one medium to another, the frequency of the light remains the same but
its wavelength and velocity change.
• All objects are visible only due to the reflection of light from their surface.
• The object or substance which has a high refractive index, has the least speed of light. Glass has the highest refractive index
among glass, vacuum, water and air, so the speed of light is minimum in glass.
• It takes about 8 minutes and 20 seconds for sunlight to reach the surface of the Earth.
• Neon gas is filled in discharge lamps and tubes and in fluorescence bulbs.
• Light exhibits dual nature – sometimes like a particle and sometimes like a wave. Some properties of light like interference,
diffraction, polarization etc. are explained by considering the nature of light as wave, while some other properties like
photoelectric effect, Compton effect etc. are explained on the basis of particle nature of light.
• The wavelength of light is very short and its diffraction is also very small, which our eyes cannot see. Therefore, light
appears to us to be moving in a straight line.
• Optical fibers are very thin cylindrical hollow tubes made of glass (silica) or plastic, which work on the principle of total
internal reflection of light. There is no loss of light energy in them.
• The main reason for the shining of diamond is its total internal reflectivity and high refractive index. Since diamond has a
high refractive index (2.42), its critical angle is only 240. Therefore, when light falls inside a specially cut diamond, there is
repeated total internal reflection on the surface of the diamond.
• Pure diamond transmits visible light and appears as a clear colorless crystal. The color in a polished diamond is visible due
to the presence of impurities.
• Holography is a technique in which a three-dimensional image of an object is created by photography done by laser rays.
Holography can work with sound, light or any wave. Holography is often used for storing records and in microfiche. Real
three-dimensional movies have also been produced by using this.
• The lens used in CD players emits ultraviolet laser light, which reflects off the shiny surface of the CD and produces sound.
• When white light is passed through a prism, it breaks up into seven colors VIBGYOR (Voilet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow,
Orange, Red). This phenomenon is called dispersion of light or dispersion of color. Rainbow is formed as a result of this
phenomenon.
• The cathode ray tube used in color television uses three different phosphor that emit red, green and blue.
• Light has three basic or primary colors - red, green and blue. By mixing these colours, secondary colors (yellow, magenta)
can be formed. A pair of a primary and a secondary color is called a complementary color to each other. White color light is
produced when all primary colors or all secondary colors are mixed.
• The retina of the eye acts like the film of a conventional camera. The retina converts the light rays it into electrical signals
that are carried by the visual nerves to the brain.
• The exposure of the camera depends on the area and time of the aperture of the camera. So the exposure will be directly
proportional to d2t
• Due to the relaxation and contraction of the ciliary muscles, the thickness of the lens of the eye changes, as a result of
which the focal length of the lens of the eye changes.
• Head mirrors are used by doctors to examine the ears, nose and throat. It is a concave mirror with a small aperture.
• When the direction of the incident light ray on the mirror does not change, then the angle of rotation of the reflected ray is
twice the angle of rotation of the mirror.
• White color is a complete reflector of light, which absorbs very little amount of heat.
• Compact discs used in audio and video systems have a protective coating on the surface, which acts like a thin-film and is
responsible for the phenomenon of reflection and diffraction. This is the reason for seeing the rainbow color when the CD
is viewed in sunlight.
• Frequency modulation technique is used to transmit audio signals. The signals transmitted by this technology are free
from any kind of noise and distortion.
• Roster scans are used in CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) monitors, in which an electronic beam is projected by an electron gun.
• According to the Raman effect, when a single wavelength light beam passes through a transparent medium, such as a solid,
liquid or gas, to study its scattered rays, it has a very low intensity at a constant distance apart from the original light rays.
These rays are called Raman rays.
• The human eye is most sensitive to green light.
• The human ear is most sensitive at 1000 hertz. Hearing in humans is 1/10 of a second. The firmness of human vision is
1/16 of a second.
• The laser beam is more monochromatic.

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• Long radio waves are reflected from the Earth's ionosphere. This layer is situated between the altitude of 80 to 400 km.
The air here is electrically charged.
• Some medium is required for the propagation of sound waves. Sound waves cannot travel in a vacuum or in outer space.
This is the reason that there is no propagation of sound waves on the moon and two people cannot hear each other's
words there.
• Crystallography or gemology is an experimental science that studies the configuration of atoms in crystals. The structure of
crystals is studied by the diffraction of X-rays.
• Infrared waves are a type of electromagnetic waves. Their wavelength is greater than that of visible light. They are used by
soldiers for target finding, surveillance, night photography etc.
• Microwaves are used in telecommunications.
• The frequency band used in FM broadcasting service ranges from 88 to 108 MHz. This range is used as the standard for the
FM band.
• X-rays are a type of electromagnetic radiation. It is used in medicine for the diagnosis of intestinal diseases.
• CT scan or computed tomography is a special type of X-ray test. Through which the internal organs in the body are
examined and probable diseases are detected.
• The motion which repeats itself is called periodic motion.
• The time T required to complete one oscillation or cycle is called time period. It is written as – T = 1/ν
• The frequency of a periodic or oscillatory motion is the number of oscillations completed by it in 1 second. In the SI unit
system, it is measured in hertz. 1 Hz= 1 oscillation per second
• Simple harmonic motion is a projection of uniform circular motion on the diameter of the circle on which the motion is
taking place.
• Simple harmonic motion is the motion of a system in which a force is applied on that particle, which is directly
proportional to the expansion of the particle, and is always directed towards the center of motion.
• The motion of a simple pendulum oscillating at small angles is approximate simple harmonic motion. Its time period T =
√𝐿
2π
𝑔
• The heart vibrates at an inaudible frequency, which is heard using a stethoscope.
• The speed of supersonic bodies is expressed in Mach number. The Mach number of a supersonic vehicle is equal to the
ratio of the speed of the supersonic vehicle to the speed of sound at the ambient temperature.
• A decibel is one tenth of a bel.
• When sound is produced in a closed hall, as a result of gradual reflection from the walls and ceiling of the hall, the sound
remains for some time even when the source is turned off, this is called reverberation.
• Some medium is required for the transmission of sound. Due to the absence of a medium in a vacuum, sound waves cannot
propagate.
• The various radiations included in the electromagnetic spectrum in descending order of wavelength are as follows – radio
waves>microwave>infrared radiation>visible light>ultraviolet radiation>X ray>gamma ray. It is clear that radio waves
have the longest wavelength and gamma rays have the shortest wavelengths.
• Due to the presence of an audio synchronizer, both audio and video start simultaneously when the TV is switched on. Due
to the speed of sound moving at a lower speed than light, the sound should be heard later, but this error is corrected by
installing an audio synchronizer in the television.
• In television broadcasting, frequency modulation is used for sound transmission and amplitude modulation is used for
transmission of picture messages.
• Most of the TV remote control units use infrared radiation but some use radio waves. Infrared is an electromagnetic
radiation.
• Mechanical waves can exist in matter and are governed by Newton's laws of motion.
• Transverse waves are those waves in which the particles of the medium oscillate perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave.
• Longitudinal waves are those waves in which the particles of the medium oscillate along the direction of propagation.
• A progressive wave is a wave that travels from one point of the medium to another.
• Wave is not the motion of all matter in a medium. Wind is different from sound wave in air. Wind includes the movement
of air from one place to another. Sound wave involves compression and rarefaction of layers of air.
• In wave, energy is transferred from one place to another, it is not not possible in matter.
• Transverse waves can be propagated only in those mediums which have coefficient of shear elasticity, for example solids.
Longitudinal waves require volume elasticity coefficient, so these waves are possible in all mediums – solid, liquid and gas.

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• Electric motors often burn out when operating at low voltages because they draw more current, which is inversely
proportional to the voltage.
• A lightning conductor is a metal (copper) conductor used to protect tall buildings from lightning. The top end of the
lightning conductor is sharp and is fixed on the top of the buildings.
• A nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) battery is a type of rechargeable battery, in which nickel hydroxide and cadmium are used as
electrodes, while potassium hydroxide (alkaline) is electrolytic. It is used in calculators, cordless electronic devices,
transistors, etc.
• A metal called tungsten is used to produce light in electric bulbs. Its melting point is 34220 C and boiling point is 55550 C.
• A simple electric bulb has a relatively short life because -
1. Filament coil is not uniform
2. The bulb cannot be turned off completely
3. The supporting wire of the filament melts at high temperature.
• For normal operation of the power grid, power transmission in our country is fixed at 50 Hz frequency. It is allowed to
increase or decrease up to 0.5 Hz. If it is more or less than this, the grid fails.
• Electricity bill is based on the measurement of kilowatt/hour (kw/h). Kilowatt/hour is 1000 watts of electrical energy
expended in one hour.
• A dynamo is a device used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy by electromagnetic induction.
• A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC).
• DC current is used to charge the battery, for this, the rectifier in the charger used (eg mobile charger) converts AC into DC.
• Permeability, in the context of electromagnetism, is a property of a material that describes the amount of capacity that
material exhibits in establishing a magnetic field in that material. It is represented by the Greek character  (mu). The
permeability of a perfect superconductor is zero.
• The maximum temperature attainable by a superconductor at atmospheric pressure is 133 Kelvin. The highest
temperature superconductor is a ceramic material consisting of mercury, barium, calcium, copper and oxygen.
• Ceramic oxide has proved to be very useful in the research and development in the direction of superconductivity.
Experiments on superconductivity are being done only on molten metals and have been successful in this.
Superconducting clays contain thallium (Ti), barium (Ba), calcium (Ca) and copper oxide (CuO).
• The germanium element is extracted from Jhama (burnt coal) which is used in making transistors.
• Lightning produced during thunderstorms lightning contains high amounts of electrical energy, due to which there is a
possibility of fire in trees.
• At absolute zero temperature (00 K), the conductivity of semiconductors becomes zero and they behave like an ideal
insulator. At this temperature the electrical resistance in semiconductors becomes infinite.
• Lead is the end product of the radioactive disintegration of uranium.
• Harishchandra Research Institute is located in Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh.
• Pokhran, the site of India's nuclear tests, is located in the Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan.
• A Fast Breeder Reactor is a nuclear reactor that generates electricity through the thawing process.
• Cyclotron is an accelerator device by which high velocity is produced in protons, alpha particles and deutrons etc.
• The presence of gamma emitting isotopes in drinking water is detected by oscillation calculator.
• Solar cells convert light energy directly into electrical energy. Silicon is used in solar cells.
• A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is an electrical device that directly converts light energy into electrical energy by the
photovoltaic effect.
• Thorium is one such important nuclear fuel, which is available in abundance in India. Monazite is the main source of
thorium.
• In the year 1938, American scientist H.A. Bethe told that the source of energy of the Sun and other stars of the universe is
the nuclear fusion occurring there. Meson particles were discovered in the year 1935 by scientist Hideki Yukawa. The
positively charged fundamental particle called the positron was discovered in the year 1932 by CD Anderson and UF Hess.
• A breeder reactor is a nuclear reactor that produces more fissile material than it consumes as fuel.
• The Atomic Commission of India conducted its first underground nuclear test at Pokhran on 18 May 1974. It was the first
confirmed nuclear test conducted by a nation other than the five permanent members of the United Nations Security
Council. This nuclear test was code named Smiling Buddha.
• American scientist Edward Taylor, born in Hungary in the year 1908, is called the father of the hydrogen bomb. In
November 1952, the first hydrogen bomb was tested by the United States in the Marshall Islands in the Pacific Ocean.
• According to the recognition of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, the five nuclear-armed states are China, France,
Russia, the UK and the United States.

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• Hydrocarbon-2025 deals with the conservation of petroleum products (hydrocarbons) in India. It lays emphasis on
expanding energy efficiency in the context of India's energy needs in the future.
• The National Physics Laboratory is located in New Delhi.
• Currently the world's tallest astronomical observatory is the University of Tokyo Atacama Observatory, located on top of
the Cerro Chajnantor volcano in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile. It is situated at an altitude of 5640 m above sea
level.
• National Chemical Laboratory was established in the year 1950. It is located in Pune. It is a constituent laboratory of the
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).
• The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) was established on June 01, 1945 in Bombay (Mumbai) for higher
education and research.
• The Chandra X-ray telescope was launched on 23 July 1999 from the spacecraft Colombia. It was named after the eminent
American astronomer of Indian origin Subramaniam Chandrasekhar. This mission is currently active in space.
• On 14 April, 1961, the then Soviet Union earned the credit of sending the first man into space by a spacecraft named
Vostok-I. Yuri Gagarin was the first person to begin human space travel.
• The first cosmonaut is Yuri Gagarin of Russia while the first female cosmonaut is Valentina Tereshkova of Russia.
• The Moon is the only natural satellite of the Earth. It is the fifth largest satellite in our solar system.
• A dry cell is generally used in torches, its anode is of zinc while the cathode is of carbon.
• Quantum mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the study of the motion and interrelationships of very fine
particles.
• Automatic wristwatches do not require a battery for energy to operate. These watches receive energy for the movement of
the wearer's hand. If these watches are not worn in hand for 2-3 days then they will stop.
• In the case of microgravity or weightlessness, the shape of a candle flame will become spherical.
• Norio Taniguchi was a professor of science at the University of Tokyo. He first used the term Nanotechnology in one of his
research papers published in the year 1974.
• Constellations with very high density are called neutron stars.
• The Nano Plug is a very small hearing aid. Its size is so small that it is not easily visible, as well as it can be programmed
through computer software according to the hearing ability and requirement of the user.
• The particles with a base between 1 nanometer to 100 nanometer are called nanoparticles.
• Black hole is a very dense body. Where the gravitational field is so strong that it absorbs all the radiation passing through
it. This study material is only for UPPSC RO/ARO PRE RE-Exam, do not read it for any other exam.
• The full form of ATM is Automated Teller Machine. This machine is a telecommunication controlled and computerized
device that provides financial transfer services to the customers.
• The isohaline represents a line connecting points of equal salinity in the ocean. Isobar shows the line joining points of
equal air pressure, isohite of equal height and isobath of equal depth.
• The picnocline shows the density gradient in a water body. The halocline represents the salinity gradient in a water body
while the thermocline shows the rapid temperature change with depth in a water or air body.
• Radiator is used to cool the engine of motor vehicles. Polygraph is a lie detection device.
• The use of ball-bearings reduces the effective area of contact between the wheel and axle. Due to the decrease in the area
of contact, the force of friction is less.
• On 9 August, 1945, a bomb named Fat Man was dropped on Nagasaki (Japan), in which plutonium was used as an
explosive. On the other hand, uranium was used as an explosive in the bomb Little Boy dropped on Hiroshima.
• In a waterjet system, a stream of water is released at high speed through thin pipes. Its applications range from the mine
industry to aeronautics. In these industries it is useful for cutting, shaping and drilling.
• Raja Ramanna was an Indian nuclear scientist who led the scientific team that conducted India's first nuclear test (Smiling
Buddha) in 1974. He was awarded the Padma Vibhushan in the year 1976.
• In the medical field, laser beams are most commonly used in sensitive surgeries such as corneal transplantation. It is also
used in the treatment of kidney stone, cancer, tumor and brain operation.
• The cytotron is a device used to generate artificial weather.
• Liquid crystals are used in wristwatches and in display devices and in powerful pocket calculators.
• In MRI i.e. Magnetic Resonance Imaging, very useful information can be obtained about different parts of the body and
their functioning by using magnetic field and radio waves. MRI technology is based on the nuclear magnetic resonance
phenomenon.
• Indian Institute of Naturopathy and Yogic Sciences is located in Bangalore.

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• The Space Applications Center is located in Ahmedabad itself while the Vikram Sarabhai Space Center is at
Thiruvananthapuram, while the ISRO Satellite Center is located in Bangalore and the (S.H.A.R.) Center is located at
Sriharikota.
• Paramagnetic substances are those substances which when placed in a magnetic field are only partially magnetized in the
direction of the field and are attracted only when brought near a supermagnet. Examples of these are oxygen, platinum,
sodium, aluminum, manganese, potassium, chromium.
• Cybernetics is one of the most advanced branches of science. Under this, the control mechanism of the processes taking
place in different systems is studied. It was first conceptualized by Norbert Wiener. It is also called the Science of Control.
• Galileo was the first to define motion.
• If the speed of rotation of the earth (rotation) is increased, then the weight of the body will decrease at the equator.
• Albert Einstein introduced the theory of relativity. Relativity is a theorem, formulated by Albert Einstein, which states that
space and time are relative and that all motion must be relative to a frame of reference. Albert Einstein's theory of
relativity It consists of two theories, namely the special theory of relativity and the general theory of relativity.
• A convex lens is used in a magnifying glass.
• The paramagnetic principle of magnetism is demonstrated by platinum.
• Steam burns are more serious than burns from boiling water even though both are at 1000 C because when steam
condenses it give up every high energy i.e. additional 22.6x105 joule of heat (latent heat of vapourisation) compared to
boiling water.
• The rays of light are scattered by the fog droplets due to which it become difficult to see through fog.
• Edwin Hubble gave the first evidence of the big-bang theory.
• To keep the outside heat away, windows of double-pane glass with air in between is the best choice because air is the bad
conductor of heat.
• Transformer is based on the principle of mutual induction.
• Curvature of the earth does not allow the television signals to be received beyond a particular distance.
• Infrared rays help in reading an old written material.
• A laser is a device that emits coherent light through a process called stimulated emission.
• A perfect black body emits and absorbs all colours of light. A good absorber is a good emitter.
• Raw mangoes shrivel when pickled in brine due to osmosis i.e., flow of water from higher concentration to lower
concentration through a semi-permeable membrane.
• Copper is a good conductor of both heat and electricity and due to this it is used in all such appliance where quick heat
transfer is required.
• As scuba driver ascends towards the water surface, water pressure decreases, so according to Boyle’s law air in his lungs
expands to occupy a greater volume. Which increase the chances of bursting the lungs.
• When a body is immersed in a fluid, the fluid exerts an upward force on it, called buoyant force. Buoyant force is directly
proportional to the density of liquid. As the density of sea water is higher than that of the fresh water. So extra buoyant
force and ship will rise a little higher.
• In automobiles, convex mirror is used as a rear view mirror because the image of the vehicle formed is small in size due to
this the field of view is increased and the driver of automobile can see the traffic over lagre area.
• Fire fly gives us cold light due to chemiluminescence i.e. light produced by chemical reaction.
• The focal length of a convex lens is shorter for blue light than for red.
• As the plug is pulled out, the value of resistance in the circuit decreases and hence more current tries to flow through the
circuit. Pulling out the plug breaks the circuit and to complete the circuit for the flow of electricity a spark is observed.
• When deep sea fishes are brought to the surface of the sea, their bodies burst, this is because the blood in their bodies
flows at very high pressure.
• Fountain pen uses capillary action in addition to gravity for flow of link.
• The gas used in a refrigerator is cooled down when compressed.
• The degree Celsius (0C) can refer to absolute temperature.
• Light Emitting Diode (LED) is Semiconductor device a forward bias p-n junction diode which converts electrical energy
into light energy.
• Diffusion refers to the process by which molecules intermingle as a result of their kinetic energy of random motion.
• When an object reflects all the colours of a white light, then it would appear white. White light is the combination of all
seven colours (VIBGYOR) of light.
• One end of miscelle is attracted to water and other to molecules of oil or grease that reduces drastically the surface tension
between water and oil.

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• The upper and lower portions in common type of bifocal lenses are concave and convex respectively.
• The inert gas within the bulb prevents the filament from evaporating. Thus, it increases the life of the filament.
• Oscilloscope is an instrument which allows us to see waves produced by sound. The microphone can then pick up the
sound and convert it to an electrical signal which can be displayed on the oscilloscope.
• Moderators like carbon and Graphite are used for slowing down the neutrons in a nuclear reactor. Neutrons from fission
have very high speeds and must be slowed greatly by “moderation” to maintain the chain reaction.
• Newton’s laws of motion do not hold good for objects moving with velocity comparable to velocity of light because it does
not follow it on this level.
• If any magnet is divided into two parts, every part will be a new magnet.
• Liquids and gases show diamagnetic, paramagnetic and electromagnetic property, but it never show ferromagnetic
property.
• Semiconductors are solid substances that show electrical conductivity either with the addition of an impurity or because of
temperature effects. Silicon, Germanium, and Galium Arsenide are semiconductors as they show electrical conductivity
depending on the addition of impurity and temperature. Quartz is an insulator.
• The centre of mass of a body is the point where the whole mass of a body is considered to be concentrated. It may lie
within or outside the body of an object. Fountain pen, cricket ball and book are all compact body and their centre of gravity
lie within the body. The centre of mass of a ring is at its centre which is outside its body.
• Hard glass is used for making hard glass laboratory apparatus.
• Ultrasonic waves are generated by a transducer that includes a piezoelectric crystal that converts electrical energy
(electric current) to mechanical energy (sound waves).
• Desalination by RO requires the use of an osmotic membrane. The higher the applied pressure above the osmotic pressure,
the higher the rate of fresh water transports across the membranes.
• The speed at which a fuse blows depends on how much current flows through it and the material of which the fuse is
made. It therefore depends on magnitude and heating effect of the current.
• When the two bodies are isolated from their surroundings, the amount of heat lost by the hot body must be equal to the
amount of heat gained by the cold body. The same principle is used in calorimetry. As heat is energy in transit, this
principle is really just conservation of energy.
• Convection is the transfer heat through the actual motion of particles, while in bulb, transfer of heat takes place through
radiation.
• When soap is mixed in water a colloidal solution is formed. The soap solution has soap micelles which are an aggregate of
soap molecules. These micelles are large and they scatter light. That is why the soap solution appears cloudy.
• Cotton readily absorbs water. This is because the fibers of the cotton have a lot of space between them.... One reason
cellulose makes cotton absorbent is that it contains a negative charge, which helps attract "dipolar" water molecules and
absorb them. Another reason is cotton's "hydrophilic properties."
• Magnification is the process of enlarging the apparent size, not physical size, of something. This enlargement is quantified
by a calculated number also called "magnification". When this number is less than one, it refers to a reduction in size,
sometimes called minification or de-magnification.
• A matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Pen, paper, clips, sand, air, ice, etc. are different forms of matter.
Every matter is made up of tiny particles. These particles are so tiny that they can't be seen with naked eyes.
• Every substance is made up of particles. These particles exhibit some characteristics. They can influence the state and
properties (physical and chemical) of a substance. The five characteristics shown by particles of matter are as follows.
1. All matter is made of particles
2. Particles have space between them
3. Particles are always moving
4. Particles move faster and get farther apart when heated
5. Particles are attracted to each other
• The frequency of a sound wave is what your ear understands as pitch. A higher frequency sound has a higher pitch, and a
lower frequency sound has a lower pitch. They have a shorter wavelength of the electromagnetic spectrum. It requires
high voltage to produce X-Rays. They are used to capture the human skeleton defects. They travel in a straight line and do
not carry an electric charge with them. They are capable of travelling in a vacuum. They are powerful waves of
electromagnetic energy.
• A simple periscope is just a long tube with a mirror at each end. Hence, there are 2 plane mirrors used which are placed
parallel to each other.
• Otto Blathy discovered the transformer.

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• A transformer is defined as a passive electrical device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through
the process of electromagnetic induction. It is most commonly used to increase ('step up') or decrease ('step
down') voltage levels between circuits.
• Otto Titusz Blathy was a Hungarian electrical engineer. He was born on 11 August 1860, Tata, Hungary. He became the co-
inventor of the modern electric transformer, the tension regulator, the AC watt-hour meter. motor capacitor for the single-
phase electric motor, the turbo generator, and the high-efficiency turbo generator.
• In 1885 the ZBD model alternating-current transformer was invented by three Hungarian engineers: Otto Blathy, Miksa
Deri, and Karoly Zipernowsky.

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CHEMISTRY
Chemistry is the science of atoms and their transformations. It is the science not so much of the one hundred elements but of the
infinite variety of atoms that may be built from them. Chemistry developed mainly in the form of Alchemy and Iatrochemistry
during 1300-1600 CE. Modern chemistry took shape in the 18th century Europe, after a few centuries of alchemical traditions
which were introduced in Europe by the Arabs.

General Properties of Matter

Matter –

• An object which has mass and occupies space is called matter. Everything around us is made up of matter. For example –
book, pen, pencil, water, air, all living beings are made of matter. You know that they all have mass and take up space.

States of Matter

• Three physical states of matter are possible – solid, liquid and gas.
• In solids these particles are arranged very close to each other in an orderly manner. They are not very dynamic. Particles
in liquids are close together, yet they can move, but in gases, particles are very far apart compared to solids or liquids.
They can move very easily and quickly.

Solid – Solids are those substances whose interstitial force is strong between molecules and the molecules remain stable in
equilibrium.

Liquid – Liquids are those substances whose internal force between molecules is less than that of solid and their shape is
variable.

Gas – The intermolecular force between gas molecules is very low and its size and volume can be easily changed.

The three states of matter have some special properties, which are as follows-

• In solid –Elasticity.
• In liquid – Pressure, Surface Tension, Capillarity and Buoyancy.
• In Gas – Atmospheric Pressure.

Physical and Chemical Changes

Physical Changes –

• In physical change, the physical properties of a substance like size, shape, color and state change. Generally, it is reversible,
that is, the original substance can be obtained by changing the reaction conditions. In this type of change no new substance
is formed. Changes of matter from one state to another such as evaporation of water, melting of ice, freezing of water,
boiling of water, formation of clouds, pulling of spring, etc. are examples of physical changes.
• Physical changes do not change the specific properties of the basic substance, ie the chemical nature of the substance does
not change. Every year up to 65% changes are made in the course content.
• Physical changes are often temporary. The process only lasts as long as the cause of the process remains. The process is
reversed when the cause of the process is removed, ie, physical changes are reversible.
• Changes in physical state, shape and external shape are physical changes. Some common examples of physical changes are
- melting of ice (becoming water), freezing of water (becoming ice), boiling of water (becoming steam), condensation or
liquefaction of water (becoming water), making of solution, flashing of electric bulb, and the breaking of glass of glass.

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Chemical Changes –

• The change in which one or more new substances are formed, that is, the internal molecular composition of the original
substance is distorted, is called chemical change.
• New substances often cannot be brought back to their original form. This means that chemical changes are often
irreversible.
• The burning of magnesium ribbon, coal, wood and leaves is called chemical changes. Fruit ripening, photosynthesis in
plants (CO2 and H2O change to glucose), sunlight, iron rust, formation of curd, water decomposition, oxidation-reduction,
etc. are some examples of chemical changes.
• Chemical changes are permanent changes that are often irreversible. For example, the burning of paper is a permanent
change, which cannot be reversed. The reason is that by combining the combustion products of paper, we cannot make
original paper once again.
• If we burn a piece of paper with the matchsticks of a burning match, completely new substances such as carbon dioxide,
water vapor, smoke and ash are produced. Therefore, paper burning is a chemical change.

Atomic Structure and Radioactivity

Structure of Atom

• The existence of atoms has been proposed since the time of early Indian and Greek philosophers (400 B.C.) who were of
the view that atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter. According to them, the continued subdivisions of
matter would ultimately yield atoms which would not be further divisible. The word ‘atom’ has been derived from the
Greek word ‘a-tomio’ which means ‘uncut-able’ or ‘non-divisible’. These earlier ideas were mere speculations and there
was no way to test them experimentally. These ideas remained dormant for a very long time and were revived again by
scientists in the nineteenth century.
• The atomic theory of matter was first proposed on a firm scientific basis by John Dalton, a British school teacher in 1808.
His theory, called Dalton’s atomic theory, regarded the atom as the ultimate particle of matter.
• Dalton’s atomic theory was able to explain the law of conservation of mass, law of constant composition and law of
multiple proportion very successfully. However, it failed to explain the results of many experiments, for example, why is it
so, that the substances like glass or ebonite when rubbed with silk or fur get electrically charged

Atom –

• The smallest particles of an element from which molecules are formed and which participate in chemical reactions without
decomposition are called atoms. John Dalton formulated the atomic theory in 1803 according to which the atom is
inseparable. But modern discoveries have shown that atoms are divisible and consist of many non-atomic particles.
• The electron, proton and neutron are the three major fundamental or non-permeable particles of the atom.
• The atom has a central nucleus, which is surrounded by negatively charged electrons.
• Protrons and neutrons are found in the nucleus of an atom and are jointly called nucleons.

Atomic Weight

• The atomic weight of an element is a number corresponding to the weight of the atom of that element. Hence "the atomic
weight of an element is a number that shows how many times the average weight of an atom of that element is 1/12
heavier than an atom of carbon-12."

Law of conservation of Mass - Law of conservation of mass states that the mass can neither be created nor destroyed but is
transformed from one form to another.

Law of Definite Proportions - This law was given by the French chemist Joseph Proust. According to him, the ratio of masses of
elements in a compound is always the same. Proust experimented with two samples of cupric carbonate, one natural and the
other synthetic.

Atomic mass - Hydrogen is the lightest atom in amongst all. The hydrogen atom has a mass of 1.008 amu. The atoms of other
elements have masses between 2 and 260 amu.

Size of Atoms - Hydrogen is the smallest atom in amongst all. The radius of the hydrogen atom is about 0.28 A0.

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Electron – It was discovered by J. J. Thomson (1897). Atomic mass unit of the electron is 0.0005486. An electron is negatively
charged sub-atomic particle. The electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1837 that of the proton or 9.109 × 10-31 kg

Neutron- It is a neutral sub-atomic particle so its name is neutron. It is represented by symbol n or n0. Its mass is slightly larger
than that of proton i.e., 1.0087 amu. It was discovered by James Chadwick (1932).

Proton - German physicist E. Goldstein discovered the anode rays while Ernest Rutherford discovered protons. Protons are very
finely charged particles. A proton has a unit positive charge. The mass of a proton is approximately equal to the mass of a
hydrogen atom.

Radioactivity

• Elements that decompose in nature automatically are called radioactive elements. The rays emanating from them are
called radioactive rays and their property is called radioactivity. Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by Henry Becquerel.
• Radioactivity is a nuclear reaction, not a chemical reaction.
• The radioactive properties of thorium were discovered by Marie Curie shortly after Bacquerel discovered radioactivity of
uranium.
• Spontaneous decomposition of atomic nuclei is called radioactive dissolution. The piercing rays ((, , rays) are emitted
from the atomic nuclei. These rays are called radioactive rays.
• The property of radioactivity is found in heavy nuclei, because heavy nuclei are temporary.
• Several new radioactive elements have been discovered in the current century, among which radon (Rn), protoctinium
(Pa), actinium (Ac), fronsium (Fr) and estatin (At) are prominent.
• All elements beyond atomic number 83 are radioactive.
• In 1898, Marie Curie and her husband Pierre Curie discovered the radioactive element polonium. In the year 1902 Marie
Curie discovered a new element radium in uranium ore pitchblende (U3O8) which is about 3 million times more radioactive
than uranium.

Constitution of Atomic Nucleus:

• The constitution of Atomic Nucleus is protons and neutrons. The mass of the nucleus is due to protons and neutrons and
the positive charge of the nucleus is due to protons only.
• Protons and neutrons are collectively called nucleons, because these particles are components of the atomic nucleus.
• The electrons in the atom reside outside the nucleus and move around the nucleus in different orbits at relatively short
distances.
• The number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons, so atoms are electrically neutral.

Isoelectronic Species

• Ions and atoms which have the same total number of electrons are called isoelectronic. Isoelectronic ions and atoms have
similar electronic configurations.

Isotopes:

• Atoms of the same atomic number but different atomic masses (or mass numbers) are called isotopes. In the periodic table,
the isotopes of an element are not the same, but different, because they have the same atomic number.
• There are three isotopes of hydrogen element known to have atomic number 1, but their mass numbers are 1, 2 and 3.
These isotopes are called hydrogen-1 (protium), hydrogen-2 (deuterium or D) and hydrogen-3 (tritium or T).
• There are three isotopes of oxygen element whose atomic number is 8, but their mass numbers are 16, 17 and 18
respectively. These isotopes are called oxygen-16, oxygen-17 and oxygen-18.
• The isotopes of an element have the same number of protons, but the number of neutrons is different.

Isobars:

• Atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers, which have the same mass number, are known as isobars.
• These have different number of protons but equal sum of number of protons and neutrons.

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Paulli exclusion principle -

• According this, "the four quantum numbers of two electrons cannot be the same." That is, only two electrons can live in an
orbital. The movement of electrons must be opposite.

Thomson Model of Atom

• J. J. Thomson, in 1898, proposed that an atom possesses a spherical shape (radius approximately 10–10 m) in which the
positive charge is uniformly distributed. The electrons are embedded into it in such a manner as to give the most stable
electrostatic arrangement. Many different names are given to this model, for example, plum pudding, raisin pudding or
watermelon. This model can be visualised as a pudding or watermelon of positive charge with plums or seeds (electrons)
embedded into it. An important feature of this model is that the mass of the atom is assumed to be uniformly distributed
over the atom.

Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of Atom

• Rutherford and his students (Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden) bombarded very thin gold foil with α–particles. A stream of
high energy α–particles from a radioactive source was directed at a thin foil (thickness ∼ 100 nm) of gold metal. The thin
gold foil had a circular fluorescent zinc sulphide screen around it. Whenever α–particles struck the screen, a tiny flash of
light was produced at that point. SCSGYAN
• The results of scattering experiment were quite unexpected. According to Thomson model of atom, the mass of each gold
atom in the foil should have been spread evenly over the entire atom, and α– particles had enough energy to pass directly
through such a uniform distribution of mass. It was expected that the particles would slow down and change directions
only by a small angles as they passed through the foil. It was observed that:
1. Most of the α–particles passed through the gold foil undeflected.
2. A small fraction of the α–particles was deflected by small angles.
3. A very few α–particles (∼1 in 20,000) bounced back, that is, were deflected by nearly 180°.

Important Facts -

• Positron – A positively charged fundamental particle, whose mass and charge is equal to that of an electron. That's why it is
called the anti-particle of the electron. Its spin is ½.
• Neutrino – These are fundamental particles without mass and charge. They were discovered by Pauli.
• Quark – Quarks are the fundamental particles of matter from which most matter is made. Quarks together make up
hadrons. A quark has a partial charge (–1/3 or +2/3 of the fundamental particle).
• Phonon– Phonons are the smallest particles of sound. Phonons are found in the vibrations of a rigid crystal dimension.
• The nucleus of an atom was discovered by Ernest Rutherford in the year 1911.
• Rutherford proposed the existence of neutron in an atom but neutron was discovered by Chadwick in 1932. He discovered
that if beryllium (Be) and other atoms are bombarded with high-speed particles, electrically neutral particles called
neutrons emerge from them.

John Dalton (1766-1844)

• He was an English chemist. When different types of atoms combine, they obey certain simple laws. Dalton's atomic theory
explains these laws in a simple way. He also gave a theory of colour blindness.

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Amedeo Avogadro (1776-1856)

• He made a brilliant guess that equal volumes of gases have equal number of molecules at the same temperature and
pressure. This helped in understanding the combination of different gases in a very simple way. It is now called Avogadro's
hypothesis (or law). He also suggested that the smallest constituent of gases like hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen are not
atoms but diatomic molecules.

Solution

Type of Solutions Example

Solution of liquid in liquid Alcohol solution in water, bromine solution in carbon disulfide, sulfuric acid solution in
water etc.
Solution of solid in liquid Sugar solution in water, iodine solution in carbon tetrachloride, lead solution in mercury,
jelly, starch, protein, sol etc.
Solution of gas in liquid Hydrogen solution in palladium metal, camphor solution in air, etc.
Solution of liquid in solid Mercury solution in thallium, water solution in sugar, water solution in salt etc.
Solution of solid into solid Zinc in copper, tin in copper, aluminum in copper, zinc and nickel solution in copper (alloys)
Solution of gas in gas Mixture gases in air
Solution of liquid in gas bromine, carbon dioxide, ammonia, etc gases in water solutions, clouds, fog etc.
Solution of solid in gas Iodine solution in air, smoke etc.
Solution of gas in liquid Carbon dioxide solution in water, hydrogen chloride gas solution in benzene etc.
The validity of this study material is only till the year 2024, do not read it after that.

Solution –

• A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances, in which the relative quantities of solute and solvent can
change continuously to a certain extent at a certain temperature.
• For example, after adding some sugar to water, sugar becomes invisible in water, that is, dissolves and a transparent
homogeneous mixture of sugar and water is formed. Similarly, water contains a mixture solution of sodium chloride,
alcohol or ammonia.
• The properties of each part of the solution are similar and each part exhibits the chemical properties of the components of
the solution. Generally, the chemical nature of its components does not change after the solution is formed.
• The solution is permanent and transparent.
• In a solution, the solute particles dissolve in the solvent in such a way that it is not possible to differentiate one from the
other.
• The solute particles present in the solution can not cross be filtered through the bloting paper.
• The amount of solute present per unit volume or per unit mass of the solution/solvent is known as concentration of
solution in Chemistry.

Solute and Solvent –

• The substance of the solution whose basic physical state is similar to that of the solution is called Solvent and the other
substance i.e. the dissolved substance is called Solute. For example, aqueous solution of sugar contains water as solvent
and sugar as solute.
• The physical state of the solution may be solid, liquid, or gas. For example, a solution of salt, alcohol or carbon dioxide in
water is a liquid solution. Air is a gaseous solution. Many alloys are solid solutions, such as brass (brass), copper (70%) and
zinc (30%) are solid solutions of metals.
• Liquid solutions are prominent in solid, liquid and gaseous solutions. Ordinary solutions are liquid solutions.
• Use of solvents - in the manufacture of many drugs in the pharmaceutical industry, in anhydrous washing (of solvents
such as benzene and petrol), in the manufacture of perfumes, in dissolving dyes, lacquers, in the manufacture of many
kinds of drinks and food items, etc.

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Saturated Solution

• The solution in which the maximum amount of the solute is dissolved at a fixed temperature is called saturated solution.
• After adding a fixed amount of water to a fixed amount of sugar at a temperature, the sugar dissolves in water. After
stirring the solution by adding a small amount of sugar to the water, the sugar slowly dissolves in the water and finally
comes to a state when the sugar stops dissolving and the solid sugar sits in the bottom of the solution. It seems. In this
state the solution is called a saturated solution. SCSGYAN

Unsaturated Solution – The solution in which some more amount of the solute can be dissolved at a fixed temperature is called
unsaturated solution.

Super saturated Solution – If the temperature of saturated solution is increased then the capacity of the solute to dissolve in
the solution is also increased and it is called supersaturated solution.

Neutral Solution - A solution that has the same concentration of hydrogen ions (H +) and hydroxide ions (OH-) is called neutral
solution.

Acidic Solution - A solution in which the concentration of hydrogen ions (H +) is greater than hydroxide ions (OH) is called
acidic solution.

Alkaline Solution - A solution in which the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH-) is greater than hydrogen ions (H +) is called
an alkaline solution.

Classification of Elements

Comparison of elements found in living and non-living substances

Element Earth Crust (%Weight) Human Body (%Weight)
Hydrogen (H) 0.14 0.5
Carbon (C) 0.03 18.5
Oxygen (O) 46.6 65.0 (Highest in humans)
Nitrogen (N) Miniscule 3.3
Sulphur (S) 0.03 0.3
Sodium (Na) 2.8 0.2
Calcium (Ca) 3.6 1.5
Magnesium (Mg) 2.1 0.1
Silicon (Si) 27.7 Negligible

Note - According to NCERT, the weight of hydrogen in human body is 0.5% and in general it is 9.5%.

Key information related to the elements

Periodic Group with the most gaseous Zero group Lightest element Hydrogen
elements
Elements with atomicity equal to 1 Inert gases Heaviest element Osmium
The most abundant element in the Oxygen Lightest metal element Lithium
human body
Element kept in Kerosene Sodium Metal found in liquid state at room temperature Mercury
Main element involved in the Calcium Non-Metal found in liquid state at room Bromine
development of bones and teeth temperature
Element with highest electron Affinity Chlorine Best conductor element of electricity Silver
Most electronegative element Fluorine Non metal which is a conductor of electricity Graphite
The most powerfull oxidizer Fluorine Most malleable element Gold
Total known elements till date 118 Most reactive non-metal Fluorine
Total Elements obtainable in nature 98 Most reactive metal elements Cesium

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Total Artificially made elements 20 Element with highest ionization potential Helium
The most abundant element on earth Oxygen Element with minimum ionization potential Cesium
The most abundant metal element on Aluminium
earth

Periodic Classification -

• A system of elements made on the basis of a fundamental property, in which elements of the same property reappear after
a certain period of time, is called a periodic classification. Its main purpose is to simplify the study of chemistry by placing
elements of similar properties into one class.

Elementary classification of elements

• To make a simple and systematic study of elements and compounds, classifying elements into groups according to
similarities in properties of different elements is called a periodic classification of elements.
✓ Dobereiner’ (1829) classified elements with similar, chemical properties into groups of three, named triads.
✓ Newland gave the Law of Octaves in which he arranged the elements in order of their increasing atomic weights, in
which each eighth element showed similarity with the first element.
✓ In 1869, German scientist Lothar Meyer classified elements on the basis of physical properties, especially their
atomic volumes, in which elements with similar properties assume the same position.
• The contribution of the development of the modern periodic table has been credited to Dmitry Mendeleev.
• Although the study of periodic relations was initiated by Dobereiner, it was Mendeleev who published the periodic law for
the first time. This rule is as follows – The properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic weights.
• Mendeleev arranged the elements in horizontal rows and vertical columns according to their increasing atomic weight in
the table in such a way that elements with similar properties are placed in the same vertical columns or groups.
Mendeleev's classification of elements was certainly more detailed than Lothar Mayer's classification.

Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids

• Metals have high melting and boiling points. These are good conductors of heat and electricity. These are malleable (can be
molded into thin sheets by hitting with a hammer) and ductile (can be drawn into wires). Other non-metals are located on
the right side of the periodic table. In the long periodic table, the metallic properties of the elements in a group increase as
we move from top to bottom and the metallic properties decrease as we move from left to right in the period.
• Nonmetals are solid and gas at room temperature. Their melting and boiling points are low (boron and carbon are
exceptions). These are poor conductors of heat and electricity. Many non-metallic solids are brittle. These are not
malleable and ductile. The change in the properties of elements from metallic to non-metallic is not abrupt, rather this
change is seen in the form of a zig-zag line.
• The elements germanium, silicon, arsenic, antimony and tellurium show characteristics of both metals and non-metals.
This type of elements are called 'Metalloid'.

Ionisation Energy -

• Ionisation energy, is the minimum amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron of an isolated
neutral gaseous atom or molecule.

Electron Affinity –

• The energy released when an electron is added to a neutral separated gaseous atom is called electron affinity of that atom.
• In a period, the electron affinity increases from left to right, while in a group, its value decreases from top to bottom.
• The exception is the electron affinity of the elements of the third period> the electron affinity of the elements of the second
period (this is due to the small size of the elements of the second period).
• The electron affinity of chlorine is highest (Cl> F> Br> I)

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Important One Liner Facts –

• Chemically, diamond is the purest form of Carbon (crystal structure). Hence, it is a fundamental element. Sand is basically
made up of Silicon and Oxygen, Marble is made up of Calcium, Carbon and Oxygen while sugar is mainly the mixture of
Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen.
• The most abundant element in the Universe is Hydrogen, which makes up about ¾ of all matter. Helium makes up most of
the remaining ¼ (25%). Thus, it is clear that hydrogen is the most common and abundant element in the Universe. The
estimated percentage of oxygen by weight in the Earth's crust is 46.6%.

Metals, non-metals and their compounds minerals, ores

Minerals and ores of certain metals

Metal minerals/ore Metal minerals/ore Metal minerals/ore Metal minerals/ore
Na Rock Salt Cu Chalcopyrite Al Bauxite Mg Pyrolusite
Trona Chalcocite Cryolite
Chile Saltpetre Cuptrite Corundum
Borex Malachite Diaspore
Glauberite Azurite
Cryolite
K Sylvine Ag Native Silver Sn Cassiterite Mn Manganite
Carnalite Argentite Hausmanite
Schonite Keragyrite
Mg Magnesite Zn Zinc Blende Pb Galena Fe Magnetite
Dolomite Franklinite Cerussite Haematite
Carnalite Calamine Matlockite Limonite
Kieserite Zincite Siderite
Epsom Salt Iron pyrites
Epsomite
Ca Limestone Hg Cinnabar - - - -
Calcite
Gypsum
Fluorspar
Phosphorite

Metals -

• The element which loses elctrons and provides cations is called metal. In the periodic table almost all metals are located
towards left and middle. Also, the elements which are located on extreme left have the most metallic properties. Metals are
hard, shiny, malleable, tensile and acoustic. It can conduct electricity or heat in both solid and molten states.

Metals and their compounds minerals, ores

• Earth crust is the main source of elements. Among non-metals- Oxygen and then Silicon and among metals Aluminium is
found in abundant quantity in the earth crust.
• In nature, metals are found in two states -
1. In the free state i.e., as simple substances (elements) (Native of Elemental State).
2. Combined State in the form of compounds.
• In nature, the occurrence of any metal depends on its chemical reactivity. Less reactive metals as gold and platinum occur
in a free state. More reactive metals are found in combined state. Some metals as copper, silver and iron are found in both
states i.e., free and combined state.
• Minerals: - The state in which metals and their compounds occur in earth’s crust in known as minerals.
• Ores: - Minerals from which economically beneficial metals or gems can be extracted are known as ores.
• Generally, metals occur in the state of oxides, sulphides, carbonates, halides and sulphates.

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Non-Metals –

• The elements which do not exhibit the metallic character are called non-mettalic. Bromine is a non-metal substance found
in the liquid state. Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, chlorine etc. are examples of some gaseous non-metals. Carbon, sulphur,
phosphorus, iodine, etc. are examples of some solid non-metals. Although the number of non-metals is very small, but their
role is very important in daily human life.
• Non-metals are brittle, shineless, non-adhesive. They are the conductors of electricity and heat.
• Mercury (Mercury, Hg) (sole metal) and bromine (Br) (sole non-metal) are found in the liquid state.
• Some non-metallic gases are inert, these are called noble gases. Such as Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Organ (Ar), Krypton (Kr),
Jeonon (Xe) and Radon (Rn). Radon is inert but radioactive gas.

Hydrogen

• Hydrogen is the first element of the periodic table. It is the lightest of the known elements yet. In 1766, Cavendish made
this gas by the action of dilute sulfuric acid on iron, and in 1783 Lavoisier named it hydrogen.
• Hydrogen has atomic number 1 and electronic configuration 1s1.
• Hydrogen exhibits similarities with both alkaline metals and halogen.
• Three isotopes of hydrogen are known, whose mass numbers are 1, 2 and 3 respectively. These isotopes are called light
hydrogen or protium (11H or H), deuterium (21H or D) and tritium (31H or T).
• Protium and deuterium are permanent isotopes of hydrogen, but tritium is radioactive. Tritium is found in very small
amounts in nature. It is made in a nuclear reactor by artificial methods.
• Hydrogen is the most commonly found element in the universe. About 0.9% of the Earth's surface is hydrogen by weight.
• Hydrogen is found in excessive amounts in the sun and shining stars.
• Hydrogen is the first element of the periodic table. Its outermost electronic configuration is one electron less than the
configuration of the noble gas helium corresponding to halogens.

Physical Properties

• Hydrogen is colorless, tasteless and odorless gas.

• It is very soluble in water, because its molecules are nonpolar.
• This is the lightest. Its density is 0.0695 as compared to air.
• Its melting point is 13.96K and boiling point is 20.4K.
• It cobustible, but is not helpful in combution.
• It can be liquefied at low temperature and high pressure.

Properties of deuterium

• Deuteriums are colorless, odorless, tasteless, and insoluble gases in water.

• The molecules of deuterium are di-atomic.

Water -

• The vast majority of all living organisms are formed by water. Water is about 65% in human body and about 95% in some
plants. 97% of the total water is present in the oceans and the rest in pure form. Rainwater is the purest form of water.
• Water is a neutral oxide of hydrogen.
• Pure water is clean, colorless, odorless, tasteless and pransparent.
• Its freezing point is 00C and boiling point 1000C.

Heavy Water, D2O

• Deuterium oxide (D2O) is called heavy water. Heavy water was discovered in the year 1932 by H.C. Urey and E.W.
Washburn. This study material is not valid after the year 2024, after which it will become outdated.
• Heavy water is a colorless, odorless and tasteless liquid. It reduces the speed of fast-moving neutrons in a nuclear reactor.
That is, it acts as a Moderator.
• It is used in substituion reactions, to study the reaction mechanism.
• Viscosity of heavy water is higher than that of normal water.

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Uses of Heavy Water

• Heavy water is a precious substance. Its main uses are as follows:

1. As neutron moderator – The substance which moderates the fast moving neutrons in atomic reactors is termed as
moderator. Heavy water is used as a neutron moderator in nuclear reactor.
2. It is used to prepare deuterium and deuterium compounds.
• Concentrated heavy water is harmful to body. It reacts slowly than ordinary water, as a result the physiological
reactions of the body become abnormal. SCSGYAN
• It inhibits the growth of plants. Seed germination stops in the presence of heavy water.
3. It is used both as Coolant and Moderator.

Soft Water and Hard Water

• The water which forms lather easily with soap is called soft water and the one which forms lathers with difficulty is called
hard water.
• The hardness of water is due to dissolution of calcium and magnesium salts such as bicarbonate, chloride, sulfate, nitrate
etc.
• Common soap is sodium salt of stearic acid (C17H35COOH). Sodium stearate (soap) is soluble in water.

Hydrogen peroxide

• In 1818, Thenard discovered hydrogen peroxide. The formula for hydrogen peroxide is H2O2.

Properties of Hydrogen Peroxide,-

• It is pale blue – green liquid which appears colorless in a dilute solution, slightly more viscous than water.
• It is soluble in water, alcohol and ether. It is a weak acid.
• Its relative density is 1.47 at 00 C.

Uses of Hydrogen Peroxide-

1. Hydrogen peroxide is a natural antiseptic and germicide, therefore one of its most common uses is to clean wounds to
prevent infection.
2. It is used for bleaching silk, wool, hair and ivory.
3. It is used in the preservation of milk, wine, etc.
4. Hydrogen peroxide is used in the propulsion of rockets, jets, submarines and torpedoes. It is used as a fuel by itself or as an
oxidiser of another fuel, as it yields oxygen.

Carbon and its various form

• Oxocarbons are not organic. Oxocarbon is an inorganic compound containing only carbon and oxygen.
• Both graphite and diamond are the allotropes of carbon. The diamond is the hardest while graphite is softer than the
diamond. Graphite is used to make pencil lead.
• Buckminster Fullerene is a spherical fullerene molecule (an allotrope of carbon) whose formula is C60. It has a cage-
like fused-ring structure which resembles a football.
• At high temperatures, large molecules of carbon break down into smaller molecules in the cracking process. Petroleum
is obtained by this process.
• Smelting is a process used in the chemical method of obtaining pure copper from copper ore. The metallurgical process
under which metals are found in mixed state is called smelting.
• In the hydrogenation process (hydrogenation), edible oils are converted into vegetable ghee by transferring hydrogen
in the presence of nickel catalysts.
• Vulcanization is a chemical process in which rubber or related polymers are converted into a more durable material by
adding sulfur or some other similar material.
• Generally, three types of color sources are used –

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1. Sodium Lamp – It emits yellow light.

2. Mercury Lamp – It emits white-blue light.
3. Fluorescent Lamp – It emits a mixed light which is almost similar to sunlight.

Carbon

• It is found in both combined and free states. In the free state it is found in the form of coal, diamond, graphite and fullerene
and in the combined state it is found in the form of metal carbonate, hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide (0.03%) in air. It is
an essential component of living beings.
• "When the same element is found in more than one form in nature, which has different physical properties but similar
chemical properties, then this property of that element is called Allotropy."
• Carbon is found in two different forms.
• Crystalline forms such as diamond, graphite and fullerene.
• Acrystalline forms such as coal, wood, charcoal, animal charcoal, lampblack, coke, etc.

Diamond:

• It is found in South Africa, Brazil, USA and India. Diamond can also be made in the laboratory. This is called artificial
diamond. The hardest naturally occuring substance in earth is diamond, while wurtzite boron nitride is hardest artificial
substance (which comes from meteorites).
• Pure diamond is colorless, translucent and hardest, which is it cuts glass.
• Its melting point is unusually high at around 36000 C.
• Its relative density is 3.52.
• It is a conductor of electricity and heat.
• It is insoluble in all solvents.
• It is used to cut glass and make holes in rocks.
• It is used to polish hard materials.
• It is used as an abrasive to sharpen the edge.
• Carborundum (silicon carbide) is also called artificial diamond. It is diamond-like in hardness.

Graphite:

• Graphite is the major form of carbon, which is found in nature in greater quantities than diamonds.
• Artificial graphite is made by the Aitchison process. Through this process, graphite is made by heating anthracite coal with
the addition of a small amount of iron oxide or silica in an electric furnace.
• Graphite is a dark gray soft substance. It feels smooth to touch and has a metallic lusture.
• Graphite is softer than diamond.
• Relative density of graphite is around 2.5, hence it is lighter than diamond.
• It is a good conductor of electricity because there are free electrons in each layer. Its melting point is similar to that of
diamond (35000 C).
• In the context of lab-grown diamonds (LGDs), graphite is used as a diamond seed.

Elements Allotropes
Carbon Diamond, graphite, wood charcoal, bone charcoal, blood charcoal etc
Phosphorus White or yellow phosphorus, red phosphorus, black violet phosphorus
Oxygen Oxygen and ozone
Sulphur Rhombic sulphur, monoclinic sulphur, Amorphous, plastic sulphur

Difference between diamond and graphite

Diamond Graphite
It is hard (Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring substance It is soft
found on earth.)
It is the insulator of electricity. It is a conductor of electricity.

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It does not make marks on paper. It creates a black mark by rubbing on the paper.
Its relative density is 3.52. Its relative density is 2.2.
The structure of its layer is isotropic. Its layer is composed of hexagonal lattice surface.
It is used in the manufacture of jewelery. Its jewelery is not manufactured.
It is transparent and colorless. It is opaque and of color of ash.

Alloys

Some of the major alloys are their components and uses

Alloys Composition Usese

Brass Cu-70%, Zn-30% Wire, machine parts, as utensils
Bronze Cu-88%, Sn-12% Utensils and sculptures
Artificial gold Cu-90%, Al-10% In making jewelery and sculptures
Currency metal Cu-95%, Sn-4%, P-1% Making Coins
Gun metal Cu-88%, Sn-10%, Zn-2% In making of guns and machine parts
Bell metal Cu-80%, Sn-20% Bell making
Constantan Cu-60%, Ni-40% As wire
Monal metal Cu-28%, Fe-2%, Ni-70% In making sculptures, in alkali-resistant containers
Delta metal Cu-60%, Zn-38%, Fe-2% In making bearings, valves and propellers of water
vessels
Munz Metal Cu-60%, Zn-40% Making Coins
Rose's metal Bi-50%, Pb-28%, Sn-22% Automatic fuse making
Type metal Pb-82%, Sb-15%, Sn-3% Forming types of printing mines
Wood metal Pb-33%, Bi-33.5%, Sn-19%, Cd-14.5% In making the diframe
German silver Cu-50-61.6%, Zn-19-17.2%, Ni-30-21.1% Utensils and sculptures
Dutch metal Cu-80%, Zn-20% Making machine parts, cheap jewelry
Magnellium Al-95%, Mg-5% In making aircraft and airoplane
Duralumin Al-95%, Mg-1%, Cu-4% In making airplanes, pressure cookers etc.
Aluminum bronze Al-10%, Cu-90% For making utensils, stamps, jewelery, paints etc.
Phosphor bronze Cu-85%, Sn-12%, P-2% In making radio instruments
Nichrome Ni-58-62%, Fe-22-25%, Cr-8-13%, C-0.2- In making electric heating components
1%, Mn, Zn, SiO2-1-2%
Solder Pb-68%, Sn-32% Electrical industry
Alnico Steel-50%, Al-20%, Ni-20%, Co-10% In the manufacture of magnets
Stainless Steel Fe-73%, Cr-18%, Ni-8%, C-1% Making motorcycles and utensils etc.
Manganese steel Mn-14%, Fe-80-85% Girder, encasing and grinding machines in safes,
railway tracks
Chromium steel Cr-2.4%, C-1.5%, Fe-90-95% In making cutting tools, machines, bullets etc.
Nickel steel Ni-3.5%, C-1.5%, Fe-90-95% In making electric wires, propeller shaft, armor etc.
Tungsten steel Cr-10%, C-0.25%, Mn-0.35%, Fe-85-95% In making surgical instruments, utensils, sculptures
etc.
Chrome Vanadium V-(0.15%), Cr (2-10%), Fe (90-95%) For making axles, shafts, frames, axles etc.
steel

Alloys

• A homogeneous mixture of two or more metals or one or more metals and a nonmetal is called an alloy. If one component
of the alloy is mercury (Hg), the alloy is called amalgam.
• Each alloy has certain useful properties. These properties are different from the basic properties of alloying elements.
These properties can be changed by reducing or increasing the proportion of ingredients. The following characteristics are
found in alloys –
• Alloys are often harder than their constituent metals.
• Alloys are more corrosion resistant than their constituent metals.

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• Their melting points are often lower than those of pure mettalic elements.

• Steel is an alloy that has a very large proportion of iron and a small amount of carbon and other elements.

Aluminum alloys

Alloys Composition Uses

Aluminum bronze Cu (90%), Al (10%) Manufacturing of utensils, coin etc.
Magnelium Mg (2%), Al (95-96%), Cu-Fe (2-3%) In Airoplane manufacturing
Nickeloy Al (95%), Cu (4%), Ni (1%) Airoplane
Duralumin Cu (4%), Mn (0.5 %), Mg (0.5%), Al (95%) In the manufacture of pressure cookers, airoplane etc.
This study material is only for UPPSC RO/ARO PRE RE-Exam, do not read it for any other exam.

Sulfur, Nitrogen, Ozone

Nitrogen (N):

• It is a trivalent diatomic molecule.

• Nitrogen is found in the atmosphere along with oxygen (78% by volume). In the combined state, it is found in compounds
like Chile Saltpeter (NaNO3), nitrates, ammonia, urea etc.
• It is a naturally occurring element that is essential for growth and reproduction in both plants and animals. It is found in
amino acids that make up proteins, in nucleic acids that comprise the heredity material and life blueprint for all cells and in
many organic and inorganic compounds.
• Aircrafts tyres are filled with nitrogen because nitrogen gas is mostly inert, meaning that it requires more energy to react
with substances.
• A part from the above another reason is that nitrogen is less likely to diffuse through the rubber than oxygen maintaining
tyre pressure stable over the long period.
• Insectivorous plants have adapted to grow in places where the soil is poor in nutrients especially nitrogen for example
acidic bogs. These plants get nitrogen from insects.
• Nitrogen is a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas.
• It is not poisonous but if there is a deficiency of oxygen, animals and human being cannot survive in its presence.
• It is lighter than air. Its vapor density is 14.
• It has a freezing point of 63.2 K and a boiling point of 77 K.
• It is slightly soluble in water and does not show allotropy.

Ozone

• Ozone is a highly unstable trivalent allotrope of oxygen.

• Ozone is heavier than air and less soluble in water.
• It is also a strong oxidizing agent. It does not react with KMnO4 and K2Cr2O7.
• Ozone is used as a pesticide in theaters, to keep air clean in the rail running under the ground, in water purification and to
prevent food from rotting.
• Ozone oil is used in bleaching ivory, starch, flour, delicate fabric, and in making artificial silk and camphor.

Sulphur -

• The word Sulphur is derived from the Latin word "Sulpur". Sulphur is called the enemy of copper. The common name of
sulfur is "Brimstone". Its symbol is S, atomic number 16 and atomic weight 32.1.
• Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) is a colorless, odorless, flammable inorganic compound. The shape of this molecule is
octahedral.

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Acid, Base and Salt

Acid

• Acids are compounds that contain one or more displaceable hydrogen atoms and are displaced partly or wholly
to metals or mettalic compounds, which form salts when displaced by conductive radicals that forms salt and
water or reaction with bases, whose aqueous solutions turn blue litmus red and those which are sour in taste, is
called acid.
• The taste of curd, lemon juice, orange juice and vinegar is sour. The taste of these substances is sour because
they contain acids. The chemical nature of such substances is acidic.
• The word ‘acid’ is derived from a Latin word, which means “sour”. The sour taste of most of the fruits and
vegetables is due to various types of acids present in them. The digestive fluids of most of the animals and
humans also contain acids.
• Acid - reacts with bases and alkali to form salts and water.
• Acid turns blue litmus and methyl orange to red.

Sources of Some Natural Acids

Name of Acid Source

Acetic acid (Ethanoic acid) Vinegar
Formic acid (Methonoic acid) Ant Sting, Bee Sting
Citric acid, Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) Gooseberry, Lemon, Orange and commonly found in all citrus fruits
Lactic acid Curd
Oxalic acid Tomato, Spinach
Tartaric Acid Grapes, Tamarind, Citrus, Bananas, Unripe mangoes
Malic acid Apple, Pears
Benzoic acid Grass, leaves, Urine
Tannic acid Tea
Glutamic acid Wheat

Alkali

• Bases that are soluble in water are called alkali. Such as - sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide
(KOH), calcium hydroxide [Ca (OH) 2], ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) etc.
• All alkalis are base but not all bases are alkali. The reason for this is that not all bases are is soluble in water.
• Commonly, substances which have bitter taste and which feel soapy on touch, are called base. The nature of
these substances is called basic.

Salts

• Salts are compounds that are formed when the displaceable hydrogen atoms present in an acid are completely
or partially displaced by a metal or metal-like radical. That is, due to the reaction of acid and base (Bhasma),
another compound called saft is formed along with water.

Some Common Salts and Their Uses

Salt Related facts Uses

Calcium hypochlorite (bleaching • Its solution is alkaline in nature • In cleaning the swimming pool
powder) [Ca (OCl)Cl] • It is kept in cool and dry places • In the disinfection of drinking water
away from organic materials and • Paper, as bleaching agent
metals. • In the manufacture of chloroform
(CHCl3) and unshrinkable wool.
Calcium Sulfate Hemihydrate • It is obtained by heating gypsum at • Helps to hold broken bones in
(Plaster of Paris) [CaSO4. ½.H2O) 1000C. wounded areas(plaster)
• It is a white powder, in which when • In the manufacture of chalk, fire
water is mixed, it again gets retardants, toys and decorative items
converted into solid gypsum. • To make the surface smooth in home
construction

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Potassium nitrate (KNO3) • It is a saline salt of alkaline nature. • In the manufacture of fertilizers,
Its color ranges from white to gray. glass, gunpowder and medicine and
• It is soluble and flammable in water toothpaste for sensitive teeth
and accelerates the combustion of • As an oxidizer in rocket fuel
substances.
Sodium Chloride (Common salt) • It is found in sea water, brackish • For food preparation and in pickle
(NaCl) water lakes and mineral form. conservation
• Obtained by the reaction of sodium • To melt frozen ice in extremely cold
hydroxide and chlorine. countries
• In the manufacture of baking soda
and sodium hydroxide
Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic Soda) • It is a white solid ionic compound, • In the manufacture of sodium salts
(NaOH) obtained by the action of water on and detergents
sodium or their oxides. • In making wood pulp for the
• It is completely soluble in water. It manufacture of paper
absorbs the moisture and carbon • In the refining of bauxite ore
dioxide present in the air. • As Industrial Cleaning Agent
Sodium Carbonate (washing soda) • Pure sodium carbonate is a white • In the manufacture of glass, paper,
(Na2CO3) and odorless powder that absorbs soap and borax.
moisture from the air. • As a Wetting Agent in the Brick
• Its taste is pungent salty. Manufacturing Industry.
• It forms alkaline solution in water. • In the treatment of permanent
hardness of water
• As a foaming agent for toothpaste
Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) • It is a white fibrous solid which • In Fire Extinguisher
(NaHCO3) usually looks like a fine powder. • As a Leavining agent in food
• Its taste is mildly salty and salty. It preparation
is almost similar to washing soda. • In the manufacture of baked foods
and fried foods like pancakes, breads
etc.

Strength of Alkali and acid

• The strength of an alkali or acid depends on the number of H + ions or OH ions it produces.
• The strength of an acid or base can be determined by a universal indicator. This indicator is called the PH scale.
• This scale is used to determine ph from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (highly alkaline).
• Pure water is neutral, its pH is 7.
• Strong acids produce large amounts of H + ions. Examples - HCL, H2SO4, and HNO3
• Weak acids produce small amounts of ions. Example - CH3COOH, H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
• Specific types of substances are used to test whether a substance is acidic or basic. These substances are called
indicators.
• The indicators change color when mixed with acidic or basic substances. Turmeric, Litmus, Hibiscus petals etc.
are some of the naturally occurring indicators.

Acid- Base Indicators

Name of Indicator Change with acid Change with base

Blue litmus Change in the Red No change
Red litmus No change Change in the Blue
Turmeric No change Change in the Red
Methyl orange Change in the Red Change in the Yellow
Phenolpthalein (Colourless) No change Change in the Pink

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The pH Scale –

• Acidic solution has pH < 7, Basic solution has pH > 7, Neutral solution has pH = 7

The pH of some common substances

Name of the fluid pH Name of the fluid pH

Saturated solution of NaOH ~15 Black Coffee 5.0
0.1 M NaOH solution 13 Tomato juice ~4.2
Lime water 10.5 Soft drinks and vinegar ~3.0
Milk of magnesia 10 Lemon juice ~2.2
Egg white, sea water 7.8 Gastric Juice ~1.2
Human blood 7.4 1 M HCL solution ~0
Milk 6.8 Concentrated HCL ~1.0
Human saliva 6.4

Amino acids

• There are basically 20 types of amino acids. Two additional amino acids are in some species coded for by codons
that are usually interpreted as stop codons, combined in different ways to form different protein molecules.
These two amino acids are the 21st and the 22nd ones and named as Selenocysteine and Pyrrolysine
respectively.
• Amino acids are classified into three groups: 1. Essential amino acids 2. Nonessential amino acids 3.
Conditionally essential amino acids
• ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS - Essential amino acids cannot be formed by the body. This is why, they must come
from food. The 9 essential amino acids are: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine,
threonine, tryptophan, and valine.
• NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS - None-ssential means that our bodies can produce the amino acid, even if we do
not get it from the food we eat. Nonessential amino acids include: alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid,
cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine.
• CONDITIONALLY ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS - Conditionally essential amino acids are usually not essential,
except in times of illness and stress. Conditionally essential amino acids include: arginine, cysteine, glutamine,
tyrosine, glycine, proline, and serine.

Name of bases Where they are found

Calcium Hydroxide Lime water
Ammonium Hydroxide As a cleaning agent special for glass windows
Sodium Hydroxide/Potassium Hydroxide Soaps
Magnesium Hydroxide Milk of Magnesia

Acid Alkali/base
Taste citrus Bitter in taste
Blue litmus turns into red. Red litmus turns into blue.
Example - Example -
HCL NaOH
H2SO4 KOH

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HNO3 Ca (OH)2
CH3COOH NH4OH
Every year up to 65% changes are made in the course content.

Alcohol -

• Hydroxy derivatives of aliphatic hydrocarbons (such as CH3OH, C2H5OH etc.) are called alcohols.
Formulas and Names of Alcohols
Formula of Alcohol Common Name Formula of Alcohol Common Name
CH3OH Methyl Alcohol CH3(CH2)2CH2OH n- butyl alcohol isobutyl alcohol
CH3CH2OH ethyl alcohol (CH3CH2CH(OH)CH3 s- butyl alcohol
CH3CH2CH2OH n- propyl alcohol (CH3)3COH t- butyl alcohol
(CH3)2CHOH Isopropyl alcohol CH3(CH2)3CH2OH n- Pentil alcohol or n- Amyl alcohol

HYDROCARBONS

Hydrocarbon

• The organic compounds formed by the combination of carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbons are mainly obtained from coal and petroleum, which are the main sources of energy. There are
two types of hydrocarbons – Aliphatic hydrocarbons – are open chain hydrocarbons. And closed chain
hydrocarbons are called aromatic hydrocarbons.
• Petrochemicals are the main primary material for the manufacture of many important commercial products.
Liquefied petroleum gas, LPG are the major energy sources for domestic fuel and automobiles. Liquified
Petroleum Gas and Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), which are obtained from petroleum.
• On the basis of structure, hydrocarbons are classified into open chain or saturated (alkanes), unsaturated
(alkenes and alkynes), cyclic (alicyclic) and aromatic compounds. SCSGYAN
• If the carbon atoms form a closed chain or ring, they are called cycloalkanes. In unsaturated hydrocarbons,
carbon-carbon multiple bonds such as double bonds, triple bonds, or both are absent.

Ethylene – (C2H4) –

• Mustard gas is made from Ethylene.

• Mustard gas is an oil-like liquid. It has a mustard-like smell. Its vapor causes blisters on the skin and has a fatal
effect on the lungs and other parts of the body. This gas is used in war.
• Ethylene is formed by heating ethyl alcohol with an excess of concentrated sulfuric acid at 1700-1800 C.
• In the reaction, concentrated sulfuric acid acts as a dehydrator.
• Ethylene is a colorless, sweet smell gas slightly soluble in water. Its inhalation might cause unconsciousness.
• Ethylene is used in artificial ripening of fruits.
• Ethylene is used as an anesthetic, as well as in cutting and joining metals.
• Ethylene is used to make polythene.

Acetylene – C2H2

• Acetylene is formed when calcium carbide reacts with water.

• Acetylene is a colourless, odourless, slightly soluble gas in water. The impure acetylene smells like garlic.
• Acetylene is slightly lighter than air.
• Compressed and liquefied acetylene is a terrible explosive.
• A very violent explosion occurs when a mixture of acetylene and air or oxygen is ignited.

Uses of Acetylene

• A very high temperature is produced when acetylene is burnt in pure oxygen. The temperature of an oxy-
acetylene flame is about 30000C.
• All organic matter in the world is made up of organic compounds. Carbon is essentially found in organic
compounds.

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• When acetylene is burnt in air, a very bright and dazzling light is produced. Acetylene is used as illuminant gas in
carbide lamps due to the high illuminance power of acetylene flame. SCSGYAN
• Butane is a flammable hydrocarbon with the molecular formula C4H10. It is used in cigarette lighters.
• The six substances that biologists consider essential for life are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus
and sulphur. All the basic chemicals associated with life (proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, vitamins,
hormones, etc.) are made up of these basic elements.
• Paddy fields, coal mines and domestic animals are man made sources of methane emissions into the atmosphere,
while wetlands and seas are natural sources of methane emissions.
• Mustard gas was used as a chemical weapon in the First World War. Its chemical name is dichloro diethyl sulfide.
It is a poisonous gas. It can blister on exposed skin. Pure mustard gas is a colourless, thick viscous liquid at room
temperature.

Methyl alcohol (methanol or carbinol)

• Methyl alcohol was first obtained by dissolving distillation of wood, hence it is also called wood spirit or wood
naphtha. Methyl alcohol is found in the form of esters in the oil of winter green and some other essential oils. It is
present in the form of methyl salicylate (ester) in the oil of winter green. SCSGYAN

Properties of Methyl Alcohol

• Methyl alcohol is a colourless, inflammable, neutral liquid. Its boiling point is 64.70C. It has a spirit-like smell.
• Methyl alcohol is very toxic. By drinking it a person becomes blind or insane and drinking too much leads to
death. Due to its toxic properties, methyl alcohol is used in the denaturation of ethyl alcohol. Mixing methyl
alcohol with ethyl alcohol makes it toxic and unfit for drinking.
• Methyl alcohol shows the general properties of alcohols. It burns with a slight incandescent in air and oxygen to
form carbon dioxide and water. Its vapor forms an explosive mixture when ignited with air or oxygen.

Uses of methyl alcohol

• As a solvent for dissolving paints, varnishes, celluloid, shellac, etc.

• A mixture of petrol and methyl alcohol is used as fuel for motor-engines.
• Dyes, Perfumes, Medicines etc. in industrial manufacture.
• Methyl alcohol is used to make methylated spirits. Ethyl alcohol containing methyl alcohol is called methylated
spirit or denatured spirit. Mixing toxic methyl alcohol with ethyl alcohol makes it unfit for drinking.
• A mixture of methyl alcohol (40%) and water (60%) is used as antifreeze for radiators of automobiles.
Ethyl Alcohol (or Ethanol) C2H5OH

• Ethyl alcohol is commonly called alcohol. Ethyl alcohol is found in fruit, vegetable and fragrance oils in the form
of ethyl esters of organic acids.
• Ethyl alcohol is the main component of all types of wine, hence it is also called spirit of wine. It is produced by
fermentation method from containing substances, hence it is also called grain alcohol.

Absolute Alcohol

• 100% ethyl alcohol (anhydrous ethyl alcohol) is called pure alcohol. Pure alcohol cannot be obtained by
fractional distillation of the refined spirit, because fractional distillation of the refined spirit produces a stagnant
mixture consisting of 95.6% ethyl alcohol and 4.4% water.

Uses of ethyl alcohol-

• In the preparation of methylated spirits.

• As a solvent for paints, varnishes, gums, sulphur, iodine, etc.
• In the preparation of medicines, tinctures, perfumes, inks, varnishes, etc.
• As a fuel for internal combustion engines (power alcohol)
• In the preservation of biological samples.
• In spirit-level, alcohol-thermometer etc.
• Spirits, as fuel for lamps, stoves etc.
• In the preparation of liquor and other alcoholic beverages.

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Important Organic Compounds

Name of Organic Related facts Uses

Compound
C6H5 NO2 (Nitrobenzene) It is a light, yellow colored oil with an almond-like • In the manufacture of aniline and
odor, which is also known as the oil of Mirbane. It other organic compounds.
is produced in the process of manufacturing • In the manufacture of an explosive
aniline from benzene. called trinitrobenzene (TNB).
• In the manufacture of various types of
polishes and dyes and soaps.
CH2Cl2 (Dichloromethane) It is a colourless, volatile and sweet smelling • As a solvent
liquid. It is insoluble in water but soluble in many • Used to remove paint from surfaces,
other organic solvents. remove caffeine from tea and coffee,
as aerosol spray propellant
Methyl isocyanate gas It is a colourless, toxic and flammable liquid, • It is an intermediate product in the
(CH3NCO) coming in contact with it can cause eye irritation, manufacture of carbonate insecticides.
respiratory problems and even death. • In the manufacture of rubber and gum.
The Bhopal gas tragedy (1984 AD) was caused by
the leakage of methyl isocyanate gas from the
Union Carbide plant.
Tear Gas It is also called Lachrymator. • It is mainly used by the police to clear
the unruly crowd.
Mustard Gas (C2H8Cl2S) or It is formed by the reaction of sulphur dichloride • In World War I, it was used by the
sulphur Mustard (SCl2) and ethylene (C2H5). It is a very toxic gas German army as a weapon against the
which gives a mustard-like odor. This gas British and Canadian forces.
produces blisters when it comes in contact with
the skin.
D.D.T. (dichloro diphenyl It is a colourless, odourless, tasteless and • It was used against malaria and typhus
trichloro-ethane) crystalline chemical. Its insecticidal properties diseases during World War II.
were discovered in 1939 by Paul Hermann Müller. • It is also used in the form of
insecticides in agriculture, but due to
Muller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine environmental side effects, it is rarely
in the year 1948 for discovering the potential of being used.
DDT as a contact chemical against various insects.
Aspirin Its chemical name is Acetyl Salicylic Acid. It is • It is used in the treatment of fever,
obtained naturally from the bark of a tree called pain (inflammation) etc.
willow.
Naphthalene - (C10H8) It is a white crystalline solid, the simplest • As a disinfectant, in the manufacture
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon. It is mainly of mothballs to keep insects away
obtained from coal tar. from clothes.
• In producing special effects in
fireworks (pyrotechnics) and in the
manufacture of plastic rolls and dyes.
Trinitro toluene, (TNT) It is a yellow-colored solid chemical substance, • Trinitro toluene is used as an
[C6H2(NO2)3CH3] which was first manufactured by Julius explosive to break rocks for military
Willebrand (Germany) in 1863 AD. purposes, in industrial areas and for
Its explosive properties were discovered in 1891 mining.
by Karl Hausermann.
Glucose (C6 H12 O6) It is a type of carbohydrate, also known as simple • In wine manufacturing
sucrose and dextrose. • In the preservation of sweets and fruit
juices
• In pharmaceutical manufacturing
Urea (NH2 CONH2) Urea is also called carbamide. It is the first organic • As Nitrogenous Fertilizer
material to be artificially synthesized in the • In the manufacture of skin and hair
laboratory. cosmetics.
About 46 % nitrogen is present in urea. Urea • In the manufacture of formaldehyde

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plays a major role in the metabolism of nitrogen- and urea plastics.

containing compounds in animals. • In the manufacture of explosives
named urea nitrate.
Chloroform (CHCI3) It is also called trichloromethane. It is a colorless • As an anesthetic to sedate the patient
thick liquid with a sweet aroma. during surgery.
It forms a toxic gas called phosgene (COCl2) in the • As a solvent for fats, oils, rubbers,
presence of light, so chloroform is kept in colored waxes, rolls, etc.
bottles.
CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons) These are man-made organic compounds, which • AC and as refrigerants in refrigerators
contain the presence of chlorine, fluorine and • As a solvent in drycleaning
carbon. • As a Degreasing Solvent
They are also called Freons. These compounds are • As Aerosol Propellants
non-toxic and non-flammable. CFCs deplete the
ozone layer and increase the greenhouse effect.
C6H5CI (Chlorobenzene) • This DDT It is used in the manufacture
It is an aromatic organic compound, which is of insecticide and other organic
colorless and flammable. compounds, such as phenol, aniline,
chloronitrobenzene.

Polymers

• Polymerization is the process of joining together a large number of small molecules to make a number of very
large molecules. The reactants (i.e. the small molecules from which the polymer is constructed) are called
monomers and products of the polymerization process are called polymers.
Polymer Monomoers Uses
Polythene Ethylene Toys, packing items etc.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Vinyl chloride Rain coat, houj pipe, etc.
Polytetrafluoro ethylene (PTFE) or Tetra fluoro ethin Non-sticking utensils, gaskets etc.
Teflon
Bakelite Formaldehyde + phenol In the manufacturing of electric switches,
pottery, etc.
Polyethylene Turthalate (PET) Terthalic acid and ethylene In the manufacture of bottles, cans etc.
glycol
Nylon-66 Adipic acid + hexamethylene Brush's hard hair, synthesized fibers, in
dimen making parachutes, in place of metal in
bearings
Nylon- 6or perlon Caprolactam In making fibers, plastics, tire cord and rope
Tarylene Ethylene Glycol + Territhalic Washable Clothing, Tire Cards, Safety Belts,
Acid Tents
Kevlar Terthalic acid +1, -4diamine Bulletproof Jackets
benzene
Lexan or Polycarbonate Diethyl carbonate + bis phenol A In making fireproof window and safety
helmets
Taxol Derived from bark of pacific Anti Cancer Agent
yew tree
The validity of this study material is only till the year 2024, do not read it after that.

• Natural rubber, which is a polymer of isoprene, is heated with sulfur to produce a hard, durable rubber. This
process is called vulcanization. This rubber is used in the manufacture of tyres, slippers etc.
• The surface of Teflon is very smooth. Nothing sticks to it. Due to this property, Teflon is coated on cooking
utensils.
• Rayon, cotton, flax, jute, linen etc. are made of cellulose, while nylon, polyester etc. are examples of a non-
cellulosic fibre.
• A polymer called poly paraphenylene terephthalamide (polyamide) is used in the manufacture of bullet-proof
jackets. It is a synthetic fiber. Its brand name is Kevlar.

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• A polymer called polycarbonate is used in the manufacture of bullet-proof windows.

• Biodegradable polymers are those that are broken down over time by biological processes in a natural and
environmentally safe manner. Cellulose, starch and protein are biodegradable polymers.
• Zinc oxide is used to make utensils shiny. Other oxides used to make things shiny are – silicon dioxide, aluminum
oxide, barium oxide, sodium oxide, etc.
• Teflon is a chemically inert and heat resistant polymer. Its melting point is approximately 3300 C. Concentrated
nitric acid, sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, aquaregia, concentrated sodium hydroxide solution, etc. have no
effect on Teflon even at high temperatures.
• Teflon is used to make cans for filling concentrated acids and combustibles, and to make things that are resistant
to heat and chemical substances such as gaskets, seals, etc. It is also used as an insulating material.
• It is used in the making of many things like waterproof curtains and other water proof items, slippers, toys, cans,
buckets etc.
• Neoprene (Polychloroprene) – Neoprene is a high polymer of chloroprene. It is a kind of synthetic rubber. It is
used in making pipe belts etc.

Silk

• Silk is a naturally occurring protein fiber produced from the larvae of the moth to build their cocoons. This fiber
is used for the commercial production of silk fabric.
• Silk is a protein i.e. a polypeptide of the amino acids and the most important proteins of the silk fiber are fibroin
and sericin. Fibroin is an insoluble protein. It is secreted by caterpillar larva of silkworm but is obtained from the
cocoon.
• Sericulture is the science of the farming of silkworms for the commercial production of silk fiber. The most
commonly used silkworm for this process is Bombyx mori. Silk is a continuous thread of a usual length of about
500 to 900 meters in each cocoon.
• Fibres obtained from natural sources like plants and animals are called natural fibres. Examples: Cotton, Silk,
Wool, Jute and Hemp.
• Artificial fibre: Fibres which are manufactured in laboratories and are not directly obtained from any living
source are called artificial fibres. Examples: Rayon, Nylon, Polyester, Acrylic and Aramid.
• Nitrogen is a constituent of natural silk.

Types of non-mulberry silk are: Tasar silk, Eri silk, Muga silk, Coan silk, Spider silk, Anaphe silk, Mussel silk,
Fagara silk

Synthetic fibres

• Synthetic fibres and plastics, like natural fibres, are made of very large units called polymers. Polymers are made
up of many smaller units.
• While natural fibres are obtained from plants and animals, synthetic fibres are obtained by chemical processing
of petrochemicals. Like natural fibres, these fibres can also be woven into fabrics.
• Synthetic fibres find uses ranging from many household articles like ropes, buckets, furniture, containers, etc., to
highly specialised uses in aircrafts, ships, spacecrafts, healthcare, etc.
• Depending upon the types of chemicals used for manufacturing synthetic fibres, they are called Rayon, Nylon,
Polyester and Acrylic.
• The different types of fibres differ from one another in their strength, water absorbing capacity, nature of
burning, cost, durability etc.
• Today, life without plastics cannot be imagined. Be it home, or outside, plastic is everywhere.
• The waste created by plastics is not environment friendly. On burning, plastics release poisonous gases. On
dumping in the ground they may take years to degenerate. This is because of their non-biodegradable nature.

Linen – Linen is the cloth that is made of stem fibers of the flax plant. The cellulose fibers that grow inside of the flax
plant's stalks are used to make linen fabric.

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Coir - Coir or coconut fibre, is a natural fibre extracted from the husk of coconut and used in products such as floor
mats, doormats, brushes and mattresses. Coir is the fibrous material found between the hard, internal shell and the
outer coat of a coconut. This part is called mesocarp.

Mohair Fabric – Mohair is a fiber, yarn, or cloth made from the hair of the Angora goat.

Down cloth – Down cloth is made from the feathers of duck and grouse.

The Explosive Substance

Explosives

• An explosive is a substance that can be made to explode by being hit or lit on fire. Explosives contain highly
reactive chemicals that are full of potential energy, which can be released with a bang. A good explosive should
contain following properties-
1. Explosive should not be volatile.
2. Explosive should not be hygroscopic.
3. Explosive should be stable.
4. Upon ignition, it decomposes rapidally in a detonation.

Some explosives are as follows-

• Gun Powder - Till the 19th century it was known as Black Powder. It is a mixture of potassium nitrate (KNO3),
charcoal and sulfur. It is an explosive substance. The presence of sulphur makes combustion easier by reducing
the combustion temperature of gun powder. The particles of modern gun powder (black powder) are covered by
graphite, because graphite reduces the moisture absorption capacity of gun powder and prevents the formation
of static electric charge.
• Trinitrophenol (TNP) It is also known as piciric acid with the formula (O2N)3C6H2OH It is one of the most acidic
phenols. It is made by the reaction of phenol and conc.-nitric acid. It is mainly used as an explosive. It has also
been used in medicine (antiseptic, burn treatments) and dyes. It is a light yellow, crystalline solid.
• Dynamite: It was invented by Alfred noble in 1867. It is made by absorbing nitroglycerine in sawdust or
kieselguhr (diatomaceous earth also known as D.E. or a naturally occurring soft, siliceous sedimentary rock that
is easily crumbled into a fine white powder). Dynamite is mainly used in the mining, quarrying (excavation),
construction and demolition industries. SCSGYAN
• Blasting Gelatin: Blasting gelatin is a mixture of 7% nitrocellulose and 93% of nitroglycerine. It is used in
mining and land mining.
• Trinitrotoluene (TNT): TNT is made by adding nitric acid to toluene. It is a chemical compound with the
formula C6H2(NO2)3CH3. This is a yellow solid material. TNT is used in military shells, bombs and granades. Its
industrial uses include deep well and underwater blasting, chemical manufacturing as an intermediate in the
production of dye-stuffs and photographic chemicals.
• Trinitroglycerine (TNG): It is dense, colourless, Oily, explosive liquid most commonly produced by nitrating
glycerol with white fuming nitric acid in presence of sulphuric acid. It is also known as nitroglycerine or nobel
oil. Trinitroglycerine is a high explosive itself but is extremely shock- sensitive and degrades overtime to even
more unstable forms. Trinitroglycerine is used to make dynamite.
• RDX: RDX was discovered by George Friedrich Henning from Germany. It is an organic compound with the
formula (O2NNCH2)3. Its chemical name is cyclonite or cyclotrimethylene-trinitramine. It is also known as
plastic explosive. RDX is a white solid without smell or taste, widely used as explosive.
• RDX is known as hexogen in Germany, T-4 in Italy and cyclonite in United States of America. It is the explosive
agent in C-4 plastic explosive.
• Gun Cotton: Nitrocellulose or gun cotton is a highly flammable compound formed by nitrating cellulose (cotton
or wood fibres) through exposure to nitric acid. SCSGYAN
• Nitrochloroform is used as anaesthetics before the surgery of the patient to make them unconscious.
• HMX (High Melting Explosive) - HMX is an acronym for High Melting Explosive. It is also known as octogen and
cyclotetramethylene-tetranitramine, as well as by other names. It is a colorless solid that dissolves slightly in
water.

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Fuel

• A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases energy as heat energy or
to be used for work. Some common fuels are wood, coal, petrol, diesel etc. Uranium and Plutonium are nuclear
fuels to produce nuclear energy.
• Most fuels are compounds of carbon and hydrogen. The amount of heat generated by burning one gram of a fuel
in air or oxygen is called the Calorific Value of that fuel.
• The higher the Calorific Value of a fuel, the faster it burns.
• There are two types of fuels - primary fuels - those fuels which are directly obtained from nature and which give
heat directly on burning, are called primary fuels. Such as - wood, petroleum etc.
• Secondary fuels - which are derived from primary fuels, are called secondary fuels. Such as - petrol, diesel,
kerosene, water gas, coal gas etc.

Octane Number

• Anti-Knocking of a fuel means that the quality of the fuel is expressed by the octane number.
• Some fuels are such that their ignition is premature in the cylinders of engines, due to which the heat is lost in
producing a "metallic sound" without being completely converted into usable form. This metallic sound is not
considered suitable for use. The Anti-Knocking compound tetra ethyl lead (TEL) is used to reduce detonation.
• The higher the octane number of a fuel, the less it detonates and the better it is considered to be.
• The absorption of Hydrogen gas by Palladium was first noted by T. Graham in 1866. It is used to power a range
of new alternate fuel vehicles.
• Apart from TEL, benzene toluene xylene (BTX) is also a good anti Knocking agent.

Calorific Value

• The amount of heat obtained from the complete combustion of 1 kg of a fuel is called its Calorific Value. The
Calorific Value of the fuel is represented by the kilojoule per kilogram (kJ / kg) unit.
Calorific Value of some fuels
Fuels Calorific Value(kJ/kg)
Cow dung cake 6000-8000
Woods 17000-22000
Coal 25000-33000
Petrol 45000
Kerosene oil 45000
Diesel 45000
Methane 50000
CNG 50000
LPG 55000
Bio Gas 35000-40000
Hydrogen 150000 (Highest)

The increasing consumption of fuel has a harmful effect on the environment –

• Carbon fuels, such as wood, coal and petrol, release unburned carbon particles. These fine particles are
dangerous pollutants, which cause respiratory diseases like asthma.
• Significant combustion of these fuels release carbon monoxide gas. It is a very toxic gas. Burning coal in a closed
room is dangerous. The carbon monoxide gas generated can even kill people sleeping in the room.
• The combustion of most fuel releases carbon dioxide gas into the environment. Excess amount of carbon dioxide
gas in the air is probably the cause of global warming.
• Sulfur dioxide gas is released by the combustion of coal and diesel. It is a very suffocating and corrosive gas. In
addition, petrol engines emit gaseous oxides of nitrogen.

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Fossil fuel

• Some exhaustible natural resources, such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas, are formed from the dead remains
of living beings (fossils). Hence, they are called fossil fuels.

Coal

• Coal mainly consists of carbon. The slow process of conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called
carbonization. Because it is made from the remains of vegetation, hence coal is also called fossil fuel.
• Coal burns when heated in air and produces mainly carbon dioxide gas.
• Some useful products are obtained by processing coal in industry, such as coke, bitumen and coal-gas.
• Coke - It is a hard, porous and black substance. It is almost pure form of carbon. Coke is used in the industrial
manufacture of steel and in the extraction of many metals.
• Bitumen - It is a thick liquid with an unpleasant odor. It is a mixture of about 200 substances. Products obtained
from bitumen are used as starting materials in the industrial manufacture of various substances used in daily life
and in industries such as synthetic dyes, drugs, explosives, fragrances, plastics, paints, photographic materials,
roofing materials, etc.

Coal Gas

• Coal-gas is obtained while processing coal to make coke. It is used as a fuel in many industries established near
coal processing plants.
• Peat coal has a highwater content, so makes a low-grade fuel.
• Peat gets compressed by the weight of sediments and after thousands of years it gets converted into lignite
(brown coal).
• The percentage of carbon in lignite is higher as compared to peat. Due to constant pressure and heat from the
earth, lignite is converted into bituminous-soft coal. If pressure and heat are met in sufficient quantity, then
anthracite coal (hard coal) will be formed, in which excessive heat and carbon content is found.
• On the basis of the amount of Calorific Value, anthracite coal has the most Calorific Value and lignite has the least
heat. The sulfur content of coal is also important because burning coal with a low sulfur content emits less sulfur
dioxide (SO2), so it is the most desirable fuel to fuel power plants.

Petroleum

• It is a special odorous brown thick oily substance, which is found under the rocky surfaces of the earth. It is a
mixture of many hydrocarbons. The grade of petroleum depends on the relative proportion of different
hydrocarbons. It is also called crude oil. Separation of crude petroleum oil obtained from oil wells into its
beneficial components or fractions is called refining. Petroleum is refined by fractional distillation.
• Reserves of crude oil and natural gas are often found together on the Earth's crust beneath the ocean floor (sea
floor) or on land. After its extraction, the crude oil is sent to the refinery by pipelines, trucks or ships (oil
tankers). This study material is not valid after the year 2024, after which it will become outdated.
• Refineries heat oil and distill it at various boiling points to separate it into its various components. Its important
components are gas, gasoline, aviation turbine fuel, kerosene, diesel oil, naphtha, grease and wax, and asphalt.

Natural Gas

• Natural gas is a mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons and other gases, which usually comes out of oil wells along
with petroleum
• In some regions on Earth, natural gas is released under high pressure through natural cracks or holes in
impermeable rocks. Methane is the main component of natural gas
• Natural gas is used as a fuel and in the manufacture of lampblack, hydrogen, gasoline and organic compounds.
• Butane is the main component of LPG. LPG is often used as fuel in homes and hotels.
• The main component of biogas produced from a biogas plant is methane gas, which can be used for energy
production in place of fossil fuels.
• Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) scientist Dr S V Desai invented the gobar gas system in the year
1941-42.

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Food Preservation, Nutrition, Medicine

• Food preservation may be defined as the process of treating and handling food in such a way as to stop, control or
greatly slow down spoilage and, of course, to minimize the possibility of foodborne illness, while maintaining the
optimum nutritional value, texture to flavor.
Principles of food preservation:
• The principles of food preservation are as follows
1. Removal of microorganisms or deactivating them:
2. To stop or delay the reaction of microorganisms.
3. Stopping the reaction of enzymes.
• Micro-organisms in milk are destroyed by boiling. Sometimes only a heat supply of short duration is used to kill
the micro-organisms that can spoil the food. In the process of canning, the food item put inside the can is heated
to a high temperature so that micro-organisms do not grow in it.
• A peeled apple spoils more quickly than an apple with the skin on. This happens because the skin of the apple is
its protective covering, which prevents micro-organisms from entering inside the apple. Similarly, shells of
walnuts and eggs, peels of fruits and vegetables act as a protective covering and they delay the action of micro-
organisms.
• By lowering the temperature or freezing the food, the reaction of the micro-organisms can be delayed and this
makes it possible to preserve the food. Frozen food may stay edible longer than fresh food. This is because
micro-organisms cannot react at low temperatures. Some chemicals like sodium benzoate and potassium
metabisulfur are also helpful in inhibiting the growth of micro-organisms. These chemicals are called
preservatives.
• Enzymes also cause spoilage of food. These are naturally present in food. If an unripe banana is kept for a few
days, the banana will ripen and turn yellow and then start rotting. This is all due to enzymes. If the reaction of
enzymes is stopped, the food will be saved from rotting.

Drugs:
• Drugs are natural or synthetic substances, when taken into a living body, affects its functioning or structure,
and is used in the diagnosis, mitigation, treatment or prevention of a disease or relief of discomfort. Drugs are
also called medicines.
• In medical science, drugs have been classified on the basis of their functions, which are as follows
1. Antipyretics: Antipyretics are substances that reduce fever. Examples: Aspirin (Acetylsalicylic acid),
paracetamol, phenecetin.
2. Analgesics: The term Analgesics encompasses a class of drugs that are designed to relieve pain without
causing the loss of consciousness. It has been divided into two groups
1. Non-Narcotic Analgesics
2. Narcotic analgesics
• Non-narcotic analgesics: Aspirin (2-acetoxybenzoic acid) and paracetamol (2-Acetamidophenol).
• Narcotic analgesics: Drugs which are administered in small quantity to relieve pain and promoting sleepiness,
are called narcotic analgesics. Its excessive dose is responsible for laxness, coma and may cause death.
• Examples of narcotics analgesics are opium products such as morphine, heroin and codeine. These are also
called opiates because these are derived from opium. These are habit forming substances.
• Antiseptic: Antiseptic are antimicrobial substances that are applied to living tissue /skin to reduce the
possibility of infection, sepsis or putrefaction (the process of decay or rotting in body). Antiseptics are
harmless to living tissues and are used on cuts and wounds. Examples of antiseptics are mercurochrome,
mercuric chloride, alcohol, iodine, hydrogen peroxide, boric acid, potassium permanganate, iodoform etc.
SCSGYAN
• Disinfectants: Disinfectants are antimicrobial agents that are applied to the surface of non-living objects to
destroy microorganisms that thrive on those objects. These are harmful to living tissues and cannot be applied
on skin. Examples of disinfectants are phenol, methylphenol, chlorine, bleaching powder, formaldehyde etc.
• Tranquillizer: A medicinal drug taken to reduce tension or anxiety is known as tranquillizer. It acts on the
central nervous system and is used to calm, decrease anxiety or help a person to sleep. Reserpine is a strong
tranquillizer which is obtained from the plant Rauwolfia serpentina. It is used for the treatment of high blood
pressure. Barbituric acid and its derivatives such as seconal and luminal are some other tranquillizers.
• Antibiotics: Antibiotics are such chemicals that inhibit the growth of microorganisms or destroy them.
Antibiotics are obtained or formed from living cells.
• The first antibiotic penicillin was discovered by Alexander Flemming (1929) from penicillium notatium, a
fungus.
• Sulpha Drugs – The group of drugs that are derived from sulfonamide are called sulfa drugs.

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• Sulfadiazine – This is the most commonly used sulpha drug. It is effective against almost all types of Coccus
infections. It is used for the treatment of dysentery, urinary and respiratory infections.
• Anaesthetics: A substance that induces insensitivity to pain is known as anaesthetics. Its effect is reversible. It
means that affected organ becomes normal position after being administered less amount of anaesthetics
substance.
• Food preservatives: - Food preservatives are chemical substances added to a product to destroy or inhibit
multiplication of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. Some common food preservatives are as follows:
1. Sodium meta bisulphate (Na2SsO5) – it is used in preservation of jams, sauce and pickles.
2. Sodium benzoate (C7H5NaO2)- It is widely used food preservative. It is used to preserve soft drinks and
acidic foods.
3. Sorbic acid (C6H8O2) and its salts- Sorbic acid or 2, 4-hexadienoic acid, is a natural organic compound
used as a preservative. It is a colourless solid that is slightly soluble in water and sublimes readily. Its
sodium and potassium salts are used as preservative to inhibit the growth of bacteria and fungi in cheese,
cooked foodstuffs, pickles and food products of flesh and fish.
4. Epoxides – Epoxide of ethylene (ethylene oxide-C2H4O) and epoxide of propylene (propylene oxide-
CH3CHCH2O) are good food preservatives to preserve food stuffs with little amount of water as dry fruits
and spices.
• Animal charcoal also, known as Bone charcoal is primarily used for filtration and decolourization. Bone charcoal
is often used in sugar refining as a decolourising and de-ashing agent.
• Aspirin is a salicylate. It works by reducing substances in the body that causes pain, fever and inflammation. It is
sometimes used to treat or prevent heart attacks, strokes and chest pain. It is obtained from latex tree.
• The main components of honey are fructose – 38.2%, glucose- 31.3%, sucrose- 1.3%, maltose- 7.1% and water-
17.2%. Fructose or fruit sugar is a simple ketonic monosaccharide found in many plants.
• Potassium Bromide (KBr) is a salt, widely used as an anticonvulsant. It is used as a veterinary drug, as an
antiepileptic medication for dogs.
• Aspartame is a synthetic sweetener. It is about 200 times sweeter than sucrose or ordinary sugar.
• Milk is an example of an emulsion. Apart from Vitamin-C, all the nutrients are obtained from it.
• Organic food is considered better for us, as they are grown without the use of artificial fertilizers and pesticides.
• The major component of clove oil is eugenol. It is a natural analgesic and antiseptic. It is widely used to relieve
toothache. Clove oil is also used in the manufacture of cosmetics, soaps and toothpastes. Madagascar and
Indonesia are the main clove oil producing countries.

Detergents and Chemical Compound

Detergents

• The materials used to clean things like clothes, utensils, crockery etc. are called detergents. Two types of
detergents are used as purification reagents, these are soap and synthesized scavengers.
• Soap is used only for soft water but detergent can be used for soft water as well as hard water, because the
calcium and magnesium salts of detergents are soluble in hard water.

Soap:

• Soaps are salts of fatty acids whereas fatty acids are saturated monocarboxylic acids that have long carbon
chains e.g., Palmitic acid (C15H31COOH) and stearic acid (C17H35COOH).
• Soap is made by the process of saponification. It is a process that involves conversion of fat or oil into soap and
glycerol by the action of heat in the presence of alkali.
• Common soaps are the mixture of salts of higher fatty acids (C 8 to C18) which are manufactured by the
saponification of fats.
• Saturated fats give hard soap and vegetative oils (unsaturated fats) give soft soap.
Types of soaps and related facts

Soap Related Facts

Dish Washing Soap It is also called kitchen soap. To remove grease, fat, stains, germs etc. from utensils, a mixture
of sodium laurate sulfate, sodium Dichlorobenzene sulfonate, lactic acid along with fragrance
is added to it.
Transparent Soaps These soaps are made by the hot method of manufacturing. To make soap transparent, ethyl
alcohol is added to it at high temperature.
Liquid Soap Potassium hydroxide (KOH) is commonly used in the manufacture of liquid soap. The process
of manufacturing them is more complicated than that of solid soap.

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Toilet Soap or Beauty Soaps They are made from high quality oils and fats and specific colors and fragrances are also
added to them. They lack alkali and are high in glycerin content.
Laundry Soaps These soaps are made to remove grease, solid particles, organic matter, dust etc. from clothes,
and therefore sodium silicate, borax, sodium carbonate, sodium rosinate etc. are added to
them.
Medicated Soap Antiseptics and disinfectants are added to these soaps.
Beard Shaving Soap These soaps are in the form of cream or foam. To make more foam, a gum called rosin is
added to it.

Raw materials used in manufacturing of soap:

1. Vegetable oils or fats- For manufacturing of soap; oils of peanut mahua, castor oil and coconut are used.
2. Caustic soda or caustic potash- The saponification of oil or fat is performed with the aqueous solution of
caustic soda (NaOH) or caustic potash (KOH).
3. Supplements – some such substances are often added to soap, by mixing which the weight and volume of soap
increases and the soap easily solidifies as a solid. These substances are called supplements. Sodium silicate, soap
stone etc. are used as supplements in soap making. A little rosin (Biroja) is also added to the laundry soap, the
presence of which gives the soap more lather and its ability to clean the dirt increases.
• The process of saponification involves heating an aqueous solution of vegetable oil or fat and caustic soda or
caustic potash to form soap by chemical reaction and release of glycerol.

Glass
• It is a mixture of various metal silicates. It is a superheated liquid. Although the glass is solid, it has no definite
melting point. It depends on its physical and chemical properties and the various metallic-non-metallic elements
present in the composition and their ratio and temperature. Generally, it is brittle.
• Glass is a mixture, it is not a compound.
• It is inert to many chemicals.
• Glass is a superheated liquid, its melting point and boiling point are not fixed.
• Glass stopper should not be used on NaOH or KOH vessels.
• Glass is soluble since it dissolves in HF to form H2SiF6. Hence HF solution is used in glass carving.

Types of glass and their uses

Glass Compositions Uses

Crown Glass Sodium Oxide + Potassium Oxide + In the manufacture of eyeglass lenses,
Silicon Dioxide optical instruments.
Quartz glass/Silica glass Pure silicon dioxide In the manufacture of bulbs of ultraviolet
lamps, containers for chemical reagents
and other laboratory equipment.
Crookes glass Cerium Oxide (CeO2) + Silica (These are In the manufacture of sunglasses.
capable of absorbing ultraviolet rays.)
Photochromic Glass Due to the presence of silver chloride or In the manufacture of lenses for general
other silver halides, this glass turns glasses and sunglasses.
black in the sun.
Jena glass Zinc + Barium Borosilicate (This is the In the manufacture of bottles for storing
best type of glass.) highly reactive chemicals in the
laboratory.
Soft glass/Soda glass/Soda lime Sodium Carbonate + Calcium Carbonate In the manufacture of general utensils,
glass + Silica (Silicon Dioxide) doors and windows, tube lights, laboratory
equipment.
Hardened Glass/potash-lime Silica + Potassium Carbonate + Calcium In the manufacture of laboratory
glass/potash glass Carbonate equipment (beakers, flasks, test tubes,
etc.) and other high heat resistant
equipment.

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Pyrex glass/sodium borosilicate Silica + Boron Trioxide + Sodium + In the manufacture of chemical equipment,
glass Aluminum car head lamps, etc.
Flint glass sodium + potassium + lead silicate (high In the manufacture of telescope lenses,
refractive index) prisms, artistic objects.

Colour supplying substances Color of glasses

Ferrous oxide Ferrous oxide is bluish green in color.
Ferric oxide Ferric Oxide is reddish brown in color.
Gold chloride or purple of casias Ruby red
Cadmium sulphide Yellow like lemon
Cuprric salt Peacock blue
Manganese dioxide Red
Cuprrous oxide, Cadmium sulphide Glitter red
Carbon Brownish- black
Potassium dichromate Grren and green yellow
Cobalt oxide Deep blue
Sodium chromate or Ferrous oxide Ferrous oxide is bluish green in color.
Selenium oxide Orange red
This study material is only for UPPSC RO/ARO PRE RE-Exam, do not read it for any other exam.

Cosmetics Composition
Perfume Aromatic Oils, Aromatic Compounds, Alcohols, Water Solutions
Benzyl Acetate, Benzaldehyde, Ethanol, Camphor
Deodorants or Aluminum Chlorohitrate, Aluminum Zirconium, Trichlorohydrex Glycerin, Aluminum Hydroxy
Antiperspirant Bromide
Shaving cream Stearic acid, myristic acid, potassium hydroxide, glycerin, ethanol, linalool (or other aromatic oil
compound)
Moisturizers Skin moisturizing cream
Petroleum, Paraffin Lanolin, Mineral Oil, Glycerin, Propylene Glycol, Protein
Lip Balm Beeswax or Carnoba wax, Camphor, Cetyl alcohol, Lanolin, Paraffin, Petroleum
Vaseline Petroleum jelly, paraffin wax, mineral oil, multi hydrocarbons (containing more than 25 carbon
atoms)
Shampoo Sodium Lauryl Sulfate Citric Acid Parabens (Methylparaben, Ethylparaben, Butylparaben) Ethanol,
Sodium Chloride etc.
Nail polish / Nail Ethyl Acetate, Butyl Acetate, Nitrocellulose, Toluene
paint
Nail Polish Remover Acetone, ethyl acetate, benzyl alcohol.
Vermillion Mercuric Sulfide (HgS), red lead (pb3O4)
Lipstick Waxes, oils, antioxidants, pigments, emollients (moisture and lubricating substances)

Major Uses of Radioisotopes

Radio Isotopes Uses

Cobalt-60, Cesium-137 Cobalt-60 and Cesium-137 are used in the treatment of cancer and tumors.
Phosphorus-32 Phosphorus-32 is used in the treatment of bone diseases and in the study of the process of
photosynthesis.
Gamma Rays Gamma Rays are used to preserve grains, vegetables, fish, etc. for a long time.
Americium-241 Americium-241 is used to determine the location of oil wells, to measure uniform thickness of
metal sheets.
Sodium-24 Used to locate leaks in industrial pipe lines and in oil well studies.
Uranium-235 Uranium-235 is used as a fuel for nuclear power plants and propulsion systems of ships.
Californium-252 Californium-252 is used to determine the moisture content of the soil, in the construction of
roads and buildings.

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Carbon 14 (C14) Carbon Dating (the age of fossils is determined)

Uranium (U238), Lead (Pb206) Uranium Lead Dating (used for calculating the age of the earth and ancient rocks)
Rubidium (Rb87), Strontium Rubidium-strontium Dating (in determining the age of rocks and minerals.)
(Sr86)
Potassium (K40), Argon (Ar40) Potassium-Argon Dating (in determining the age of geologic rocks)
Arsenic-74 Arsenic-74 is used for determining the presence of a tumor.
Iodine-131 Iodine-131 is used to determine cardiac output, plasma volume, and fat metabolism and
particularly to measure the activity of the thyroid gland where this isotope accumulates.
Fluorine -59 Fluorine-59 is used in the test of anemia, tuberculosis (TB).
Technetium-99 It is used in the study of the structure of organs.
Sodium Sodium is used to measure the velocity of blood flow.
Cadmium-109 Used to analyze metal alloys for checking stock, scrap sorting
Calcium-47 Important aid to biomedical researchers studying the cellular functions and bone formation in
mammals.
Chromium-51 Used in research in red blood cell survival studies.
Cobalt-57 Used as a tracer to diagnose pernicious anemia.
Copper-67 When injected with monoclonal antibodies into a cancer patient, helps the antibodies bind to
and destroy the tumor.
Gallium-67 Used in medical diagnosis
Iridium-192 Used to test the strength of pipeline welds, boilers and aircraft parts and in
brachytherapy/tumor irradiation
Iron-55 Used to analyze electroplating solutions and to detect the presence of sulphur in the air. Used
in metabolism research.
Krypton-85 Used in indicator lights in appliances such as clothes washers and dryers, stereos, and
coffeemakers to gauge the thickness of thin plastics and sheet metal, rubber, textiles and
paper and to measure dust and pollutant levels. Used to detect explosives, and in voltage
regulators and current surge protectors in electronic devices, and in electron capture
detectors for gas chromatographs.
Nickel-63 Used to detect explosives, and in voltage regulators and current surge protectors in electronic
devices, and in electron capture detectors for gas chromatographs.
Radium-226 Makes lighting rods more effective
Selenium-75 Used in protein studies in life science research.
Thorium-230 Provides coloring and fluorescence in colored glazes and glassware
Uranium-234 Used in dental fixtures like crowns and dentures to provide a natural color and brightness.

ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
• Environmental pollution is the effect of undesirable changes in our surroundings that have harmful effects on
plants, animals and human beings. A substance, which causes pollution, is known as pollutant. Pollutants can be
solid, liquid or gaseous substances present in greater concentration than in natural abundance and are produced
due to human activities or due to natural happenings. Do you know, an average human being requires nearly 12-
15 times more air than the food. So, even small amounts of pollutants in the air become significant compared to
similar levels present in the food. Pollutants can be degradable, like rotten vegetables which rapidly break down
by natural processes. On the other hand, pollutants which are slowly degradable, remain in the environment in
an unchanged form for many decades. For example, substances such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT),
plastic materials, heavy metals, many chemicals, nuclear wastes etc., once released into the environment are
difficult to remove. These pollutants cannot be degraded by natural processes and are harmful to living
organisms. In the process of environmental pollution, pollutants originate from a source and get transported by
air or water or are dumped into the soil by human beings.

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ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION

• The atmosphere that surrounds the earth is not of the same thickness at all heights. There are concentric layers
of air or regions and each layer has different density. The lowest region of atmosphere in which the human
beings along with other organisms live is called troposphere. It extends up to the height of ~ 10 km from sea
level. Above the troposphere, between 10 and 50 km above sea level lies stratosphere. Troposphere is a
turbulent, dusty zone containing air, much water vapour and clouds. This is the region of strong air movement
and cloud formation. The stratosphere, on the other hand, contains dinitrogen, dioxygen, ozone and little water
vapour.
• Atmospheric pollution is generally studied as tropospheric and stratospheric pollution. The presence of ozone in
the stratosphere prevents about 99.5 per cent of the sun’s harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiations from reaching the
earth’s surface and thereby protecting humans and other animals from its effect.

Tropospheric Pollution

• Tropospheric pollution occurs due to the presence of undesirable solid or gaseous particles in the air. The
following are the major gaseous and particulate pollutants present in the troposphere:
1. Gaseous air pollutants: These are oxides of sulphur, nitrogen and carbon, hydrogen sulphide,
hydrocarbons, ozone and other oxidants.
2. Particulate pollutants: These are dust, mist, fumes, smoke, smog etc.

1. Gaseous air pollutants

(a) Oxides of Sulphur: Oxides of sulphur are produced when sulphur containing fossil fuel is burnt. The most
common species, sulphur dioxide, is a gas that is poisonous to both animals and plants. It has been reported that even
a low concentration of sulphur dioxide causes respiratory diseases e.g., asthma, bronchitis, emphysema in human
beings. Sulphur dioxide causes irritation to the eyes, resulting in tears and redness. High concentration of SO2 leads to
stiffness of flower buds which eventually fall off from plants. Uncatalysed oxidation of sulphur dioxide is slow.
However, the presence of particulate matter in polluted air catalyses the oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphur
trioxide.

(b) Oxides of Nitrogen: Dinitrogen and dioxygen are the main constituents of air. These gases do not react with each
other at a normal temperature. At high altitudes when lightning strikes, they combine to form oxides of nitrogen. NO2
is oxidised to nitrate ion, NO3− which is washed into soil, where it serves as a fertilizer. The irritant red haze in the
traffic and congested places is due to oxides of nitrogen. Higher concentrations of NO 2 damage the leaves of plants and
retard the rate of photosynthesis

(c) Hydrocarbons: Hydrocarbons are composed of hydrogen and carbon only and are formed by incomplete
combustion of fuel used in automobiles. Hydrocarbons are carcinogenic, i.e., they cause cancer. They harm plants by
causing ageing, breakdown of tissues and shedding of leaves, flowers and twigs.

Oxides of Carbon

(i) Carbon monoxide: Carbon monoxide is mainly released into the air by automobile exhaust. Other sources, which
produce CO, involve incomplete combustion of coal, firewood, petrol, etc. The number of vehicles has been increasing
over the years all over the world. Many vehicles are poorly maintained and several have inadequate pollution control
equipments resulting in the release of greater amount of carbon monoxide and other polluting gases. Do you know
why carbon monoxide is poisonous? It binds to haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin, which is about 300 times
more stable than the oxygen-haemoglobin complex. In blood, when the concentration of carboxyhaemoglobin reaches
about 3–4 per cent, the oxygen carrying capacity of blood is greatly reduced. This oxygen deficiency, results into
headache, weak eyesight, nervousness and cardiovascular disorder. This is the reason why people are advised not to
smoke. SCSGYAN

(ii) Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide (CO2) is released into the atmosphere by respiration, burning of fossil fuels for
energy, and by decomposition of limestone during the manufacture of cement. It is also emitted during volcanic
eruptions. Carbon dioxide gas is confined to troposphere only. Normally it forms about 0.03 per cent by volume of the

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atmosphere. With the increased use of fossil fuels, a large amount of carbon dioxide gets released into the atmosphere.
Excess of CO2 in the air is removed by green plants and this maintains an appropriate level of CO2 in the atmosphere.
Green plants require CO2 for photosynthesis and they, in turn, emit oxygen, thus maintaining the delicate balance.

Global Warming and Greenhouse Effect

• About 75 % of the solar energy reaching the earth is absorbed by the earth’s surface, which increases its
temperature. The rest of the heat radiates back to the atmosphere. Some of the heat is trapped by gases such as
carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, chlorofluorocarbon compounds (CFCs) and water vapour in the atmosphere.
Thus, they add to the heating of the atmosphere. This causes global warming.
• We all know that in cold places flowers, vegetables and fruits are grown in glass covered areas called
greenhouse. Do you know that we humans also live in a greenhouse? Of course, we are not surrounded by glass
but a blanket of air called the atmosphere, which has kept the temperature on earth constant for centuries. But it
is now undergoing change, though slowly.
• Just as the glass in a greenhouse holds the sun’s heat inside, similarity atmosphere traps the sun’s heat near the
earth’s surface and keeps it warm. This is called natural greenhouse effect because it maintains the temperature
and makes the earth perfect for life.
• In a greenhouse, solar radiations pass through the transparent glass and heat up the soil and the plants. The
warm soil and plants emit infrared radiations. Since glass is opaque to infrared radiations (thermal region), it
partly reflects and partly absorbs these radiations. This mechanism keeps the energy of the sun trapped in the
greenhouse. Similarly, carbon dioxide molecules also trap heat as they are transparent to sunlight but not to the
heat radiation. If the amount of carbon dioxide crosses the delicate proportion of 0.03 per cent, the natural
greenhouse balance may get disturbed. Carbon dioxide is the major contributor to global warming. Besides
carbon dioxide, other greenhouse gases are methane, water vapour, nitrous oxide, CFCs and ozone. Methane is
produced naturally when vegetation is burnt, digested or rotted in the absence of oxygen. Large amounts of
methane are released in paddy fields, coal mines, from rotting garbage dumps and by fossil fuels.
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are man-made industrial chemicals used in air conditioning etc. CFCs are also
damaging the ozone layer. Nitrous oxide occurs naturally in the environment. SCSGYAN - For Paid Group Call
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Acid rain

• We are aware that normally rain water has a pH of 5.6 due to the presence of H+ ions formed by the reaction of
rain water with carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere. When the pH of the rain water drops below 5.6, it is
called acid rain.
• Acid rain is a byproduct of a variety of human activities that emit the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen in the
atmosphere. As mentioned earlier, burning of fossil fuels (which contain sulphur and nitrogenous matter) such
as coal and oil in power stations and furnaces or petrol and diesel in motor engines produce sulphur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides. SO2 and NO2 after oxidation and reaction with water are major contributors to acid rain,
because polluted air usually contains particulate matter that catalyse the oxidation.
• Ammonium salts are also formed and can be seen as an atmospheric haze (aerosol of fine particles). Aerosol
particles of oxides or ammonium salts in rain drops result in wetdeposition. SCSGYAN
• SO2 is also absorbed directly on both solid and liquid ground surfaces and is thus deposited as dry-deposition.
• It corrodes water pipes resulting in the leaching of heavy metals such as iron, lead and copper into the drinking
water. Acid rain damages buildings and other structures made of stone or metal. The Taj Mahal in India has been
affected by acid rain.

Smog

• The word smog is derived from smoke and fog. This is the most common example of air pollution that occurs in
many cities throughout the world. There are two types of smog:
1. Classical smog occurs in cool humid climate. It is a mixture of smoke, fog and sulphur dioxide. Chemically it
is a reducing mixture and so it is also called as reducing smog.

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2. Photochemical smog occurs in warm, dry and sunny climate. The main components of the photochemical
smog result from the action of sunlight on unsaturated hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides produced by
automobiles and factories.

The Ozone Hole

• In 1980s atmospheric scientists working in Antarctica reported about depletion of ozone layer commonly known
as ozone hole over the South Pole.
• It was found that a unique set of conditions was responsible for the ozone hole. In summer season, nitrogen
dioxide and methane react with chlorine monoxide and chlorine atoms forming chlorine sinks, preventing much
ozone depletion, whereas in winter, special type of clouds called polar stratospheric clouds are formed over
Antarctica.

WATER POLLUTION

• Water is essential for life. Without water there would be no life. We usually take water for granted for its purity,
but we must ensure the quality of water. Pollution of water originates from human activities. Through different
paths, pollution reaches surface or ground water. Easily identified source or place of pollution is called as point
source. e.g., municipal and industrial discharge pipes where pollutants enter the water-source. Non point
sources of pollution are those where a source of pollution cannot be easily identified, e.g., agricultural run off
(from farm, animals and crop-lands), acid rain, storm-water drainage (from streets, parking lots and lawns), etc.

Causes of Water Pollution

• Pathogens: The most serious water pollutants are the disease causing agents called pathogens. Pathogens
include bacteria and other organisms that enter water from domestic sewage and animal excreta. Human
excreta contain bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Streptococcus faecalis which cause gastrointestinal
diseases. Every year up to 65% changes are made in the course content.
• Organic wastes: The other major water pollutant is organic matter such as leaves, grass, trash etc. They pollute
water as a consequence of run off. Excessive phytoplankton growth within water is also a cause of water
pollution. These wastes are biodegradable. The large population of bacteria decomposes organic matter present
in water. They consume oxygen dissolved in water.
• The amount of oxygen that water can hold in the solution is limited. In cold water, dissolved oxygen (DO) can
reach a concentration up to 10 ppm (parts per million), whereas oxygen in air is about 200,000 ppm. That is why
even a moderate amount of organic matter when decomposes in water can deplete the water of its dissolved
oxygen. The concentration of dissolved oxygen in water is very important for aquatic life. SCSGYAN
• If the concentration of dissolved oxygen of water is below 6 ppm, the growth of fish gets inhibited.
• If too much of organic matter is added to water, all the available oxygen is used up. This causes oxygen
dependent aquatic life to die. Thus, anaerobic bacteria (which do not require oxygen) begin to break down the
organic waste and produce chemicals that have a foul smell and are harmful to human health. Aerobic (oxygen
requiring) bacteria degrade these organic wastes and keep the water depleted in dissolved oxygen.
• Thus, the amount of oxygen required by bacteria to break down the organic matter present in a certain volume
of a sample of water, is called Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). The amount of BOD in the water is a measure
of the amount of organic material in the water, in terms of how much oxygen will be required to break it down
biologically. Clean water would have BOD value of less than 5 ppm whereas highly polluted water could have a
BOD value of 17 ppm or more.
• Chemical Pollutants: As we know that water is an excellent solvent, water soluble inorganic chemicals that
include heavy metals such as cadmium, mercury, nickel etc constitute an important class of pollutants. All these
metals are dangerous to humans because our body cannot excrete them. Over the time, it crosses the tolerance
limit. These metals then can damage kidneys, central nervous system, liver etc. Acids (like sulphuric acid) from
mine drainage and salts from many different sources including raw salt used to melt snow and ice in the colder
climates (sodium and calcium chloride) are water soluble chemical pollutants.
• The addition of phosphates in water enhances algae growth. Such profuse growth of algae, covers the water
surface and reduces the oxygen concentration in water. This leads to anaerobic conditions, commonly with
accumulation of abnoxious decay and animal death. Thus, bloom-infested water inhibits the growth of other

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living organisms in the water body. This process in which nutrient enriched water bodies support a dense plant
population, which kills animal life by depriving it of oxygen and results in subsequent loss of biodiversity is
known as Eutrophication.

INDUSTRIAL WASTE

• Industrial solid wastes are also sorted out as biodegradable and non-degradable wastes. Biodegradable wastes
are generated by cotton mills, food processing units, paper mills, and textile factories.
• Non-biodegradable wastes are generated by thermal power plants which produce fly ash; integrated iron and
steel plants which produce blast furnace slag and steel melting slag. Industries manufacturing aluminium, zinc
and copper produce mud and tailings. Fertilizer industries produce gypsum. Hazardous wastes such as
inflammables, composite explosives or highly reactive substances are produced by industries dealing in metals,
chemicals, drugs, pharmaceuticals, dyes, pesticides, rubber goods etc.
• The disposal of non-degradable industrial solid wastes, if not done by a proper and suitable method, may cause
serious threat to the environment. New innovations have led to different uses of waste material. Nowadays, fly
ash and slag from the steel industry are utilised by the cement industry. Large quantities of toxic wastes are
usually destroyed by controlled incineration, whereas small quantities are burnt along with factory garbage in
open bins. Moreover, solid wastes if not managed effectively, affect the components of the environment.

Important Inventions of Chemistry

Invention Inventors / Discoverers Invention Inventors / Discoverers

Chlorine Shelley Covalency Lewis
Helium Lockyer Nucleus Rutherford
Thorium Berzelius Uranium M.H. Klaproth
Proton Ruther ford Electron J.J. Thomson
Neutron J. Chadwick Octate rule G.N. Lewis
Magnesium Davy Messon Yukawa
Positron Anderson Oxygen Priestley and Shelley
Argon Ramsay and Rayleigh
Nitrogen Daniel Rutherford pH scale Sorensen
Heavy water Urey Calcium Davy
Sodium Davy Potassium Davy
Isotope Frederick Soddy Dilution law Wilhelm Ostwald
Catalyst Berzelius Hydrogen Cavendish

Trade names and chemical formulas of chemical substances

Trade name Chemical name Chemical Trade name Chemical name Chemical
formulas formulas

Alum Potassium K2SO4. Al2 Heavy hydrogen Deuterium D

Aluminium (SO4)3. 24 H2O
Sulfate

Red medicine Potassium KMnO4 Silica Silicon dioxide SiO2

permagnate

Caustic potash Potassium KOH Gemaxin Benzene Hexachloride C6H6Cl6

hydroxide

Nitre Potassium KNO3 Phosgene Carbonyl Chloride COCl2

Nitrate

Bleaching Bleaching CaOCl2 Vinegar Dilute solution of Acetic CH3COOH

powder

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powder acid

Lime water Calcium Ca(OH)2 Carbolic Acid Phenol C6H5OH

Hydroxide

Gypsum Calcium Sulfate CaSO4.2H2O Wood Spirit Methyl Alcohol CH3OH

Plaster of paris Calcium Sulfate 2CaSO4.H2O Mund Starch C6H10O5

Hemihydrate

Chalk Calcium CaCO3 T.B.N. Tri Nitro Benzene C6H3(NO2)3

Carbonate

Quick lime Calcium Oxide CaO T.N.T. Tri Nitro Toluene C6H2CH3(NO2)3

Limestone Calcium CaCO3 Grape juice Glucose C6H12O6

Carbonate

Marble Calcium CaCO3 Formalin 10 % solution of HCHO

Carbonate formaldehyde

Hydrolith Calcium Hydrite CaH2 Freon Dichlorodifluoro carbon CF2Cl2

Ammonium Ammonium NH4Cl Urea Carbamide NH2CONH2

Chloride

Laughing Gas Nitrous Oxide N2 O Chloroform Tri Chloro Methane CHCl3

Litharge Lead oxide PbO Iodoform triiodomethane CHI3

Galena Lead Sulphide PbS Pyrene Carbon Tetra chloride CCl4

Red Vermilion Lead peroxide Pb3O4 Phenol Hydroxybenzene C6H5OH

White lead Basic lead [Link](OH)2 MIC Methyl isocynate CH3NC

carbonate

Salt acid Hydrogen HCl Common salt Sodium Chloride NaCl

chloride

Nitre acid Nitric Acid HNO3 Baking soda ‘sodium Bicarbonate NaHCO3

Muriatic acid Hydrochloric HCl Washing Soda Sodium carbonate Na2CO3.10H2O

Acid

Oil of vitriol Concentrate H2SO4 Caustic Soda Sodium hydroxide NaOH

Sulfuric acid

Water gas Carbon CO+H2 Chile Saltpeter Sodium Nitrate NaNO3

monoxide and
hydrogen gas

Bauxite Hydrates Al2O3.2H2O Carborundam ‘silicon Carbide SiC

Alumina

Dry ice Solid Carbon di CO2 Arsene Arsenic Hydride AsH3

oxide

Green vitriol Ferrous Sulfate FeSO4.7H2O Blue Vitriol Copper Sulfate (Blue CuSO4.5H2O
Vitriol)

Magnesia Magnesium MgO Lithopone Mixture of Zinc Sulfate ZnS+BaSO4

Oxide and Barium Sulfate

Horn Silver Silver chloride AgCl Producer Gas Mixture of Carbon CO+N2
(Cerargyrite)

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monoxide and Nitrogen

Lunar Caustic Silver nitrate AgNO3 Marsh gas Mehane CH4

Black Zinc Zinc sulphide ZnS Suhaga Borax Na2B4O7.10H2O

White vitriol Zinc sulphate ZnSO4.7H2O Soda Ash Sodium Carbonate Na2CO3

China white Zinc Oxide ZnO Glauber's salt Sodium Sulfate Na2SO4.10H2O

Vermilion Mercuric Sulfide HgS Hypo ‘sodium thio sulfate Na2S2O3.5H2O

Heavy Water Deuterium D2O Microcosmic salt Sodium Ammonium NaNH4+HPO4

oxide Thio sulfate

Red Vitriol Cobalt Sulphate

Common name IUPAC Name Chemical formula Common location or use

Formic acid Methanoic acid HCOOH Stings of Insect

Carbonic acid Carbonic acid OHCOOH Blood and tissues

Acetic acid Ethanoic acid CH3COOH Vinegar

Propanioc acid Propanoic acid CH3CH2COOH Preservative for stored grains, body odour, milk, cheese

Butyric acid Butanoic acid CH3(CH2)2COOH Butter

Substance Uses/damages caused Substance Uses/damages caused

Aspartame Artificial sweeteners Freon Refrigerant
Neoprene Synthetic rubber Benadryl Antihistamine
sulphur dioxide acid rain Fluoride pollution Responsible for Mottling of teeth

Methyl isocyanate This gas was leaked in Bhopal gas Ozone layer depletion Skin cancer may occur due to this
tragedy
Excess of Nitrates Blue Baby Syndrome Ringelmann scale Used to measure density of
smoke

One Liner facts of Chemistry

• Molecular targets are the basis of most useful classification of medications in medical chemistry.
• Due to change in temperature of a conductor, there is a change in potential in it. This phenomenon is called
Thomson effect.
• The metallurgical process under which metals are found in mixed state is called smelting.
• Pasteurization is a method of preserving liquid food ingredients. This method was discovered by Louis Pasteur
hence the name pasteurization was named after him. In this milk is heated from 1450 F to 1500 F. This
pasteurization process destroys the harmful germs present in the milk.
• There are some solids which, on heating, instead of coming into the liquid state, they directly change into vapor
and on cooling the vapor again come back to the solid state. Such a substance is called sublimate and this process
is called sublimation. By this method camphor, naphthalene, ammonium chloride etc. substances are purified.
• Chromatography is a chemical technique for separating a mixture of colored chemicals.
• Destruction of metals by air or chemical substances is called corrosion. Rusting of iron i.e., brown coating on
iron, green coating on copper and black coating on silver are examples of corrosion.
• Hydrolysis is a reaction in which salt ions and water ions combine to form acidic or basic solutions. In this,
energy is released in the form of heat.

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• Positron - is a positively charged fundamental particle, whose mass and charge are equal to that of an electron.
That's why it is called the anti-particle of the electron. Its spin is ½.
• Neutrino – These are fundamental particles without mass and charge. They were discovered by Pauli.
• Quark - Quark is the fundamental particle of matter, from which most of matter is made. Quarks combine to
form hadrons. Quarks have a partial charge (–1/3 or +2/3 of the original particle).
• Phonon – Phonons are the smallest particles of sound. The phonon is found in vibrations of the rigid crystal
dimension.
• The nucleus of the atom was discovered by Ernest Rutherford in the year 1911.
• Rutherford proposed the existence of a neutron in an atom, but the neutron was discovered by Chadwick in
1932. He discovered that if a fast-moving particle is bombarded with beryllium (Be) and other atoms, then
electrically neutral particles are released from it, which are called neutrons.
• There are intermolecular forces between the particles of matter. These forces are different from electrostatic
forces arising between two oppositely charged ions. Also, they do not contain the forces that hold two atoms
together in a covalent bond.
• The competition between thermal energy and intermolecular interactions determines the state of matter. The
macroscopic properties of matter (eg, the behavior of gases, the properties of liquids and solids and their change
in state depend on the constituent particles and the interaction between them. Chemical properties of matter are
not affected by the change in its state, but by their change in there chemical composition). The activity depends
on the physical state.
• The forces of attraction between gas molecules are very small and almost do not depend on their chemical
nature. The interdependence of some of the observable properties (such as pressure, volume, temperature and
mass) gave different gas laws after experimental studies of gases.
• According to Boyle's law, the pressure of a gas of a certain mass under isothermal conditions is inversely
proportional to its volume.
• Charles' law shows the relationship between volume and absolute temperature under isobaric conditions.
• According to Dalton's law of partial pressure, the total pressure of a mixture of nonreactive gases is equal to the
sum of their partial pressures, that is, the interrelationship between temperature, pressure, volume and number
of moles determines the state of the gas.
• At high pressure and low temperature, the intermolecular forces between the molecules of gases become
stronger as these molecules come closer. A gas can be liquefied under suitable temperature and pressure
conditions. A liquid can be thought of as a compressed state of a gas in a low volume region. Some properties of a
liquid are surface tension, viscosity, etc., due to strong intermolecular forces of attraction.
• Both graphite and diamond are allotropes of carbon. Pencil cores are made of graphite mixed with a clay binder
that leaves gray or black marks that can be easily erased.
• Hydrofluoric acid (HF) is also used for engraving and scratching on glass. Glass forms silicates soluble in
hydrofluoric acid (HF), due to which HF is not stored in glass vessels.
• Solid carbon dioxide is called dry ice or dry snow. It directly converts into gas on heating. It is used in the
manufacture of ice cream and as an effective coolant.
• Graphite is a smooth shiny organic material of grayish black color. Graphite powder is used as a lubricant in
heavy machinery. The validity of this study material is only till the year 2024, do not read it after that.
• Diamond is an allotrope of carbon. Its relative density is 3.5. Graphite is a grayish-black colored smooth shiny
organic material with a relative density of 2.25, while coal is a solid organic material that is used as a fuel.
• Graphene is a two-dimensional allotrope of carbon.
• Pearl contains 85% calcium carbonate (aragonite), 2-4% water and 0-10% canchiolin. Canchiolin is a protein.
Ruby and Sapphire are the gems of corundum. Corundum occurs naturally in the crystalline form of aluminum
oxide.
• Sodium vapor lamps are often used for street lighting because their light is monochromatic and does not split
when it passes through water droplets.
• The purity of gold is measured in degrees or carats. Pure gold is 1000 degrees or 24 carats. Since it is very soft, it
is not used for making jewellery. Generally, gold ranging from 10 to 22 carat is considered good for making
jewellery.
• Gold is not affected by nitric, sulfuric and hydrochloric acids, but dissolves in aqua regia (a mixture of 3 parts
concentrated hydrochloric acid and 1 part concentrated nitric acid) to form chloroauric acid (HAuCl 4).
• The chemical activity of gold is the lowest among metals, due to which it is found in free state.

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• Fluorescence tube is most commonly filled with low pressure mercury-vapor and argon gas. Sometimes xenon,
neon or krypton are also used.
• The relative density of sodium is 0.97. Being lighter than water, it floats on water.
• Silver is the best conductor of heat and electricity. The most abundant metal in the earth's crust is aluminum.
• The non-metallic diamond is the hardest of all natural objects, while platinum is the hardest metal.
• Lithium is the lightest metal and osmium is the heaviest metal. Osmium is the natural metal with the highest
density.
• Permanent hardness of water is due to chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magnesium. Hard water is too
saline to drink. It do not produce foam when washing clothes
• Reverse Osmosis is a special process of water purification by filtration method. By this method sea water is
purified.
• Pure water is considered neutral, with a pH of around 7.
• The waste water is converted into clean water by the process of chemical coagulation. When alum is mixed with
dirty water, water purification takes place by coagulation, leaching and sedimentation respectively. As a result,
clean water is obtained.
• Hydrogen is the cleanest combustion fuel, burning of which produces only water, whereas coal, kerosene and
diesel are called fossil fuels or organic fuels, the combustion of which burning emits harmful gases like CO2 in the
atmosphere.
• Rain water is pure form of water. Its pH value is 7. Acidic and alkaline substances are dissolved in the water
found on earth, due to which the water becomes impure.
• Gold, platinum, silver and mercury are noble metals.
• The most malleable among metals are gold and silver.
• Mercury and iron are the best conductors of electric current.
• The substance which has a large number of free electrons and offer a low resistance is called conductor.
• Silver and copper are the best conductors of electric current.
• Oxides of metals are basic in nature.
• The first extraction of aluminum took place in 1827 AD.
• The reason for the smell in onions and garlic is the presence of sulphur.
• The chemical name of carnotite is potassium uranyl vendate.
• Smeltite is a nickel metal ore.
• Hydrogenation of vegetable oils uses nickel metal as a catalyst.
• The base of the world famous Eiffel Tower is made of steel and cement.
• Zeolite is used to soften water.
• Most transition metals and their compounds are colored.
• Potassium carbonate (K2CO3) is called pearl ash.
• Nichrome is an alloy of nickel, chromium and iron. The coil of electric heater is made of nichrome only.
• The chemical name for chromic acid is chromium trioxide.
• Britannia metal is an alloy of antimony, copper (Cu) and tin (Sn).
• Babbitt metal consists of 89% tin, 9% antimony and 2% copper.
• Stain sulfide is called mosaic gold. It is used as a paint.
• Barium hydroxide is called baryta water.
• Barium sulfate is used as a barium meal in abdominal X-rays.
• The green color during fireworks is due to the presence of barium.
• The bright red color is produced due to the presence of strontium during fireworks.
• Palladium metal is used in the manufacture of aircraft.
• Gallium metal is found in the liquid state at room temperature.
• Selenium metal is used in photoelectric cells.
• Cytochrome is present in iron.
• Mercury is kept in an iron vessel, as it does not form amalgam with iron.
• Tubelight is usually filled with mercury vapor and argon gas.
• The element copper is obtained in both free and combined state. It is found in the form of ores in the combined
state. It is used in the manufacture of various types of alloys. Bronze and steel are alloys.
• Anodizing is an electrochemical process by which a metal surface is made durable and resistant to corrosion. In
this process the aluminum oxide layer is deflected on the aluminum.

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• Corrosion does not occur in galvanized iron because the ability to oxidize is found in galvanized iron.
• Zinc is an element, which is used in the immunization of iron. Galvanized iron can withstand the effects of water,
soap solutions, petrol and mineral oils.
• When mercury mixes with a metal to form an alloy, it is called amalgam. A mixture of silver mercury is filled in
the cavities of the teeth.
• The weight of iron increases on rusting because iron rusts when iron reacts chemically with oxygen to form iron
oxide in the presence of moisture. During this reaction, the amount of oxygen is also added to the iron, so the
weight of the iron increases. During this, the weight of iron increases as much as the oxygen it takes in.
• Chromium is mixed with iron to make rust-free iron, making an alloy stainless steel that is rust-free.
• Due to the presence of hydrogen sulfide in the air, the color of brass becomes discolored.
• Lead-pipes are not suitable for carrying drinking water, as they produce toxic lead hydroxide (Pb(OH) 2) when
mixed with air mixed water.
• Iodine remains in the solid state at room temperature.
• Halogens are a series of highly reactive non-metallic elements.
• Helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe) and radon are inert gases. Inert gas is also called
noble gas or rare gas.
• A mixture of helium and oxygen is used by deep-sea divers for breathing in place of air because helium is less
soluble in blood at higher pressures.
• Xenon (Xe) gas that is heavier than air is called Stranger gas. Its amount in the atmosphere is less.
• Tea gas is sometimes used to disperse unruly crowds. When it comes in contact with the human eye, it causes
irritation in the eyes and tears start to drip. Some of the major Tear Gases are Alpha Chloro Acetophenone,
Acrolein etc. Ammonia is used in tear gas.
• Glycine is an organic compound with the formula NH2CH2COOH. It is the smallest of the 20 amino acids
commonly found in proteins.
• Chlorine, bromine and fluorine are halogen group gases while iodine is a blue-black opaque crystalline solid.
• Tube lights are filled with mercury vapor at low pressure and an inert gas mainly argon. Also the inner surface of
the glass used in tube light is coated with phosphor powder.
• Aqua regia is an acidic, corrosive and oxidative mixture of three parts concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCl) and
one part concentrated nitric acid (HNO3). It is called aqua regia because it is one of the few acid mixtures that
can dissolve the "noble" metals: gold (Au), platinum (Pt) and palladium (Pd).
• Those solutions which do not change the color of red or blue litmus are called neutral solutions. These
substances are neither acidic nor alkaline.
• Acids are corrosive and can burn meat and dissolve metal.
• In the chemical industry, sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is considered an alkali chemical. Sulfuric acid is mainly used in
petrochemical industries. It is also used for cleaning purposes in the laboratory.
• An acid is a compound that, when dissolved in water, acquires hydronium ion (H3O+) only as a positive ion. The
characteristic property of an acid is due to the presence of these hydronium ions.
• Water can become acidic due to the dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) gas in the water. The acidity of water can be
reduced by dissolving CO2 with an alkali such as baking soda (sodium bicarbonate).
• Aqueous solution of ammonia changes the color of red litmus to blue. Ammonia produces a white flame when it
reacts with hydrochloric acid.
• High resolution photographic plate coating a highly fine-grained photosensitive emulsion with sub-microscopic
crystals of silver bromide in gelatin.
• Sodium thiosulfate is used in photography as a fixer of positives and negatives. It is also used in the extraction of
gold and silver.
• Calcium hypochlorite or calcium oxychloride is an inorganic compound. It is also known as bleaching powder.
Bleaching powder is used for water treatment and acts as a bleaching agent. It is not highly soluble in water.
• To develop the photographic plate, the plate is placed in a solution of silver bromide until all the silver bromide
is dissolved.
• When ENO salt is dissolved in water, carbon dioxide gas is produced which produces gas bubbles.
• Alithrin is a synthetic pyrethroid insecticide used in mosquito repellents.
• In a fire extinguisher, carbon dioxide is produced by the reaction of sodium bicarbonate and dilute sulfuric acid.
• Rat poison is made from a chemical called potassium cyanide or zinc phosphide. This is a very toxic chemical.
• Rodenticide is a type of insect control chemical used to control munching animals like rats, squirrels etc.

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• Aluminum phosphide is an inorganic compound. It is used in the storage of food grains as a pesticide and
fumigant.
• Uranium is used to find the age of the earth, old rocks etc. This is called age marking by uranium. The age of
organic matter is determined by the carbon dating method.
• Crooks glass is made by mixing cerium and other rare earth metals. Crooks glass has the ability to absorb
ultraviolet rays. Crooks glass is used in sunglasses.
• Zinc Oxide (ZnO) is also known as Yashad Flower. It is a white powder which is used in the manufacture of
cosmetics, inks and ointments etc.
• Cloud seeding is such a process of changing the weather in which rain can be made from the clouds at will.
• Elements such as silver iodide and dry ice are used in the cloud seeding process. These chemicals are sprayed on
the clouds through airplanes. Apart from this, they are also released from the earth by generators or anti aircraft
guns on the clouds.
• Phosphorus oxide is responsible for the flammability of matches. Gelatin is used to coat the ends of its sticks
with a phosphorus-rich substance.
• Nickel and cadmium are used as electrodes in charge batteries commonly used in torchlights, electric shavers,
etc. It has the cathode of nickel hydroxide and the anode of cadmium. In this, potassium hydroxide is used as an
electrolyte.
• Phenyl is a phenol derivative chemical. Which is widely used as a disinfectant in homes, offices, etc.
• The Bhopal gas tragedy happened on the night of 2-3 December, 1984.
• The colour of a positive plate of a lead-acid battery is brown when fully charged, When the battery is fully
charged condition, the negative plate is grey in colour. When the battery has fully discharged the colour of
negative plate is pure white.
• Ideal solutions are the solutions which obey Raoult’s law
• Colloidal Solution find application in Milk Industry
• Gaseous Form is the Lightest Colloid.
• Argentite ores is concentrated by chemical leaching method.
• The pine oil used as frothing agent in froth floatation process.
• Some of the common cases of denaturation of proteins are coagulation of egg white when an egg is subjected to
boiling, curdling of milk is another example of denaturation of proteins.
• The flavour of apples in mainly due to the ethanol (C2H5OH)
• The tracking of people by trained dogs is based on the recognisation of carboxylic acid in the sweat from feet.
• Fe and Mg metals are present in haemoglobin and chlorophyll respectively.
• Nitric acid is used in the production of fertilizers, The principal chemical produced form nitric acids ammonium
nitrate, sulphuric acid is used in the production of explosives like TNT, nitroglycerine, gun cotton, etc.
• Baking soda has sodium bicarbonate as the chief constituent. It decomposes on heating giving carbon dioxide.
This causes dough, cakes, biscuits etc. to expand and become light.
• Carbon occurs in its purest form of carbon black in nature.
• A very fine powder of ferric oxide is known as "jeweler's rouge", "red rouge", or simply rouge. It is used to put
the final polish on metallic jewellery and lenses, and historically as a cosmetic.
• 'Misch metal' alloyed with iron is used in the cigarettes lighters. Misch metal is an alloy of cerium (50%),
lanthanum (25%), neodymium (18%), praseodymium (5%) and other rare metals.
• Red phosphorus is mostly used in the manufacture of safety matches.
• Butter is an example of a colloidal dispersion of a liquid in a solid i.e., gel.
• Fluorescent coation on the glass is the secondary source of light in a fluorescent lamp.
• Heavy water (D2O) is used in nuclear reactor as a moderator. The deuterium is an isotope of hydrogen. Its
atomic mass is 2. Hence its molecular weight is 20u (2+18).
• Acetone is used as a solvent. It is an ingredient of nail polish remover.
• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a rddish brown gas. It has pungent smell and considered as air pollutant. In the
presence of sunlight hydrocarbons and oxides of Nitrogen react to form ozone and PAN (peroxy Acetyl Nitrate).
Smog is formed in traffic congested cities. Hytrocarbon + Nitrogen oxides Sunlight O3 + PAN + aldehyde
• Product Boiling Point (0C)
Kerosene 200-3000 C
Diesel above 3000 C
Gasoline 25-750 C
Lubricating oil > 3500 C

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• Magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) is used as a mordant in dyeing and tanning industry.

• Helium-III is abundant on the lunar surface and holds the potential to put an end to the energy crisis of the
Earth.
• 2, 4-D (2, 4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid) is used to destroy weeds.
• Polyacrylonitrile or orlon is used as a substitute for wool in making synthetic blankets, sweaters etc. it is a
polymer of acrylonitrile or vinyl cyanide.
• Glass wool is an insulating material, obtained from fibre glass arranged into a texture similar to wool.
• The tanks used by Scuba divers are filled with air diluted with helium (i.e., He-O2 mixture) because unlike
nitrogen, helium is not soluble in blood even under high pressure.
• Ethyl mercaptan or thioethanol (C2H5SH) is added during filling of LPG cylinders. It is a strong smelling
compound and help in the detection of gas leakage.
• Titanium (Ti) metal is used for making boats because it does not corrode by the sea water.
• Contact lense are made from lucite. It is a polymer of methyle methacrylate. The other names of lucite are
plexiglass, acrylate and Perspex.
• Water has a high specific heat.
• The water will freeze because on Moon the temperature is below the freezing point i.e. very low.
• When calcium oxide or quicklime (CaO) is dissolved in water, calcium hydroxide or limewater is obtained and
there is a release of heat. CaO + H2O – Ca (OH)2 +Heat
Quick lime Lime water

• Silicosis is a chronic lung disease caused by breathing in silica dust. Silicosis (silico tuberculosis) occurs in
workers whose occupation is related to pottery, ceramic, and glass industry.
• Sodium thiosuphate (Na2S2O3) solution is used as fixer in photography, it removes undercomposed Ag Br as a
soluble silver thiosulphate complex.
AgBr + 2Na2S2O3 – Na3 [Ag(S2O3)2 ] + NaBr

Sodium argento thiosulphate

This study material is not valid after the year 2024, after which it will become outdated.

• Vermicompost is the product or process of composting utilizing various species of worms, usually red wigglers,
white worms and earthworm, to create a heterogeneous mixture of decomposing vegetabeles or food waste,
bedding material and vernicast. Containing water soluble nutrients, vermicompost is an excellent, nutrient rich
organic fertilizer and soil conditioner.
• Soaps cannot be used in acidic condition as they are converted into free acid which form a scum.
• In an atomic explosion, release of large amount of energy is due to conversion of chemical energy in to nuclear
energy.
• Generally, are weak bases. Antacid which naturalizes stomach acidity, a commonly used antacid is magnesium
hydroxide. Magnesium hydroxide is common component of antacids and laxatives.
• Iodised salt is a compound formed by combination of potassium iodide and common salt.
• Agent Disease
Arsenic Melanosis
Fluoride Fluorosis
Dust Sillicosis
Noise Prebycusis
• The main cause of hardness of water is presence of Ca or Mg ions. When hard water containing these ions is
treated with soap solution it reacts to form white crudy ppt known as scum.
• Food cans are coated with tin instead of zinc because zinc is more reactive than tin. Tin is only reactive to
powerful acids such as tri-sodium phosphate, while zinc is reactive towards acids.
• A compound calcium sulphate (CaSO4) which is a white solid is highly hygroscopic in nature. It has a very
remarkable property of setting into a hard, solid mass on wetting with water.
• Silica and aluminium are the two main constituents of granite. Granite contains 70-77% of silica and 11-13% of
aluminium in the form of (Al2O3).
• It helps in elimination of lead oxide.
• Silicosis in human is lung disease caused by inhalation of crystalline sillica-dust.

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• Amnion is a membrane, filled with fluid, closely covers the embryo. The sex of the embryo may be determined by
ultrasound as early as 11 weeks gestation.
• Oil become rancid due to oxidation. Oil contains fatty acid which react in presence of oxygen and become rancid.
Rancid oil is a major source of destructive free radicals in our diet.
• Bagasse is sugarcane fibre waste left after juice extraction. It is used for the production of paper.
• Graphite and graphite powder are a naturally occurring form of carbon which serves as an industrial lubricant.
• Chromium oxide in paints makes the colour of paint green.
• NaCl has same molecular weight and equivalent weight

Equivalent of salt- Molecular weight of salt /Total charge on cation

Molecular weight of NaC1=23+ 35.5-58.5

Equivalent weight of NaCl = = 58.5 /1 =58.5

• Chloroflurocarbon- Depletion in ozone layer in the atmosphere

• Sulphur dioxide- Acid rain
• Lead compound- Harmful for human nervous system
• Carbon dioxide- Topmost contribution to greenhouse effect

• Lithium is also a highly reactive element, meaning that a lot of energy can be stored in its atomic bonds. This
translates into a very high energy density for lithium- ion batteries. It is used in mobile phone, laptops etc.
• Hydrocarbon is related with petro chemicals such as crude oil and petrolium. Environmental pollution by crude
oil is generally caused during disposal operations and spilling in water bodies like- oceans, seas and rivers.
• Methyl Isocyanate gas (MIC) is used in preparation of pesticides.
• German silver is a mixture of copper, zinc and nickel. It is an alloy metal. It is used to make pots and toys due to
hardness toughness and resistance to corrosion.
• Bleaching of wood pulp is the chemical processing of wood pulp to lighten its color and whiten the pulp. The
primary product of wood pulp is paper, for which whiteness (similar to, but distinct from brightness) is an
important characteristic. These processes and chemistry are also applicable to the bleaching of non- wood pulps,
such as those made from bamboo or kenaf.
• Dolomite is used in agriculture to raise the pH of overly acidic soil and provide nutrients for plants. It contains
calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate, two basic pH-raising ingredients that counteract the acids in soil
and peat.
• Nitrate can also enter the groundwater via excessive use of fertilizers, including manure spreading. The excessive
use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers (be they synthetic or natural) is particularly damaging, as much of the
nitrogen that is not taken up by plants is transformed into nitrate which is easily leached.
• States of matter can be defined as the forms a substance can occur, and are of five types: solid, liquid, gas, plasma
and Bose-Einstein condensates (BEC). Each form differs from the other mainly in structures and densities.
Plasma are highly charged particles with high kinetic energy. BEC is a state of matter of a dilute gas of bosons
cooled close to absolute zero.
• Plaster of paris, quick-setting gypsum plaster consisting of a fine white powder (calcium sulfate hemihydrate),
which hardens when moistened and allowed to dry. Known since ancient times, plaster of paris is so called
because of its preparation from the abundant gypsum found near Paris.
• Tincture of iodine, iodine tincture, or weak iodine solution is an antiseptic. It is usually 2-7% elemental iodine,
along with potassium iodide or sodium iodide, dissolved in a mixture of ethanol and water. Tincture solutions are
characterized by the presence of alcohol.
• Xenon is used in fluorescent bulbs, flash bulbs and lasers. Xenon emits an instant, intense light when present in
discharge tubes. This property of xenon is utilized in high-speed electronic flash bulbs used by photographers.
• Boiling water absorbs heat in the form of latent heat for the purpose of changing its liquid state to vapors and
latent heat of vaporization is quite high far water.
• Decantation is a process of separation of insoluble solids from liquid. The suspension of solid particles in liquid
is allowed to stand for some time. The solid particles then settle down at the bottom of the container and clean
water goes up.

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• Fluorine does not give Lassaignes test because it does not form Precipitate like other halogens (chlorine,
Bromine, Iodine).
• The noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon) are also gases at STP, but they are monatomic.
Helium is a member of the noble gases which means it has a filled outer shell of electrons.
• Because isotopes of the same element have identical chemical properties, they cannot be separated by chemical
methods, but only by methods that are based on their mass differences, such as mass spectrometry.
• Evaporation is the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas or vapor. Evaporation is the primary
pathway that water moves from the liquid state back into the water cycle as atmospheric water vapor. The rate of
evaporation is affected by the following factors: Temperature: The rate of evaporation increases with an increase
in temperature. Surface area: The rate of evaporation increases with an increase in surface area. Humidity: The
amount of water vapour present in the air is called humidity.
• Wind speed: Evaporation increases with an increase in wind speed.
• Boric acid is often used as an antiseptic, insecticide, flame retardant, neutron absorber, or precursor to other
chemical compounds. It has the chemical formula HBO3 (sometimes written B (OH)), and exists in the form of
colourless crystals or a white powder that dissolves in water.
• Citric acid is used in insecticides and disinfectants to help destroy bacteria and viruses. It is used to preserve and
marinate meats, and flavour foods and beverages.
• Acetic acid is used in many industrial processes for the production of substrates and it is often used as a chemical
reagent for the production of a number of chemical compounds like acetic anhydride, ester, vinyl acetate
monomer, vinegar, and many other polymeric materials. Acetic acid also used in pickles.

Important Oneliner Questions of Chemistry in tabular form

The atomic number of an atom indicates the number of? Proton

Which is the most characteristic property of an element? Atomic number
What is the number of protons in a negatively charged atom? less than the atomic number of
the element
If the mass number of an atom of an element is 23 and atomic number is 11, then it 11 protons, 12 neutrons and 11
will have- electrons
What is the atomic number of an atom, which has 10 protons and 11 neutrons? 10
An atom of carbon has 6 protons. Its mass number is 12. How many neutrons are 6
there in an atom of carbon?
Fe has 26 protons in its nucleus. What is the number of electrons in Fe2+(II) ion? 24
Which particles have particle-wave dipoles? electron
How many types of quantum numbers are there? 4
How many values of rotation quantum number are possible? 2
Atoms that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are isotopes
called what?
what is the unit of radioactivity Curie and Becquerel
Radioactive objects should be kept in a container made of? Lead
Which has negative charge? β ray
Isotherms are produced by the emission of β ray
During which time no change (in mass or charge) takes place in the radioactive γ −-emission
material?
In what order are the penetrating powers of 𝛂 𝛃 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛄 in their descending order? γ, β, α
Which is the least permeable power beam? α − ray
What are in an alpha particle? 2 protons and 2 newtons
Alpha particles are ………. exactly like the nucleus of helium
The α-particle has two positive charges. Its mass is approximately equal to which mass of one atom of helium
one of the following?
What are beta rays emitted from radioactive materials? electrons moving around the
nucleus
𝛄-rays are made off - electromagnetic waves
What happens with the gamma decay of a nucleus? Neither the mass number of the
nucleus changes nor does the

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atomic number change.

Which is a radioactive element? Plutonium
Carbon dating is used to determine the age of- fossil
Which isotope of carbon is/are used in carbon dating? 14
6C only

The half-life of a radioactive substance is 10 days, which means that ¾ part of the substance will
disintegrate in 20 days
The radioisotope used in the prevention of blood cancer (leukemia) is- Phosphorus-32
Cobalt-60 is commonly used in radiation therapy, as it emits- gamma rays
Which type of reaction produces the most harmful radiation? fission reaction
Nuclear fission is the process of .... subdivisions of a heavy atomic
nucleus
On what principle is the atomic bomb based? uncontrolled nuclear fission
Nuclear explosion is induced by? uncontrolled chain reaction
What were the names of the atomic bombs that were dropped on Japan? Little Boy and Fat Man
Which is the source of solar energy? Nuclear fusion
On what principle is the hydrogen bomb based? uncontrolled fusion reaction
The 'Hydrogen bomb' was developed by- by Edward Taylor
Who invented the nuclear reactor? Enrico Fermi
What is the function of a control rod (cadmium rod) in a nuclear reactor? Absorbs extra neutrons to control
SCSGYAN the chain reaction.
To control the rate of the fission reaction in a nuclear reactor, ............ is used, which cadmium
itself absorbs neutrons without fission.
What is the basic process of nuclear reactors? Fission
Which one of the following coolant is used in fast breeder reactor at Kalpakkam? liquefied sodium
Which of the following can be used to absorb neutrons to control the chain reaction Boron
during a nuclear reaction?
Which substance acts as a moderator in a nuclear reactor? heavy water
What is used as a moderator in a nuclear reactor? Graphite
What is the function of heavy water in a nuclear reactor? slowing down neutrons
What is heavy water in a nuclear reactor? an oxide of a relatively heavy
isotope of hydrogen
Graphite is used in nuclear plants like a moderator
The substance used as both moderator and refrigerant in nuclear reactors is- heavy water
This bond in NaCl is- Ionic
The ………. bond holds the atoms together within the water molecule. polar covalent
What is the strongest oxidizing agent? fluorine
If the pH value of a substance is less than 7 then it is considered as Acid
What is the pH value of acid rain? 5.5 or less
The pH value of a sample of multiple distilled water is- near zero
What is the approximate value of pH of human blood? 7.4
Which is the strongest base in aqueous solution? Diethylamine
Which acid has three basicity? phosphoric acid
Milk is- Emulsion
When two liquids do not dissolve in each other and do not form a solution, what is it Immmissible
called?
The sugar in a sugar solution is a ..... Solute
When is butter colloid formed? When fat pellets are dispersed in
water
What is the combination of smog? smoke and fog
A solution is a colloidal solution of? liquid in liquid
Which equation represents Charles' law? V∝T
‘“Equal volume of all gases at the same temperature and pressure has the same avogadro's law
number of molecules.” This law is called-

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The molecular mass of a gas is ………. twice its vapor pressure

How is "absolute zero" defined? The temperature at which all
molecular motion stops.
The chemical reaction by which heat is released is called a …………. exothermic
Which chemical reaction is always endothermic in nature? At which water boils at 298 K.
The process of fission of a water molecule with light energy is called light decomposition
Who designed the method of using the chemical symbols we use today? bergilius
Which element is called Aurum? Gold
What is called the 'Fuel of the Future'? hydrogen
Which one has maximum Calorific value? hydrogen
Which is the best fuel in terms of energy released per gram of fuel? hydrogen
Which fuel causes the least environmental pollution? hydrogen
Which one is a steam ember gas? mixture of carbon monoxide and
hydrogen
Which can be used as propellant or fuel in rockets? Liquid Hydrogen + Liquid Oxygen
LPG is a hydrocarbon consisting of a mixture of- propane and butane
Which of the following is used for cooking? liquefied petroleum gas

We feel that smell due to the presence of ………..which indicates that the LPG sulfur compound
cylinder is leaking?
This study material is only for UPPSC RO/ARO PRE RE-Exam, do not read it for any other exam.
Which gas expelled from the 'Bio gas' plant is used as a fuel gas? Methane
By what other name is bio gas also known? Dung Gas
Who invented the 'Gobar Gas' system? CB Desai
Scientist named Newlands, Mandeleev and Meyer developed ……… Periodic Table Themes
Who invented the modern periodic table? mendeleev
Who invented the periodic table of basic elements? mendeleev
What did Dmitri Mendeleev prepare? periodic table of chemical
elements
In the modern periodic table, 18 groups and 7 periods
Which element has the highest electron affinity in the periodic table? chlorine
Which element has atomic number 3? lithium
The least reactive elements of the periodic table are- Noble gases
What are the properties of alkaline metals? gives off electrons easily
SCSGYAN
Why do metals conduct electricity? due to free electrons
Electron affinity while moving from left to right in the period- increases
The atomic number of lanthanum is- 57
Sodium metal is stored by immersing it in- in kerosene
Nowadays, yellow lamps are often used for lighting the roads. Which gas is used in sodium
those lamps?
Which is commonly known as washing soda? sodium carbonate
What is the popular name of washing soda? sodium carbonate
Sodium carbonate is commonly known as- Soda
Washing soda can be used for ……… to soften hard water
The chemical formula of washing soda is- Na2CO3.10H2O
Which one is the chemical name of baking soda? sodium bicarbonate
What is the common name of sodium bicarbonate? Baking soda
Edible soda is sodium bicarbonate
Why is baking soda added to the dough? to generate CO2
What product is formed when sodium bicarbonate is heated excessively? sodium carbonate
The chemical name of 'Hypo' commonly used in photography is- sodium thiosulfate
Why is sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3) solution used in photography? To remove undissolved silver
bromide as soluble silver

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thiosulfate complex
Which substance is used in photography and as an antichlor? sodium thiosulfate
In photography, what is the chemical used as a fixer and developer? sodium thiosulfate
What happens in the air bag used for the safety of the car driver? sodium azide
Which mineral is found in nature called sodium chloride or table? halite
What is the chemical formula of NaCl? salt
What is the chemical name of common edible salt? Sodium chloride
'Chile saltpeter' is the common name of? sodium nitrate
The chemical name of 'Caustic Soda' is …………. sodium hydroxide
Which one of the elements does not form solid hydrogen carbonate? potassium
Potassium nitrate is used in the production of Fertilizer
Which one of the following is used in making gunpowder? potassium nitrate
From which mixture is 'Gun-powder' made? Charcoal, Sulfur and Potassium
SCSGYAN Nitrate
Which metal is extracted from sea water? magnesium
The very soft mineral 'talc' (soap stone) is mainly- magnesium silicate
Which one of the following substances is used as a pigment in dyeing and leather magnesium sulfate
industry?
What is the main element of anti-acid being brought in the market as 'Milk of Mg (OH)2
Magnesia'?
How is Milk of Magnesia used? Laxative
The compound of 'Epsom' salt is- Mg
Which is the most abundant metal in the earth's crust? Aluminum
'Bauxite' ore is- of aluminum
Cryolite is an ore of which metal? Antimony
By which industry 'Bauxite' is used as a raw material? Aluminum
Although the amount of aluminum in the crust is more than that of iron, still Metallic methods are more
aluminum is costlier than iron because- expensive than iron.
Which aluminum salt is commonly used to stop bleeding? potash alum
Which is used for water purification? Alum
Which compound is used in making fire retardant cloth? aluminum sulfate
What is 'zeolite'? Hydrated Sodium Aluminum
Silicate
What do antiperspirant substances usually contain? aluminum compound
What is the chemical formula of aluminum nitride? AIN
The chemical formula of 'Plaster of Paris' is- 2CaSO4.H2O
The chemical name of 'Plaster of Paris' is- Calcium sulphate hemihydrate
What is used to join broken bones? plaster of Paris
What is 'Quartz' made of? from calcium silicate
The most active ingredient of 'Bleaching Powder' is- calcium hypochloride
X is a yellowish powder and if it is left open in the air, it gives off a pungent odor. It CaOCl2
disinfects drinking water. It is prepared by reacting caustic lime with chlorine gas.
Identify X.
Bleaching powder is prepared by passing what? slaked lime chlorine
Which gas is used in the preparation of bleaching powder? chlorine
Which is widely used for dehydration of water? bleaching powder
Which chemical is used for ripening fruits? calcium corbide
What is the chemical name of unslaked lime? calcium oxide
The compound element useful in photography is- silver bromide
Among the silver salts, which one is used to generate artificial rain? silver iodide
Which one does not have silver? german silver
'German silver' is used in the making of goods, currency, metal, jewellery, etc. What It looks like silver.
is the reason for giving it this name?
What layer is applied on the plate of photography? silver bromide
Which metal is used in photo films? Silver

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What is the 'King of Metals'? gold

From chemical point of view 'Sindoor' is- Mercury (II) Sulfide
Which one does not moisten the wall of a glass vessel in which it is kept? Mercury
To avoid knocking in the engine of the car is used- lead tetraethyl
What is Tetra Ethyl Lead (TEL)? antiblastic compound
Which has the highest amount of lead? high octane fuel
What is a fuse wire made of? tin and lead alloy
What pollutes the air of a big city? Lead
The important element involved in automobile exhaust is …………. lead
What is the percentage of lead in a lead pencil? 0
Which mineral is found in monazite sand? Thorium
Where are the largest reserves of Thorium? India
What is found abundantly in sand on the beach in Kerala? Thorium
Carnotite is an ore of uranium
Uranite is an ore/mineral of ………. uranium
From which mineral is radium obtained? pitchblend
The isotope of uranium used in nuclear reactors is U235
Uranium eventually turns into a stable isotope of which element? lead
Which is in liquid form at room temperature? francium
Which semiconductor is used as a transistor? germanium
The salts of which elements give colors in fireworks? Sr and Ba
The salts of which elements give colors in fireworks? barium
Which heavy metal is found in modern tanning industries, is toxic? Chromium
Which is the lightest metal and the heaviest metal? Lithium and Osmium
What is a mixture of potassium nitrate, pulverized charcoal and sulfur called? gun powder
What is in Talc? Magnesium, Oxygen and Silicon
Who invented gunpowder? by Roger Bacon
The 'solder' used to join electronic circuits consists of- lead and tin
Which element behaves chemically in both metallic and non-metallic forms? Boron
What is the nucleus of a hydrogen molecule made of? only 1 proton
How many neutrons are in a hydrogen atom? nothing
The reaction of dilute sulfur with zinc is produced by- hydrogen
Which gas is produced when an alkali metal reacts with water? hydrogen
What will happen when hydrogen is burnt? Water
Which will absorb the larger chunks of hydrogen? colloidal solution of palladium
By which process does cooking oil turn into vegetable ghee? by hydrogenation
The gas used in making vegetable ghee from vegetable oil is- hydrogen
Which catalyst is used for hydrogenation of vegetable oils? nickel
Which one gas is not a green house gas? hydrogen
What is the purest form of water in nature? rain water
What is the process of separating hydrogen from water called? electrocution
The ratio of hydrogen and oxygen in water by weight is- 1: 8
What type of electrical conductor is pure water? Bad
Approximately at what temperature will the density of water be maximum? 40 C
What is the density of water? 1000kg/cubic meter
Boiling point of water is ................. 2120F
The freezing point of water is …………. 320F
Why does the boiling point of water decrease with altitude? due to low atmospheric pressure
Boiling point and freezing point of water on adding salt to water- will increase and decrease
respectively
Permanent hardness in water is due to the presence of Sulfates of Magnesium and
Calcium
Which can be used to remove permanent hardness of water? sodium carbonate
What is used to decolorize pulp in the paper industry? of hydrogen peroxide

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Who discovered heavy water? H. C. yure

What is heavy water? deuterium oxide
The chemical name of heavy water is- deuterium oxide
What is the chemical composition of 'heavy water' (Guru Jal)? D2O
Which property is not present in heavy water? The boiling point of heavy water
is lower than that of ordinary
water
Which element is found in all organic compounds? Carbon
................... is not a form of carbon. Silicon
Which one is the hardest material? Diamond
Diamond is an allotropic form of ………. Carbon
Diamond is the hardest form of --- Carbon
Which does not contribute to the luster of diamond? low refractive index of diamond
Diamond does not conduct electricity because - it has no free electrons
What material is used in the manufacture of lead pencils? Graphite
Which is a good conductor of electricity? Graphite
Which of the following is used as a lubricant? Graphite
Non-metals are generally poor conductors of electricity, but graphite is a good Contains loosely bound electrons
conductor of electricity because -
What is meant by 'Green House Effect'? Restricting solar energy due to
atmospheric gases
Which one has more impact on the 'Green House Effect'? Carbon dioxide
Which gas is responsible for the effect of greenhouse gas on the earth? carbon dioxide and methane
Lime water turns milky when kept in air due to the presence of? Carbon dioxide
What do we use for fire fighting? Carbon dioxide
The major component of sweetened soft drink is- carbonated water
The polluted gas emitted from vehicles is mainly- carbon monoxide
Which air pollutant dissolves in Haemoglobin of blood more quickly than oxygen? carbon monoxide
Common type of coal is- bituminous
In which form of coal the maximum percentage of carbon is found? anthracite
By using activated charcoal, pigments are removed from pure elements? nurturing
Which gas causes suffocation and death when coal is burnt in a closed room? carbon monoxide
What is Dry Ice? solid form of carbon dioxide
Which polymer is used in making bullet-proof windows? polycarbonate
What can be made from charcoal at home? wood in the absence of air
The second most abundant element in the earth's crust is Silicon
IC chips used in computers are made of? Silicon
Which element is used in solar cell? Silicon
Which one of the minerals mainly consists of silica? Quartz
Quartz used in watches is …………. silicon dioxide
The most commonly used material for making transistors is- Silicon
What is the most abundant element in the Earth's atmosphere? Nitrogen
Which is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere on the basis of percentage? Nitrogen
What is the percentage of nitrogen in our atmosphere? 78 percent
Keep the sperm of the bull- In liquid nitrogen
Nitrogen fixation is a process in which organic nitrogen is converted into
SCSGYAN protein
Nitration is the biological process of converting what? N2 to nitrite
In the case of plants, the nitrate adsorbed from the soil- converts to free nitrogen
In laughing gas we use? nitrous oxide
Used by dentists as a substitute for Anesthetics? nitrous oxide
Stinging smell in the nose near the urinals is often due to- ammonia
What is a property of ammonia? Red litmus turns blue in its
aqueous solution

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With which nitric acid does not react? Gold

Aquaregia is a mixture of which in the volume ratio in the ratio of 1:3? Concentrate HNO3and HCl
Which one is used to dissolve noble metals? aquaregia
What causes acid rain due to environmental pollution? nitrous oxide and sulfur dioxide
Which is the first element whose chemical discovery was given by Hanning Brand? Phosphorus
Why is phosphorus stored in water? Because its ignition temperature
is very low.
What is 'White Phosphorus'? P4
Which form of phosphorus is most reactive? white phosphorus
The matchsticks have ................. Phosphorus
Which cannot be included in Green House Gases? phosphine
What is the most abundant element? Oxygen
How many valence electrons are there in an oxygen atom? 6
Oxygen' and 'Ozone' are- Allotropes
Ozone molecule consists of ………….. atoms of oxygen. 3
What is the chemical formula of ozone? O3
Ozone protects the biosphere from ………. ultraviolet rays
Which gas is responsible for the decay of the ozone layer that surrounds the earth, chlorofluorocarbons
which protects it from harmful ultraviolet rays?
What is the common name of 'Sulphur'? Brimstone
From which language did Sulphur get its name? Sanskrit
Which compound causes irritation in the eyes while chopping onions? Sulphur
The element used to vulcanize rubber is- Sulphur
Which non-metal shows allotropy in its liquid state? Sulphur
Which gas comes out of volcanic mountains? sulphur dioxide
Which one is an air pollutant gas and is produced by the combustion of fossil fuels? sulphur dioxide
Which is considered the 'basic chemical' in the chemical industry? H2SO4
The contact method is used in its manufacture- H2SO4
Which compounds are responsible for the foul odor emanating from dead fish? sulfur compound
Whose smell is like rotten eggs? hydrogen sulfide
Which of the gases present in the air is responsible for the discoloration of brass? hydrogen sulfide
Which causes acid rain emitted from power stations? sulphur dioxide
What is the maximum amount of acid rain? H2SO4
Which is the most serious air pollutant that threatens health? sulphur dioxide
It is used in the battery in the car- sulphuric acid
The most reactive among halogens is fluorine
Which element never shows a positive oxidation state in any of its compounds? fluorine
Which gas is not a part of the atmosphere? chlorine
Which of the gases is used to purify drinking water? chlorine
What is the most commonly used bleaching reagent? chlorine
Another name for hydrochloric acid is- muriatic acid
The color of solid iodine is brownish purple to black
Which is such a substance, which is found in abundance in the sea and is given in a Iodine
specific deficiency disease?
Sea weed is an important source of of iodine
The halogen which is used as an analgesic is - iodine
Which nutritional element is not necessary for the formation and strength of bones Iodine
and teeth?
Iodized salt resides in- potassium iodide
Inert gases are …………. chemically inactive
Which gas is not an inert gas? hydrogen
Which gas is not an inert gas? freon
Which noble gas is not present in air? radon
Which is the second most abundant element in this universe? helium

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The most abundant inert gas in the atmosphere is- Argon

. Which inert gas is used by deep sea divers for respiration in place of nitrogen present in helium
the air? Every year up to 65% changes are made in the course content.
Which gas is used to dilute oxygen for deep sea diving respiration? helium
Helium is added to the oxygen supply of deep sea divers because- It is less soluble in blood than
nitrogen at high pressure.
Helium is preferred over hydrogen in air-filled balloons because it Does not form explosive mixture
with air
When a helium atom loses an electron, it becomes positive helium ions
Which gas is used to inflate the tires of an airplane? helium
What is filled in an electric bulb? organ
Which is the most abundant rare gas? Argon
Argon is used in arc welding because- It has less subductivity with
metals.
The noble gas used for the treatment of cancer is- radon
Germanium is the most commonly used as…………. semiconductor
Which compound is used in Prickly Heat Powder to prevent excessive sweating? boric acid
When a solid is directly converted into a gas on heating, what is this process called? sublimation
Who discovered cement? Joseph Aspadin
The mixture of calcium aluminate and calcium silicate is called- cement
Which one is the main component of cement? Limestone
What is the chemical composition of cement? limestone, clay and gypsum
Which mixture is heated a lot to make cement? limestone and clay
Why is gypsum mixed with clinker in the manufacture of cement? To reduce the rate of
solidification of cement
Adding gypsum to Portland cement helps in- To prevent quick settling of
cement
Shisha (glass) is a- supercooled liquid
What is the main ingredient used in manufacturing different types of glass? silica
The most important component of glass is …………. silica
What is the process of slowly cooling a hot glass called? Annealing
What color does cobalt oxide give to glass? dark blue
Chromium oxide is used as an ingredient in paints to obtain green colour
Which one of the green colored glass can break ultraviolet rays? Crooks glass
What is the lens made of? flint glass
What type of glass is used to make glass reinforced plastics? filament glass
What is responsible for the high strength of Pyrex glass? lead oxide
Which glass is used to make glasses? Crooks glass
Borosilicate glass utensils are used in microwave ovens because It is extremely heat resistance
The three elements which are used the most in chemical fertilizers are- Nitrogen, Potassium, Phosphorus
Which is not a chemical fertilizer? sodium sulfate

Which is not a nitrogenous fertilizer? super phosphate

What are the components of the chemical fertilizer Nitrolim? calcium carbide and nitrogen
Which calcium salts are used in the form of fertilizers? calcium carbonate
Excessive use of which one of the fertilizers can be responsible for the presence of Phosphate and Potassium
toxic substances in the ground water?
What is always present in organic compounds? Carbon
Which is also known as marsh gas? methane
What are the major constituents of marsh gas? methane
Which gas is mainly in the gases coming out of the septic tank? methane
Which one gas mostly comes out from the garbage-filled areas in urban areas? methane
The green house gas which is disposed of by ruminant animals is- CH4
What is mainly contained in biogas? methane

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What is mainly contained in natural gas? methane

Which is the most abundant flammable natural gas? methane
What happens when methane burns? Carbon dioxide and water are
released
Most of the explosions in mines occur in- by mixing methane with air
What is the full form of CFC? chloro fluoro carbon
Chlorofluorocarbons are also known by other names- freon
HCFCs have an extension of: hydro chlorofluorocarbons
Which greenhouse gas has the highest thermal insulation capacity? clarofluorocarbon
Which common refrigerant is used as home refrigerator? freon
What is the chemical formula of propane? C3H8
Which gas is used in hot air balloons? propane
Which gas is used in cigarette lighter? butane
What is the main base component of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)? butane
A mixture of liquefied butane and isobutane is called- lpg
Which one is not a component of bio gas? nitrogen dioxide
Toxic mustard gas is fluid
Multi-use plastic water bottles are made of …………. polyethylene
Which of the following is used for ripening fruits? SCSGYAN both calcium carbide and
acetylene
'Orlon' is a polymer made from? acrylonitrile
The common name of 'Teflon' is- polytetrafluoroethylene
Which of the polymers is used in the manufacture of non-adhesive pans? of teflon

Which has sp hybridized carbon? CH=CH

How many acyclic chain isomers of C6H14 are possible? 5
From what can 'Ethanol' be obtained? Sugarcane
Molase is most widely used after fermentation to prepare which of the following? ethanol
The 'modified spirit' is- 95 percent ethyl alcohol
Alcohol is more volatile than water because ………… is less than water. its boiling point
Which compound is always formed during the fermentation of sugar? ethyl alcohol
Leakage of LPG can be easily detected by ............ spreading in air. ethyl mercaptan
Glycol is added to aviation gasoline because it- prevents the freezing of petrol
Bee sting releases an acid which causes pain and burning. What is that injected methanoic acid
acid?
What is injected when an ant bites? formic acid
Formic acid is produced by? red ant
The accumulation of which one causes runners to experience pain in the leg lactic acid
muscles after running?
Which acid is used in photography? oxalic acid
Which compound is the most common compound to form kidney stones? calcium oxalate
Which is the main organic acid found in grapes? tartaric acid
Which of the acids is used in the manufacture of baking powder? tartaric acid
What is in Nail Polish Remover? acetone
The first organic compound synthesized in the laboratory was urea
Which has the highest percentage of nitrogen in terms of mass? urea
The percentage of nitrogen in urea is 46 percent
What is the chemical formula of urea? (NH2)2CO
Which was the major polluter responsible for the Bhopal gas tragedy? methyl isocyanate
Methyl isocyanate gas, which caused the Bhopal disaster in December 1984, was Pesticide
used in the Union Carbide factory for the production of
Which of the organic matter is found in most abundance in nature? Cellulose
Which is the sweetest sugar? Fructose
Which element is not present in pure sugar? Nitrogen

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C12H22O11 is also known as …………. Sugar

Table granulated sugar is commonly known as ………. Sucrose
Who is called the father of aromatic compounds? Benzene
what is C6H6? Benzene
How many moles of H2(g) are needed to saturate one mole of benzene? 3
What is the chemical name of 'gamaxane'? benzene hexachloride
Which organic compound on heating in the presence of copper produces a blue chlorobenzene
flame?
Which is known as carbolic acid? Phenol
Phenol is used in the manufacturing of of bakelite
Bakelite is a copolymer of phenol and others? formaldehyde
The full form of DDT is- Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloro
Methane
The chemical used for the preservation of food items is- sodium benzoate
What does Iodex, a pain relieving ointment, smell like? methyl salicylate
What is black gold? Petrol
Petroleum is a mixture of- of hydrocarbons
What is the quality of petrol expressed in? octane number
How is the quality of a gasoline sample determined? by its octane number
What happens when ethylene dibromide is mixed with petrol? It increases the octane number of
the fuel
commercial Vaseline extracted from? petroleum
Paraffin is a byproduct of what? plant glue
The process involved in making soap is- saponification
Soap is the sodium salt of which acid? stearic acid
The reaction that takes place in soap making is called saponification. Basically soap long chain monocarboxylic acid
is the sodium or potassium salt of?
Which is the most important raw material for the manufacture of soap? fats and acids
Antiseptic properties in soap are found due to- Bithional
Deterrent is - cleaning agent
The handle of pressure cookers is made of plastic, as it must be made a poor Bakelite
conductor of heat. Which plastic is used in it, which is the first man-made plastic?
What is the polymer of natural rubber? isoprene
The process of treating rubber with sulfur and heat to give strength, maximum Vulcanization
elasticity and durability is called
Which one of the substances is made from natural raw material? rayon
Which polymer fiber used in place of wool, which is used in making synthetic nylon
blankets, sweaters, etc.?
What is nylon thread made of? polyamide polymer
Nylon is made of- from polyamide
What is the polymer obtained by condensation with hexamethylene diamine and nylon 66
adipic acid?
Which is not a natural polymer? Nylon
Which is the basis of vegetable fiber? Cellulose
What is used as a raw material for the manufacturing of rayon? Cellulose
Glycol is used in the manufacturing of Terylene
The explosive nitro glycerin is a- Ester
What is another name for an RDX? Cyclonite
Which explosive is named 'Nobel oil'? TNG
The chemical used in the manufacture of dynamite is- glycerol trinitrate
Alfred noble, who founded the Noble prize invent what? Dynamite
Aspirin is- Antipyretic
How is iodoform used? Antisupply
Who invented penicillin? Alexander Fleming

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What are the hydrogen atoms present in the acetylene molecule? Acidic
A student accidentally mixed acetone with alcohol. How can we separate this by fractional distillation
mixture of acetone and alcohol?
What is another name for carbon tetrachloride? Pyrene
The father of all aliphatic compounds is considered to be- Methane
Two reactants in a flask at room temperature are producing bubbles of gas which Magnesium carbonate and
turn lime water milky. What could be those reactants? hydrochloric acid
Which characteristic is common to hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide? These are all gases at room
temperature.
Who is called 'Syngas'? CO(g)+H2(g)
By which method permanent hardness of water cannot be removed? by boiling

Which is not used as a fertilizer? ammonium sulfide

The chemical formula of gypsum is CaSo4.2H2O
An example of a non-cellulosy filament is Nylon
most ductile metal is Gold
Which metal cannot be easily cut with a knife? Aluminum
Which is called 'the gold of fools'? iron sulfide
The validity of this study material is only till the year 2024, do not read it after that.

Who is considered the 'father of modern chemistry'? antoine lavoisier

What is the maximum number of states of matter? 5
Generally, the physical classification of the states of matter does not include …………. Colloidal
------------,It is one of the states of matter obtained by cooling a gas of very low density Bose Einstein Condensate
under extremely low temperatures.

The wind is a ....... mixture of both elements and

compounds
To find the atomic mass of an element, with which the atomic mass of that element is Carbon
compared?
Everything in the universe is made up of very fine particles." Who said this first? Kanad
Which is not a mixture? graphite
Which is a chemical compound? ammonia
Who first proposed the atomic theory of matter? John Dalton
Who did the 'Plum Pudding Model' for an atom? JJ thomson
What are the three basic components of an atom? protons, neutrons and electrons
'mass number'is the total of ? protons and neutrons
Which is not a nucleon? electron
Who discovered electron? J. J. thomson
Atomic particles which have properties opposite to normal subatomic particles are Antiparticle
known as
What is the anti-particle of electron? Positron
The presence of free ................ in a substance makes it a good conductor of electricity. Electron
Neutron was discovered by- by chadwick
With what name is the name particle 'boson' related? S. N. Bose
What is the reason for the difference in the mass of the molecule of the isotopes of an different numbers of neutrons in
element? their nuclei
What happens to all isotopes of the same element? Same atomic number but different
atomic mass
When an atom of an element has more than one mass number, what is it called? isotope
Chemical properties of isotopes should be equal
The radioactive isotope of hydrogen is called- tritium
The electrons located in the highest energy level of an atom are called …………. valence electrons
On what do the chemical properties of an element depend? number of electrons in the outermost

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SCSGYAN shell of the element

Marble is also used as a building material and what is its chemical name for making calcium carbonate
idols?
Which salt is found in maximum quantity in human bones? calcium phosphate
Brown spots on utensils and clothes are indicative of an excessive amount of ............ in manganese
water.
Dark purple compound substance which is used as antiseptic and disinfectant- potassium permanganate
Which is the second most abundant metal found in the Earth's womb? iron
Which is iron ore? magnetite
Magnetite is- Fe3O4
What is the process of manufacturing iron from iron ore called? Reduction

To give hardness to steel, it is mixed with- Chromium

Which important metal is used along with iron in making stainless steel? Chromium
What is the alloy used to make thermal components for electrothermal devices? nichrome
what is the purest form of iron Wrought Iron
What happens when iron rusts? oxidation
When iron rusts, its weight- Increases
When an iron nail rusts, iron oxide is formed. Such a situation arises- with the weight of the nail
Galvanization is a process in which iron objects are coated with zinc to protect them Rusting
from ………….
For the first time humans used the following metal- Copper
Malachite is an ore/mineral of ………. Copper
What are the two metals which are not silver colored? copper and gold
Brass is an alloy whose components are- copper and zinc
Bronze is an alloy copper and tin
What is galvanized iron? zinc coated iron
Which one of the elements will replace hydrogen with acids to form a salt? Zinc
Which one is suitable for water purification? zeolite
What is used as a rodenticide? zinc phosphide
What is the name of the coating of a thin layer of zinc in an article of steel or iron? Zinc coating
Why do silver utensils turn black after some time? Due to the formation of sulfur coating
on silver
Silver halide is used in photographic plates because it- soluble in hypo solution

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Biology
Biology is the science of life forms and living processes. The living world comprises an amazing diversity of living
organisms. Early man could easily perceive the difference between inanimate matter and living organisms. Early man
deified some of the inanimate matter (wind, sea, fire etc.) and some among the animals and plants. A common feature
of all such forms of inanimate and animate objects was the sense of awe or fear that they evoked. The description of
living organisms including human beings began much later in human history. Societies which indulged in
anthropocentric view of biology could register limited progress in biological knowledge.

Diversity in Living World

Classification of living Kingdom

• Taxonomy is a system for naming and organizing things especially plants and animals, into groups that share
similar qualities. The father of taxonomy is Carolus Linnaeus.
• According to the binomial method, the scientific name of each living being is made up of two words, in which the
first word denotes descent and the second word denotes caste. After this, the name of the explorer is
abbreviated. The bionym method was presented by the Swedish biologist Linnaeus in his book Species
Plantarum.
• R.H. Whittaker (1969) proposed a Five Kingdom Classification. The kingdoms defined by him were named
Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. SCSGYAN

Kingdom Plantae:

• Kingdom Plantae includes all multicellular, photosynthetic, productive and autoimmune organisms.
• Producers: Producers are autotrophic, make their food by taking sunlight and using the energy to make glucose.
The green plants are producers.
• Nepenthes plant is capable of making its own food through the process of photosynthesis. These are
insectivorous plants. They often grow in soils where there is nitrogen deficiency. To fulfill the deficiency of
nitrogen, they make insects their food.
• Consumers: Consumers have to feed on producers or other consumers. Consumers are heterotrophs.
Herbivores: Herbivorous animals are primary consumers. Carnivores: Secondary consumers which feed on
herbivores (primary consumers).
• Decomposer: Decomposers are the garbagemen of animal kingdom, they take all the dead animals and plants
and break them down into their nutrient components so that plants can use them to make food. These are
saprophytic.
• Adaptations of xerophytes include reduced permeability of the epidermal layer, stomata and cuticle to maintain
optimal amounts of water in the tissues by reducing transpiration, adaptations of the root system to acquire
water from deep underground sources or directly from humid atmospheres and succulence, or storage of water
in swollen stems, leaves or root tissues. The typical morphological consequences of these adaptations are
collectively called xeromorphisms.
• A phreatophyte is a deep-rooted plant that obtains a significant portion of the water that it needs from the
phreatic zone (zone of saturation) or the capillary fringe above the phreatic zone. Phreatophytes are plants that
are supplied with surface water and often have their roots constantly in touch with moisture. These plants have
very deep roots that are able to reach the water table. So the correct answer is ' Very deep reaching ground
water fringe'.
• Hydrophytes: Hydrophytes are also referred as acquatic plants or macrophytes. These plants require special
adaptations for living submerged in water or at the water’s surface. The most common adaptation is
aerenchyma.
• Halophytes: A halophyte is a salt-tolerant plant that grows in waters and soils of high salinity, coming into
contact with saline water through its roots or by salt spray, such as in saline semi-deserts, mangrove swamps,

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marshes and sloughs and seashores.

• Epiphytes: Epiphyte is a plant that grows on the surface of a plant and derives its moisture and nutrients from
the air, rain, water (in marine environments) or from debris accumulating around it (Example – Orchids).

KINGDOM FUNGI

• The fungi constitute a unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms. They show a great diversity in morphology
and habitat. You must have seen fungi on a moist bread and rotten fruits. The common mushroom you eat and
toadstools are also fungi.
• White spots on mustard leaves are caused by parasitic fungi. Some unicellular fungi such as yeast are used to
make bread and beer. Other fungi cause diseases of plants and animals. For example, pest disease in wheat is
caused by Puccinia. Antibiotics are produced from certain fungi such as Penicillium.

Lichens :

• Lichens are symbiotic associations i.e., mutually useful associations, between algae and fungi. The algal
component is known as phycobiont and fungal component as mycobiont, which are autotrophic and
heterotrophic, respectively. Algae prepare food for fungi and fungi provide shelter and absorb mineral nutrients
and water for its partner. Lichens are very good sulphur pollution indicators – they do not grow in polluted
areas. SCSGYAN

Cell and cell division

Major cellular organelles and their functions

Structures Functions Structures Functions

Ribosome Active sites of protein synthesis Chromosome Controls genetic and cellular functions
Lysosome Suicidal bag, hydrolytic enzyme Cell wall Stimulating the cell, providing protection
stores and support to the cell
Centrosome Assist in cell division Plasma membrane Control of transport of substances from one
cell to another
Chloroplast Active sites of starch synthesis, that Endoplasmic Transport of substances within the cell
is, active sites of photosynthesis reticulum (intra cellular transport)
Leucoplast Assist in accumulation of food Mitochondria Active sites of cellular respiration and
energy production
Chromoplast Providing attractive colors to Golgi apparatus Help in secretion, accumulation and
flowers, fruits and seeds expulsion of specific substances
Nucleus Control of metabolic functions of the
cell and helpful in cell division

Cells Organelles and their common names

Cell body Common Names Cell body Common Names

Lysosome Suicidal bag of Cell Chromosome Carrier of Genetic characteristics
Chloroplast Cell's photosynthesis center, the cell inside the Nucleus Control center for all cellular functions
cell
Ribosome Protein synthesis center of the cell Mitochondria Power house of the cell
Cell:

• The body of all organisms is made up of one (bacterial, protozoa) or several (most plant and animal) units, these
units are called cells.
• In single-celled animals, digestion, respiration and reproduction processes are conducted by a single cell.
• Cells were discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 (detailed description in a book written by him-Micrographia).
• The study of cells is called cell biology or cellular biology.

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• In 1665, Robert Hooke saw dead cells in Cork with a simple microscope and named them Cell. Simple
microscope gives erect, virtual and magnified image. For compound microscope -The final image is virtual,
inverted and magnified.
• Cell theory, first developed in 1839, by Schleiden and Schwann. According to his theory, all organisms are
made of one or more cell and all cells originate from pre-existing cells.
• There are two types of cells –
1. Prokaryotic cells: Prokaryotic cells are single-celled microorganisms known to be the earliest on earth.
Prokaryotes include Bacteria and Archaea. The photosynthetic prokaryotes include cyanobacteria that perform
photosynthesis. A prokaryotic cell consists of a single membrane and therefore, all the reactions occur within the
cytoplasm.
2. Eukaryotic cells: Eukaryotic cells are cells that contain a nucleus and organelles, which are enclosed by a
plasma membrane. Organisms that have eukaryotic cells include protozoa, algae, slime moulds, fungi, plants and
animals. These organisms are grouped into the biological domain Eukaryota.

• The plasma membrane is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside
environment, which protects the cell from its environment, consisting of lipid bilayer with embedded protein.
• The cell membrane is a semi-permeable or selectively permeable membrane which controls the movements
of ions and organic molecules.
• The role of endoplasmic reticulum and ribosome is most important in protein synthesis in the cell. Golgi bodies
an endoplasmic reticulum carries ribosomes and these ribosomes are the building sites for protein synthesis.
• The ribosome is also known as the protein factory of the cell.
• The size of cells in living organisms may be as small as a millionth of a metre (micrometre or micron) or may be
as large as a few centimetres. However, most of the cells are microscopic in size and are not visible to the
unaided eye. They need to be enlarged or magnified by a microscope. The smallest cell is 0.1 to 0.5 micrometre
in bacteria. The largest cell measuring 170 mm ×130 mm, is the egg of an ostrich.
• The boundary of the onion cell is the cell membrane covered by another thick covering called the cell wall. The
central dense round body in the centre is called the nucleus.
• The cell membrane gives shape to the cell. In addition to the cell membrane, there is an outer thick layer in cells
of plants called cell wall.
• Cytoplasm - It is the jelly-like substance present between the cell membrane and the nucleus. Various other
components, or organelles, of cells are present in the cytoplasm. These are mitochondria, golgi bodies,
ribosomes, etc. This study material is not valid after the year 2024, after which it will become outdated.

Cell organelle and their discoverer

Cell Person who discovered Cell Person who discovered

Golgi Body George golgi Nuclear membrane Hartwig
Mitochondria C. Benda Nucleus Robert brown
Spherosome Perner Chloroplast Schimper
Chromatin Fleming Chromosome Hoffmischer
Nucleolus Fontana Lysosome Christian de Duve
Ribosome Palade Protoplasm Dujardin
Endoplasmic reticulum Porter Centrosome Bowery

Digestive System

• Food is one of the basic requirements of all living organisms. The major components of our food are
carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Vitamins and minerals are also required in small quantities.
Biomacromolecules in food cannot be utilised by our body in their original form. They have to be broken down

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and converted into simple substances in the digestive system. This process of conversion of complex food
substances to simple absorbable forms is called digestion and is carried out by our digestive system by
mechanical and biochemical methods.
• The food passes through a continuous canal which begins at the buccal cavity and ends at the anus. The canal can
be divided into various compartments: (1) the buccal cavity, (2) foodpipe or oesophagus, (3) stomach, (4) small
intestine, (5) large intestine ending in the rectum and (6) the anus.
• The food components gradually get digested as food travels through the various compartments. The inner walls
of the stomach and the small intestine, and the various glands associated with the canal such as salivary glands,
the liver and the pancreas secrete digestive juices. The digestive juices convert complex substances of food into
simpler ones. The digestive tract and the associated glands together constitute the digestive system.
• Food is taken into the body through the mouth. The process of taking food into the body is called ingestion.
• The saliva breaks down the starch into sugars.
• The tongue is a fleshy muscular organ attached at the back to the floor of the buccal cavity.

The summary of Absorption in Different parts of Digestive System

Mouth Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine

Certain drugs Digestion of Principal organ for Absorption of
coming in protein, fats absorption of nutrients. water, some
contact with and etc. The digestion is completed minerals and
the mucosa of takes place. here and the final drugs take place.
mouth and Absorption products of digestion such
lower side of of Alcohol is as glucose, fructose, fatty
the tongue mainly done acids, glycerol and amino
are absorbed by stomach acids are absorbed
into the blood and through the mucosa into
capillaries proximal the blood stream and
lining them. intestine. lymph.

Alimentary Canal

• The human digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and secretory glands. It consists of the (i) buccal
cavity, (ii) oesophagus, (iii) stomach, (iv) small intestine, (v) large intestine ending in rectum and (vi) anus. The
main digestive glands which secrete digestive juices are (i) the salivary glands, (ii) the liver and (iii) the
pancreas. The stomach wall and the wall of the small intestine also secrete digestive juices.
• The alimentary canal begins with an anterior opening – the mouth, and it opens out posteriorly through the
anus.
• An adult human has 32 permanent teeth which are of four different types (Heterodont dentition), namely,
incisors (I), canine (C), premolars (PM) and molars (M). The upper surface of the tongue has small projections
called papillae, some of which bear taste buds.

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Stomach -

• The stomach is a thick-walled bag. Its shape is like a flattened J and it is the widest part of the alimentary canal. It
receives food from the food pipe at one end and opens into the small intestine at the other.
• The inner lining of the stomach secretes mucous, hydrochloric acid and digestive juices. The mucous protects the
lining of the stomach. The acid kills many bacteria that enter along with the food and makes the medium in the
stomach acidic and helps the digestive juices to act. The digestive juices break down the proteins into simpler
substances
• It is helpful in mechanical churing and chemical digestion of food. Food is called chime after pulp is formed in the
stomach. The function of hydrochloric acid (HCL) in the stomach is to help digest food. This acid is also able to
eat the bacteria that come with food. The digestion of protein starts in stomach while the digestion of starch
starts in mouth. Excessive HCL secretion in the stomach causes peptic ulcers.
• The secretion of the ptyalin is done by the salivary glands. It is mildly acidic (pH = 6.8) and contains about 99.5
percent water. About 1 to 1.5 liters of saliva is secreted daily in the mouth of man.
• Saliva helps in moistening the food and making it into a pulp, so that it can be easily swallowed. Saliva contains
tylin (salivary amylase), which breaks down starch into circara.

• Vitamin - Carotene
• Enzyme - Pepsin
• Harmone - Testosterone / progesterone
• Protein - Keratin
• Ptyalin - Digests starch
• Pepsin - Digests Protein
• Renin - Converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin in blood
• Rennin - Rennin is a proteolytic enzyme which is useful in milk coagulation (It is present in the infant’s
gastric juice)
• Oxytocin - Induces contraction of smooth muscles of uterus

Pancreas

• The pancreas is the second largest gland in the human body. It is a mixed gland, in which both endocrine and
exocrine parts are found together. This causes the secretion of hormones and digestive juices. Its digestive juice
is also called pancreatic juice and it is alkaline.
• The pancreas is a large cream coloured gland located just below the stomach. The pancreatic juice acts on
carbohydrates, fats and proteins and changes them into simpler forms.

• The small intestine is highly coiled and is about 7.5 metres long. It receives secretions from the liver and the
pancreas. Besides, its wall also secretes juices.
• The large intestine is wider and shorter than small intestine. It is about 1.5 metre in length. Its function is to
absorb water and some salts from the undigested food material. The remaining waste passes into the rectum
and remains there as semi-solid faeces. The faecal matter is removed through the anus from time-to-time. This
is called egestion
• Nutrition is a complex process involving: (i) ingestion, (ii) digestion, (iii) absorption, (iv) assimilation and (v)
egestion.
• Digestion of carbohydrates, like starch, begins in the buccal cavity. The digestion of protein starts in the
stomach. The bile secreted from the liver, the pancreatic juice from the pancreas and the digestive juice from the
intestinal wall complete the digestion of all components of food in the small intestine. The digested food is
absorbed in the blood vessels from the small intestine.
• Bile is a yellowish-green or greenish-blue color alkaline (pH=7.6 to 6.8) liquid. Its storage is in the gall bladder.
About 800-1000 ml of bile is secreted in a human daily. Bile does not contain any digestive enzymes, yet aids in
the digestion and absorption of lipids. It emulsifies fats.
• An enzyme called lipase plays an important role in the digestion of lipids. It contains enzymes to digest
carbohydrates, fats and proteins, hence it is called complete digestive juice. An enzyme called trypsin is secreted
by the pancreas, which converts proteins into polypeptides.

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• The small intestine in the human body is a part of the alimentary canal, which is located between the stomach
and the large intestine. In this, most of the food is digested and the digested food is absorbed. It is differentiated
into duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
• An enzyme called amylase is secreted by the salivary glands (salary amylase) and pancreas (pancreatic
amylase), which converts starch present in food into maltose by hydrolysis, which is then converted into glucose
molecules.
• Enzymes are basically proteins, which act as bio-catalysts to catalyze or accelerate biochemical reactions. In
biochemistry, a particular type of enzyme performs a specific function. They work in the same way as there is a
special key to open a lock. An enzyme called zymase converts glucose into ethanol. The secretion of a hormone
called secretin is stimulated by the acidity of the chyme, which inhibits gastric secretion. A hormone called
enterogastron is secreted by the small intestine.
• An enzyme called trypsin is secreted by the pancreas, which acts as a catalyst for the conversion of proteins into
amino acids. It is noteworthy that the pancreas is a mixed gland, in which hormones and digestive juices are
secreted. Digestive juices are alkaline, also called pancreatic juices.
• Digestion of starch occurs in the oral cavity and small intestine and ends in the duodenum.
• The absorption of calcium in the body increases in the presence of vitamin D.
• Brunner's glands are found in a part of the digestive system called the duodenum.
• Digestion of food is completed in the ileum.
• Pepsin acts in the acidic environment of the stomach.
• Digestion of proteins and fats starts in the stomach and digestion of proteins takes place in the stomach.
• Humans have three digestive glands – salivary glands, liver and pancreas
• The human mouth produces 1500 ml of saliva per day.
• Lieberkuhn's crypts are found in the small intestine.
• Examination of the large intestine is known as a colonoscopy.
• Vitamin B12 is absorbed in the lower part of the ileum.
• Liver helps in digestion without secreting any enzymes. (The liver secretes bile juice, which does not contain any
enzymes.)
• The daily carbohydrate requirement in an adult human is 250 grams.
• Due to the influence of bile juice, the food becomes alkaline.
• The secretin hormone produced by the duodenum stimulates the secretion of pancreatic juice.
• Vomiting is a result of disturbances in the stomach and duodenum.
• Eggs do not contain carbohydrates.
• Saliva amylase is stimulated by chloride ions.
• Digestion of cellulose takes place in the cecum of horses, rabbits, etc.
• The main function of the large intestine is to absorb water from undigested food.
• The first part of the small intestine is the duodenum.
• Digestion of carbohydrates does not take place in the stomach.
• The longest part of the alimentary canal - ileum.
• Paneth cells (Davidoff's cells) are found in the intestine.
• The dog's body temperature is controlled by the tongue.
• Pancreatic juice aids in the digestion of proteins, carbohydrates and fats.
• Vitamins are not digested, but are absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract.
• Pepsinogen is secreted by the main cells of the stomach.
• Digested food reaches the blood after it is absorbed
• Sweet/salty taste receptors are located on the tip/forearm of the tongue.
• Sour taste receptors are located on the sides of the tongue.
• "Umami" taste buds are found in the tongues of Japanese people.
• Waldeyer's circle is related to the tonsils of the body.
• The largest salivary gland is the parotid gland.
• The exchange of gases takes place through the lungs.

Harmones/Enzyme Function/details Harmones/Enzyme Function/details

Pituitary gland Secretes growth hormone Enzyme Lipase (lipase is secreted by stomach which

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digests fat)
Insulin Glucose Metabolism Phospholipid Lecithin

Adrenal Cortesol is secreted by Adrenal Sodium chlorate Herbicide

Gland
Testosteron Male Hormone Aspartame Synthetic Sweetner
Pancreas Insulin is produced by Beta Estrogen It is found in females. It is secreted by the
Cells of islets of Langerhans ovary.
Adrenaline Secreted by Adrenal Gland Pheromone Attracting partners (of opposite sex)
when we feel Anger, fear, through the sense of smell
danger
Neoprene (Specialised Rubber but basically a Plastic) - Synthetic rubbers which are formed by the process of
polymerization
This study material is only for UPPSC RO/ARO PRE RE-Exam, do not read it for any other exam.

Respiratory system and Circulatory system

RESPIRATORY ORGANS

• Mechanisms of breathing vary among different groups of animals depending mainly on their habitats and levels
of organisation. Lower invertebrates like sponges, coelenterates, flatworms, etc., exchange CO2 with O2 by simple
diffusion over their entire body surface.
• Earthworms use their moist cuticle and insects have a network of tubes (tracheal tubes) to transport
atmospheric air within the body.
• Special vascularised structures called gills (branchial respiration) are used by most of the aquatic arthropods
and molluscs whereas vascularised bags called lungs (pulmonary respiration) are used by the terrestrial forms
for the exchange of gases. Among vertebrates, fishes use gills whereas amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals
respire through lungs. Amphibians like frogs can respire through their moist skin (cutaneous respiration) also.

Human Respiratory System

• We have a pair of external nostrils opening out above the upper lips. It leads to a nasal chamber through the
nasal passage. The nasal chamber opens into the pharynx, a portion of which is the common passage for food
and air. The pharynx opens through the larynx region into the trachea. Larynx is a cartilaginous box which helps
in sound production and hence called the sound box.
• During swallowing glottis can be covered by a thin elastic cartilaginous flap called epiglottis to prevent the entry
of food into the larynx.
• The branched network of bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli make up the lungs. We have two lungs which are
covered by a double layered pleura and between which there is pleural fluid. It reduces friction on the lung
surface.

Oneliner Important Facts

• The term that generates maximum ATP (adenosine tri phosphate) molecules in cellular respiration is the Krebs
cycle. This cycle takes place in the mitochondria of the cell. This cycle was discovered by Hans Krebs in the year
1937.

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• Respiration is a biological process, in which the major gases present in the atmosphere such as nitrogen, oxygen,
carbon dioxide, water vapor etc. are used during the process of inhalation and exhalation. During these actions
(inhalation and exhalation), the amount of nitrogen in general remains unchanged.
• In the human body, oxygen reaches the lungs through inhalation. The alveoli are found in the lungs, which are
surrounded by blood cells. In these cells, oxygen enters through the alveoli and CO2 moves in the opposite
direction.
• The network of blood cells is spread in the lungs. Each lung contains about 150 million alveoli, in which gaseous
exchange takes place between the breathing air and the blood.
• Lung is a major respiratory organ, which regulates body temperature. During respiration, energy is generated in
the tissues of the body by the oxidation of food substances, while on the other hand water vapor and gas are
removed from the body by exhalation, as a result of which the body temperature is also controlled.
• The human thoracic cavity consists of two lungs, which are surrounded by the pleura or pleural membrane. The
right lung of a human being is somewhat larger and wider than the left lung but somewhat smaller in length.
• In the medulla, there is a regulation center for swallowing, vomiting, rate and intensity of heart beat, coughing,
sneezing, etc. The respiratory center of the body is located in the medulla oblongata of the brain and it controls
the entire process of respiration.

Circulatory System

• The circulatory system was discovered by William Harvey in 1628. There are two types of circulatory system -
closed circulatory system and open circulatory system. The closed circulatory system consists of the heart and
blood vessels.

Heart

• The human heart is situated slightly to the left of the middle of the chest. This organ made of muscular tissues is
surrounded by a cover, which is called the pericardium. It is filled with pericardial fluid, which protects the heart
from external shocks. The heart is a thick, muscular, contractile, self-pumping organ. The part of it, which
receives blood from the tissues of the body, is called the atrium. And that part of the heart, which pumps blood to
the tissues, is called ventricle.
• The weight of a normal human heart is about 250–300 grams. Normally a human's heart beats 72–75 times per
minute. There is a cardiac cycle from the end of one beat in the heart to the end of the next pulse.
• The heart is divided into four major chambers. The two upper chambers are called right and left auricle, while
the two lower chambers are called right and left ventricles.
• There are cells in the sinoatrial (SA) node or sinus node that produce electrical waves. These are called pace
maker cells. Heart pulsing is performed by these electrical waves.

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Blood

• It is a connective tissue in liquid form. It is an alkaline solution, which has a pH value of 7.4. Adult humans
usually have 5-6 liters of blood. Women have about 1 liter less blood than men. The blood glucose level is
expressed in milligrams per decimeter. The normal amount of glucose in the blood is 100 mg. per deci liter.
• There is a release of a hormone called Insulin from the pancreas to regulate blood glucose. Due to deficiency of
this hormone, the amount of glucose in the blood becomes excessive, which increases the chances of getting
diabetes.
• Red color in the blood is caused by oxy-Haemoglobin-rich blood cells (R.B.C.).
• Red blood cells develop in the bone marrow. They have a lifespan of about 120 days. The spleen works by
destroying old blood cells.
• There are mainly two types of white blood cells - granular, corpuscular
• About 55% of our blood is plasma, and the remaining 45% are red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets
that are suspended in the plasma. Plasma is about 92% water.

• The antigen is a glycoprotein. It is of two types,

1. Antigen-A
2. Antigen-B
• In the absence of antigen, a special type of protein is found in plasma known as antibodies. It is of two types,
1. Antibody-a
2. Antibody-b.
• Antigen-A and antibody-B are present in blood group A, whereas antigen-B and antibody-A are present in
blood group B.
• The blood group AB is called the universal acceptor and the blood group O is called the Universal donor.
• Blood group has special importance in transfusing outside blood in a body, which can be transfused according to
the following chart –
Blood Group Receiver Blood Group
A B AB O
A Yes No Yes No
B No Yes Yes No
AB No No Yes No
O Yes Yes Yes Yes

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• Vertebrates circulate blood (fluid connective tissue) throughout the body by which essential substances are
carried to the cells and from there the wastes are removed from the body. Another fluid, called lymphatic tissue
fluid, also transports certain substances.
• Blood is made up of fluid matrix, plasma and organized substances. Red blood cells (RBCs/erythrocyte), white
blood cells (leukocyte) and platelets (thrombocyte), form part of organized substances.
• Human blood is classified into four groups A, B, AB, O. The basis of this classification is the presence or absence
of two antigens A or B on the surface of red blood cells.
• The second classification is based on the presence or absence of the Rh component on the surface of red blood
cells. A fluid is found between the cells of the tissue which is called tissue fluid. This fluid is also called lymph,
which is similar to blood, but it contains less protein and does not contain organized substances.

Excretory system and Nervous system of Human

HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

• In humans, the excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys, one pair of ureters, a urinary bladder and a
urethra. Kidneys are reddish brown, bean shaped structures situated between the levels of last thoracic and
third lumbar vertebra close to the dorsal inner wall of the abdominal cavity. Each kidney of an adult human
measures 10-12 cm in length, 5-7 cm in width, 2-3 cm in thickness with an average weight of 120- 170 g.
Towards the centre of the inner concave surface of the kidney is a notch called hilum through which ureter,
blood vessels and nerves enter. Inner to the hilum is a broad funnel shaped space called the renal pelvis with
projections called calyces. The outer layer of kidney is a tough capsule. Inside the kidney, there are two zones,
an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The medulla is divided into a few conical masses (medullary pyramids)
projecting into the calyces (sing.: calyx).

Kidney

• Each kidney of an adult human measures 10-12 cm in length, 5-7 cm in width, 2-3 cm in thickness with an
average weight of 120-170 g.

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Nephron -

• The nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney. The nephron forms urine and finally inserts it
into the pelvis of kidney, from where the ureter begins. About 1 million nephrons are found in each kidney.
• The process of purification of blood in human body is called dialysis. When the kidney is damaged due to any
reason and is not able to clean the blood, dialyzer is used in this situation, which acts as Artificial Kidney.
• Under dialysis action, the solubility of the soluble material through the permeable membrane works according
to the diffusion principle. In this, blood flows from one side by a semipermeable membrane and dialysis solution
flows from opposite side. SCSGYAN - For Paid Group Call /WhatsApp 7523864455 or 8564880530 or
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• Urine contains 95 percent water, 2.6 percent urea, 2 percent ions of unnecessary salts, 0.3 percent cretinine, and
a small amount of uric acid and other waste materials.
• Stones are formed in the kidneys due to calcium oxalate. These mineral salts usually collect as a mass in the
pelvis of the kidney, which obstructs the passage of urine.
• The liver is responsible for the breakdown of alcohol. It destroys harmful elements through complex chemical
reactions. Every year up to 65% changes are made in the course content.
• Unnecessary salts and urea etc. come out of the skin in the form of sweat. The liver, skin and lungs are organs of
excretion.
• Urea is produced in the liver, but is isolated from the blood by the kidneys by microbial filtration.
• Normally, humans emit about 1.5 litres of urine a day. Urine is mildly acidic (pH value 6) and due to the presence
of urochrome, its color is light yellow.

URINE FORMATION

• Urine formation involves three main processes namely, glomerular filtration, reabsorption and secretion, that
takes place in different parts of the nephron.

Nervous System -

• The system of the body, which along with thinking, understanding and remembering something, works to
establish harmony and balance in the functions of various organs, is called the nervous system. In all
multicellular animals, the system that perceives the stimuli received by the receptor organs, transmits them to
different parts of the body and implements the reactions by the working organs is called the nervous system.
The nervous system is found only in higher animals. It controls various functions of the body through tissues
made up of nerve cells.

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• The unit of nervous tissue is called neuron or nerve cell. These are the longest cells of the body. There are points
of contact between the axon fibers of various nerve cells, that is, axons and dendrites, which are called pairs or
synapses.
• Sensory or Afferent Neurons receive stimuli from sensory organs and transmit them to the central nervous
system. Motor or Efferent Neurons connect the central nervous system with executive or efferent organs
(muscles and glands etc.).
• The human neural system is divided into two parts: 1. The central neural system (CNS) 2. The peripheral neural
system (PNS). The CNS includes the brain and the spinal cord and is the site of information processing and
control. The PNS comprises of all the nerves of the body associated with the CNS (brain and spinal cord). The
nerve fibres of the PNS are of two types: (a) afferent fibres (b) efferent fibres The afferent nerve fibres transmit
impulses from tissues/organs to the CNS and the efferent fibres transmit regulatory impulses from the CNS to
the concerned peripheral tissues/organs.
• Input and Output nerves meet at central nervous system.

CENTRAL NEURAL SYSTEM – Human Brain

• The brain is the central information processing organ of our body, and acts as the ‘command and control system’.
It controls the voluntary movements, balance of the body, functioning of vital involuntary organs (e.g., lungs,
heart, kidneys, etc.), thermoregulation, hunger and thirst, circadian rhythms of our body, activities of several
endocrine glands and human behaviour. It is also the site for processing of vision, hearing, speech, memory,
intelligence, emotions and thoughts.
• The human brain is well protected by the skull. Inside the skull, the brain is covered by cranial meninges
consisting of an outer layer called dura mater, a very thin middle layer called arachnoid and an inner layer
(which is in contact with the brain tissue) called pia mater. The brain can be divided into three major parts: (i)
forebrain, (ii) midbrain, and (iii) hindbrain
1. The forebrain consists of cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus.
2. The midbrain is located between the thalamus/hypothalamus of the forebrain and pons of the hindbrain. A canal
called the cerebral aqueduct passess through the midbrain. The dorsal portion of the midbrain consists mainly of
four round swellings (lobes) called corpora quadrigemina.
3. The hindbrain comprises pons, cerebellum and medulla (also called the medulla oblongata).

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Endocrine System

HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM- The endocrine glands and hormone producing diffused tissues/cells located in
different parts of our body constitute the endocrine system. Pituitary, pineal, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, parathyroid,
thymus and gonads (testis in males and ovary in females) are the organised endocrine bodies in our body. In addition
to these, some other organs, e.g., gastrointestinal tract, liver, kidney, heart also produce hormones. The pituitary gland
is divided into three major parts, which are called as pars distalis, pars intermedia and pars nervosa. Pars distalis
produces six trophic hormones.

Coordination in the body of almost all vertebrate animals is determined by the nervous system and the endocrine
system. Such glands, which release their secretions ie hormones directly into the blood or lymph and control the
functioning, metabolism, growth and stress conditions of various organs, are called endocrine glands. Endocrinology is
the branch of science that deals with endocrine glands, hormones and their effects. The father of endocrinology is
Thomas Edison (1793–1863).

Gland

Glands are some cells, tissues synthesize a substance and secrete them. In vertebrates, including humans, they have
three distinct categories -

1. Exocrine Gland – It is ductile. These secreted substances flow into their ducts and release them on the surface
of the respective epithelium level, for example milk gland, sweat gland, lacrimal gland, salivary gland etc.
2. Endocrine Glands – These are ductless. These secreted substances or hormones are released into the tissue and
are transmitted throughout the body by reaching into the blood cells, for example pituitary ie pituitary gland,
thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal, thanus gland etc.
3. Mixed glands are these which contain both exocrine and endocrine tissues or cells, for example the pancreas.

Pancreas

• It is mixed type of gland, containing both exocrine and endocrine. The islets of Langerhans are the group of cells
that make up the endocrine part of the pancreas gland. There are 3 types of cells, each performing a specific
function.
1. Beta cells - They secrete insulin which helps in bringing down the blood sugar level by depositing extra
glucose in the liver and muscle cells in the form of glycogen.
2. Alpha cells - They secrete glucagon which increases the blood sugar level by converting stored glycogen in
the liver to glucose.
3. Delta cells - They secrete somatostatin also called GHIH (growth hormone inhibiting hormone) which is an
inhibitory hormone that inhibits the secretion of insulin and glucagon.
• If the pancreas malfunctions due to any reason, then these hormones will not be able to produce smoothly.
• The hormone stimulating the pancreas to produce digestive juices is secretin. This hormone produced by the
duodenum of the small intestine also reduces the secretion of gastric juice.
• Insulin hormones is secreted by the Beta cell of islet of Langerhans of Pancreas.

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Pineal Gland

• The pineal gland is also called the Seat of the Soul or Biological clock. It is a white colored and flat gland located
deep in the centre of the human brain it starts to perish at the age of 7. It secretes melatonin (derived from
serotonin.) In adults it is found only in the form of fibrous tissue. It secretes hormones in the ducts, which are
responsible for the functions of the nervous system. Melatonin hormone is secreted from the pineal gland. It acts
opposite to MSH by affecting the melanophore of the skin.

Pituitary Gland -

• The pituitary gland is a pea shaped endocrine, which is present in the base of the brain. It is also called Master
gland.
• Apart from the pituitary, the testes and the ovaries, there are other endocrine glands in the body such as thyroid,
pancreas and adrenals.
• Thyroid and adrenals secrete their hormones when they receive orders from the pituitary gland through its
hormones. Pituitary also secretes growth hormone which is necessary for the normal growth of a person.
• In a frog, it is controlled by thyroxine, the hormone produced by thyroid. Thyroxine production requires the
presence of iodine in water. If the water in which the tadpoles are growing does not contain sufficient iodine, the
tadpoles cannot become adults.
• The pituitary gland is located in a bony cavity called sella tursica and is attached to hypothalamus by a stalk. It is
divided anatomically into an adenohypophysis and a neurohypophysis. Adenohypophysis consists of two
portions, pars distalis and pars intermedia. The pars distalis region of pituitary, commonly called anterior
pituitary, produces growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH),
adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). Pars
intermedia secretes only one hormone called melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH). However, in humans, the
pars intermedia is almost merged with pars distalis. Neurohypophysis (pars nervosa) also known as posterior
pituitary, stores and releases two hormones called oxytocin and vasopressin, which are actually synthesised by
the hypothalamus and are transported axonally to neurohypophysis.
The validity of this study material is only till the year 2024, do not read it after that.

Hypothalamus –

• It controls hormones secreted from the anterior part of the pituitary gland. It causes secretion of both
stimulating and inhibitory hormones.

Hormone -

• Hormones are organic substances secreted in small amounts from endocrine glands. They act as bio-catalysts
and are first messenger molecules. They control the internal environment and allow the action of other
hormones. First of all, the secretin hormone was discovered by Bayliss and Starling.
• In terms of chemical structure, insulin is a peptide hormone, which is composed of 51 amino acids. It regulates
the metabolism of glucose in the body. Due to its deficiency diabetes becomes a disease and due to excess, the
amount of glucose in the blood starts decreasing.

Thyroid

• The thyroid, or thyroid gland, is an endocrine gland in the neck consisting of two connected lobes. The thyroid is
located at the front of the neck, below the Adam's apple.
• The thyroid gland secretes three hormones: the two thyroid hormones – triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine
(T4) – and a peptide hormone, calcitonin. The thyroid hormones influence the metabolic rate and protein
synthesis, and in children, growth and development. Calcitonin plays a role in calcium homeostasis. Secretion of
the two thyroid hormones is regulated by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which is secreted from the
anterior pituitary gland. SCSGYAN
• The thyroid gland is composed of two lobes which are located on either side of the trachea. Both the lobes are
interconnected with a thin flap of connective tissue called isthmus. The thyroid gland is composed of follicles
and stromal tissues. Each thyroid follicle is composed of follicular cells, enclosing a cavity. These follicular cells
synthesise two hormones, tetraiodothyronine or thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). Iodine is essential for

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the normal rate of hormone synthesis in the thyroid. Deficiency of iodine in our diet results in hypothyroidism
and enlargement of the thyroid gland, commonly called goitre.

Parathyroid Gland –

• In humans, four parathyroid glands are present on the back side of the thyroid gland, one pair each in the two
lobes of the thyroid gland. The parathyroid glands secrete a peptide hormone called parathyroid hormone
(PTH). The secretion of PTH is regulated by the circulating levels of calcium ions

Thymus-

• The thymus gland is a lobular structure located between lungs behind sternum on the ventral side of aorta. The
thymus plays a major role in the development of the immune system. This gland secretes the peptide hormones
called thymosins. Thymosins play a major role in the differentiation of T-lymphocytes, which provide cell-
mediated immunity. In addition, thymosins also promote production of antibodies to provide humoral
immunity. Thymus is degenerated in old individuals resulting in a decreased production of thymosins. As a
result, the immune responses of old persons become weak.

Adrenal Gland –

• Our body has one pair of adrenal glands, one at the anterior part of each kidney. The gland is composed of two
types of tissues. The centrally located tissue is called the adrenal medulla, and outside this lies the adrenal
cortex. Underproduction of hormones by the adrenal cortex alters carbohydrate metabolism causing acute
weakness and fatigue leading to a disease called Addison’s disease.
• The adrenal medulla secretes two hormones called adrenaline or epinephrine and noradrenaline or
norepinephrine. These are commonly called as catecholamines. Adrenaline and noradrenaline are rapidly
secreted in response to stress of any kind and during emergency situations and are called emergency hormones
or hormones of Fight or Flight. These hormones increase alertness, pupilary dilation, piloerection (raising of
hairs), sweating etc. Both the hormones increase the heart beat, the strength of heart contraction and the rate of
respiration.

Liver

• The Liver is the largest gland in the human body. It produces angiotensinogen hormone, which is converted to
angiotensin in the presence of renin of the kidney. It controls blood pressure.
• The liver is a reddish-brown gland situated in the upper part of the abdomen on the right side. It is the largest
gland in the body. It secretes bile juice that is stored in a sac called the gall bladder. The bile plays an important
role in the digestion of fats.

Main glands found in animals

Sudoriferous Glands Sweat glands in the skin of mammals
Bartholian Glands The Bartholin's glands (also called greater vestibular glands) are two pea sized compound
alveolar glands located slightly posterior and to the left and right of the opening of the vagina.
They secrete mucus to lubricate the vagina and are homologous to bulbourethral glands in males.
Perineal glands Odour glands found in rabbit
Phalic glands male genitals of Cockroaches
Collaterial glands The collateral glands are present in third and fourth abdominal segments of female cockroach.
Couper’s glands Accessory glands of the male genitals of mammals
Prostate glands Accessory glands of the male genitalia in mammals
Utricular glands Present in cockroaches and female genitals of pests.
Mucous glands Mucous glands, which aid in maintaining the water balance and offer protection from bacteria, are
extremely numerous in fish skin, especially in cyclostomes and teleosts.
Bruner’s glands It is a gland in the submucosa of the duodenum, which has a main physiological function of
secreting an alkaline-based mucus to protect the duodenal lining from the acid secreted in the

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stomach.
Parotid gland The parotid glands are the largest salivary gland present on each side of the head in front of ears.
They produce serous saliva which is rich in alpha-amylase enzyme cold ptyalin.
Femoral glands Gland present in thighs of certain Reptiles (which secrete pheromones)
Mammary glands Milk secreting glands present in mammals
Lacrimal glands Gland present in eye (tears gland)
Ceruminous glands Ceruminous glands are specialized sudoriferous glands (sweat glands) located subcutaneously in
the external auditory canal
Albuminous glands Discoloration of albumin, a toxic substance found in the alimentary canal of man
Fat glands (Sebacious These are Present in Mammals. They secrete sebum
Gland)

Important facts related to human body

Largest organ Skin Brain weight 1400 grams
Busiest organ Heart Number of cranial 12 pairs
nerves
The thinest skin Cunjuctiva Number of spinal 31 pairs
nerves
Volume of blood in human 5 to 6 liter in the entire body Normal heart rate 60-100 beat/minute
body
Normal blood pressure 120/80 mm Hg Normal pulse rate 72 per minute
Number of red blood cells 5–5.5 million / cubic mm No of total muscles in 639
(RBC’s) male the body
Number of red blood cells 4.5-5 mln / cubic mm Percentage of water in 65 percent
(RBC’s) female the entire weight of
human body
Life expectancy of red 120 days Longest, Heaviest and Thigh bone (Femur)
blood cells (RBC) strongest bone
Normal count of white 5000–10,000 per cubic mm Smallest bone Stapes
blood Cells (WBCs)
Differential Leucocyte 2-5 days Largest Gland Liver
count
Basophils 0.5 - 1.0 percent Largest endocrine Thyroid gland
gland
Eosinophils 1.0 - 3.0 percent Largest Cell Neuron
Monocytes 3.0 - 8.0 percent Largest artery Abdominal aorta
Neutrophils 40.0 - 70 .0 percent Largest vein Inferior vena cava
Lymphocytes 20.0 - 25.0 percent Largest single nerve Sciatic nerve
Blood platelets count 200000 - 400000 per cubic Longest muscle Gluteus maximus muscle
mm
Percentage of hemoglobin male -14 - 16 g / 100cc blood Largest white blood Monocytes
cells
Female -12-14 g / 100cc Largest regeneration Liver cells
blood capacity is there in
Universal donor O group (o negative) Least regeneration Brain cells
capacity is there in
Universal Acceptor AB group (AP positive) Breathing rate 16-20 per minute
Normal Body 980F
Temperature

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Vitamins and Nutrition

Vitamins

• The term Vitamin was first used in 1911 by C. Funk. There are named after the English alphabet. Such as - A, B, C,
D, E, K etc. This organic matter is required in small amounts in the human body. Vitamins are obtained from
foods and lack of vitamins cause some diseases. Vitamins control various metabolic functions. About 20 types of
vitamins have been known so far.
• Vitamins are also known to be helpful dietary factors. Frederick Goland Hopkins was the first scientist to clarify
this idea.
• On the basis of solubility, vitamins are divided into two parts –
• Water soluble vitamins - B and C
• Fat-soluble vitamins - A, D, E and K

Carbohydrate

• Carbohydrates are a class of energy-providing substances. A Carbohydrate is a biomolecule consisting of

carbon(C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a carbon hydrogen- oxygen atom ratio of 1:2:1 and
thus with the empirical formula (CH2O)n
• Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, water, mineral salts and vitamins are the seven major nutrients. All
animals, including humans, usually get it from food. Of these substances, water and mineral salts are inorganic
substances.
• Carbohydrates and fats are energy-producing substances. Protein is the building block of the body. Vitamins,
water and mineral salts control and regulate metabolic functions.
• Lactose is a natural sugar. It is a carbohydrate found in milk and is the reason for its mild sweetness.

Major vitamins, sources and deficiency diseases

Vitamins Deficiency diseases Sources
Vitamin A (retinol) Night blindness, xeropthalmia, keratinization Carrot, milk, cheese, butter, egg, cod liver oil
of skin infection
Vitamin B 1 (thiamine) Beri- Beri, growth retardation Cereals, legumes, soyabeans, milk, yeast,
green vegetables
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Cheilosis, glossitis, dermatosis, digestive Milk, egg white, yeast, meat green leafy
disorders vegetables
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Anaemia, skin problem and muscular Milk, yeast, cereals, egg, grams, yolk
twisting
Vitamin B7 (Vitamin H Skin disease, Hair fall meat, wheat, egg, vegetables fruits
Biotin)
Vitamin B9 (Folic Acid) Anaemia, Growth retardation Green vegetables, legumes, yeast, liver
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin; a Pernicious anaemia, abnormality in nervous Meat, fish, egg, curd
vitamin with cobolt) system
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) Scurvy (bleeding gums) Gooseberry, citrus fruits, tomato and green
leafy vegetables
Vitamin D (Calciferol) Rickets, Osteomalacia Cheese, fish, egg, yolk, sunlight
Vitamin E (Tocopherol) Sterility and weakening of reproductive Vegetables oils, wheat, soyabean
organ and muscles
Vitamin K (Naphthoquinone Blood clotting is Delayed Green leafy vegetables
or Phylloquinone)

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Disease, Health and Treatment

Viral Diseases

• The word virus has its origin from the Latin word virus, which literally means venom molecule. These are
unicellular microorganisms, which can grow lineage only in living cells. Chemically, these are segments of
nucleic acids surrounded by a protein envelope. The branch of biology under which viruses are studied is called
Virology. Viruses can infect any organism containing living cells, such as animals, plants, fungi, bacteria, humans,
etc. A bacteriophage is a type of virus that infects bacteria.

Viral disease –

• Measles - It is caused by Rubiola virus / Polynosa marbilorum.

• Mumps - It is caused by the Paramixo / mumps virus.
• Smallpox - It is caused by the variola virus.
• Chicken pox – It is spread by varicella-zoster during 14-16 days of hibernation.
• Polio - It is caused by polio virus / entero virus.
• Influenza / Flu - It is caused by the Himofillus virus.
• Rabies, / Hydrophobia - It is caused by Rhabdovirus.
• Dengue fever - It is caused by the DEN-1-4 virus and is transferred by the female tiger mosquito (Aedes
aegypti).
• Jaundice - There are 6 varieties of Hepatitis virus - HAV, HBV, HCV, HDV, HEV and Hepatitis G virus (HGV).
• AIDS – AIDS is virus of the retroviris family.
• Yellow fever - It is caused by flaviviruses.
• Chikungunya - It is caused by alfavirus, which is spread by Aedes mosquito.
• Swine Flu - It is caused by H1NI virus.
• Bird Flu - It is caused by influenza virus - A (H5N1 virus).

Fungal diseases - The branch of science under which detailed study of fungus is called Mycology.

Ringworm –
• Ringworm is a common skin infection that is caused by a fungus. It’s called “ringworm” because it can cause a
circular rash (shaped like a ring) that is usually red and itchy. Anyone can get ringworm. The fungi that cause
this infection can live on skin, surfaces, and on household items such as clothing, towels, and bedding.
• Ringworm goes by many names. The medical terms are “tinea” or “dermatophytosis.” Other names for ringworm
are based on its location on the body – for example, ringworm on the feet is also called “athlete’s foot.”
• People can get ringworm after touching an animal that has ringworm. Many different kinds of animals can
spread ringworm to people, including dogs and cats, especially kittens and puppies. Other animals, like cows,
goats, pigs, and horses can also spread ringworm to people.

Genetic Disorders -
• Some diseases are caused by transit of contaminated environment, conditions, living, eating habits and parasites.
Whereas some diseases are inherited by ones parents from birth itself, which is called genetic disease. These
diseases are inherited, that is, they are transferred from one generation to another. It is important to note that
these diseases are caused by defective genes. Like other animals, the laws of genetics apply to humans as well
and genetic traits are passed down from generation to generation.
Color Blindness -
• It disease is also called daltonism. People suffering from this are notable distinguish between green and red.
Such blind people cannot work in railways and transport. Color blindness is also called red-green blindness or
daltonism. It is an irreversible X-linked hereditary disease. This disease is usually found in men; women play the
role of the gene carriers of the disease. Sons can never get genes of this disease from the father, because the X
chromosome of the father always goes to the daughters. However, these genes from daughters go to the second
generation sons.

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• If a color blind man marries a normal woman, then the traits of colorlessness will not pass into his son, while his
daughter acts as a carrier. If this carrier daughter marries a normal male in the next generation, her sons will
have 50 percent probability of being color blind, while daughters will have a 50 percent chance of being carriers.
Haemophilia -
• It is also known as Royal Disease because it came from the family of Queen Victoria of England. Blood doesn't
coagulates in this disease. This is due to deficiency of factor VIII (anti-hemophilic factor).

Deficiency, non-communicable and other diseases

• In human, animals or plants, disorder caused by diet or faulty functioning of a process is commonly called
Infectious disease. Whereas the disease resulting from the lack of a diet containing minerals, vitamins or
nutrients such as protein and carbohydrates is called Deficiency Disease. Different types of diseases affect the
structure and function of the body or organ. It is important to note that diabetes, high blood pressure, cancer etc.
are non-communicable diseases in human beings.

Cancer
• Cancer is a type of unorganized tissue growth disease that occurs due to uncontrolled division and growth in
cells. These cells start consuming so much of the nutrients that the normal cells of the body are unable to supply
the nutrients. Therefore, the cells of the body begin to fade away. Cancer patient dies due to this. It is a very fatal
disease, which can occur in all those organs whose cells have the ability to divide. If the cancer is of the first
stage, then these cells affect the healthy cells in their side, and if the lymph nodes or blood vessels of that organ
start transporting these cells to other parts of the body, this is the third stage of cancer. This is called metastasis.
• Oncogenes are an abnormal gene responsible for cancer.
• Leukemia is a type of blood cancer in which the number of white blood cells in the blood increases more than
normal requirements. Radio phosphorus (P32), Gold-198, Interferon alpha-2a and cobalt-60 are often used in its
treatment.

Infectious viral diseases in humans

Disease Affected Organs Disease Affected Organs

Herpes Skin Rabies Nervous system
Influenza Bronchi Mumps salivary glands
Poliomyelitis Muscles and nervous system Trachoma Eye
Jaundice Liver Conjunctivities Eye
This study material is not valid after the year 2024, after which it will become outdated.

Insects and diseases transmitted by those

Insects Transmitted Disease Insects Transmitted Disease

Female anopheles Malarial fever Female klevera Filariasis
Female Aedes Aegypti yellow fever Glossina Palpelira Sleep disorder
Domestic fly Cholera Bedbugs Chagas disease
Pedicura Typhoid Sand fly Kala azar
Tabenas fly Surra disease

Major Deficiency Disease

Disease Deficiency
Anemia Iron
Scurvy Vitamin C
Goiter Iodine
Marasmus Lack of all sources of energy, including protein, due to long-term fasting
Kwashiorkar Protein deficiency
Rickets in Childrens Vitamin D
Madcow disease of cattle Due to a protein called prions

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Diabetes Insulin
Xerophthalmia Vitamin A

Disease Deficiency
Bery-Bery Vitamin b deficiency disease
Scurvy Vitamin C deficiency disease
Rickets Vitamin D deficiency disease in children
Osteomalacia Bone disease caused by vitamin D deficiency in adults
Haemorrhage Hemorrhagic disease caused by vitamin K deficiency
Nyctalopia Common night blindness due to vitamin A deficiency

Disease Bacteria Disease Bacteria

Cholera Vibrio Cholerae Diphtheria Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Diarrhoea Salmonella typhimurium Gonorrhea Neisseria gonorrhoea
Plague/Bubonic Pasteurella Pestis or Syphilis Treponema pallidium
Plague Yersinia Pestis
Leprosy Mycobacterium leprae Whooping Cough or Haemophilius pertussis or Bordetella
Pertussis pertussis
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis Tetanus Chostridium tetani
Pneumonia Diplococcus Pneumoniae Syphilis Treponema pallidum
Typhoid Salmonella typhi

Diseases and preventive vaccines

Diseases Preventive vaccine Diseases Preventive vaccine
Tetanus DPT Tuberculosis BCG
Depthiria DPT Polio Polio vaccine
Whooping DPT Typhoid T.A.B.
cough

Major endocrine diseases occurring in humans

Deseases Due to Deseases Due to

Tetany Due to low secretion of para parathyroid Myxedema Caused by the low secretion of
hormone thyroxine hormone
Virilism Due to excess secretion of adrenaline Grave’s disease Due to the excess secretion of
thyroxine
Diabeties Due to low secretion of insulin hormone Gigantism Excess secretion of STH from
mellitus pituitary gland
Addison’s disease Due to low secretion of cortin hormone Goiter Due to thyroxine hormone
deficiency
Dwarfism Caused by low secretion of growth Diabeties Due to vasopressin hormone
hormone (GH) Insipidus deficiency
Acromegaly Due to excess secretion of growth Exopthalmic Due to high levels of thyroxine
hormone (GH) Goiter hormone secretion

Major Plant Disease and other diseases

Major bacterial diseases in plants

Name of Disease Name of Bacteria

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Potato Wilt disease Pseudomonas solanacearum

Crown Gall Disease Agrobacterium tumefaciens
Black rot of Cabbage Xanthomonas campestris
Canker of Citrus Xanthomonas citri
Major fungal diseases of plants
Name of Disease Fungi
Black Rust of Wheat Puccinia graminis tritici
Loose Smut of Wheat Ustilago Nuda tritici
Early Blight of Potato Alternaria solani
Late Blight of Potato Phytophthora Infestans
Wart disease of Potato Synchytrium endobioticum
Tikka disease of groundnut Cercospora personata
Red rot of Sugarcane Collectotrichum falcatum
Brown Leaf spot of Rice Helminthosporium oryzae
Wilt of Arhar Fusarium udum
Yellow vein mosaic disease of okra is a viral disease. White fly (Bemisia tebaci) is the carrier of this virus.
Plant diseases due to deficiency of key elements
Element deficiency Disease / Symptoms
Zinc (Zn) Khaira disease in paddy
Zinc (Zn) White Bud Disease in Maize
Zinc (Zn) Little Leaf Disease
Boron (B) Browning disease in cauliflower
Boron (B) Heart rot disease in Beet
Boron (B) Inner cork in apple
Copper (Cu) Lemon's Dieback Disease
Molibdenum (Mo) Whiptail Disease in Cabbage

• Plant pathology is the field of science which deals with the study of pathogens causing diseases in plants. It is
mainly concerned with occurrence, symptoms, causes, etiology, epidemiology, disease cycle and its management
practices.
• The origin of the term phytopathology is derived from the three Greek words phyton-phytosanitary, pathos-
disease, and logos-knowledge, which literally means knowledge or study of plant diseases.

Important oneliner facts

• Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by parasites that are transmitted to people through the bites of
infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. It is preventable and curable. There are 5 parasite species that cause
malaria in humans, and 2 of these species – Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax – pose the greatest
threat.
• Cholera disease is caused by a bacterium called Vibrio cholerae. Athlete's foot disease is caused by a fungus
called Epidermophyton floccosum. It is an infectious disease.
• The BCG (Bacillus Calmette Guerin) vaccine should be given immediately after the birth of the baby to prevent
tuberculosis or rajyakshma (TB). If this vaccine is not given immediately after birth, then it can be given within
12 months from the birth of the baby, but the longer the period after birth, the less will be the effectiveness.
There is no use of BCG vaccine after 12 months of birth.
• Mumps or parotid disease is a serious viral disease, which causes the parotid gland to become painfully
enlarged. Jaundice is also a viral disease. Typhoid fever is caused by the bacteria Salmonella typhi.
• Cholera is an infectious enteritis caused by a bacterium called Vibrio cholerae. Transmission to humans occurs
through ingestion of food or water contaminated by this bacterium.
• Botulism disease is caused by a toxin produced by a Gram-positive bacterium called Clostridium botulinum.
• The main cause of tooth decay is the interaction between micro-organisms such as bacteria and the food
particles of carbohydrates that are trapped between the teeth. Therefore, it is necessary to clean the teeth
regularly very well.

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• Aspergillosis in humans is caused by some species of Aspergillus such as Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus
fumigatus and Aspergillus niger.
• Ergotism is a disease caused by the consumption of contaminated grains. This contamination is due to a special
fungus called Claviceps purpurea.
• Athlete's foot is caused by fungi called Trichophyton and Tainea pedis. It infects the soft part of the skin,
especially the middle of the fingers. The disease is transmitted through infected soil.
• Diseases like Dermatitis, Baldness, Candidiasis, Geotrichosis etc. are caused by fungi.
• Malaria is transmitted through the bite of the female Anopheles mosquito. The environment of the marshy areas
is helpful in the reproduction and thriving of mosquitoes. Therefore, these mosquitoes are mostly present in
such places.
• DDT or pyrethrum, naphtha, camphor etc. are used in homes to kill and protect against mosquitoes. Fishes that
eat mosquito larvae like Gambusia etc. and ducks should be released in the water bodies.
• A drug called quinine obtained from the bark of a tree called cinchona has been used for the treatment of malaria
since ancient times. However, some synthetic drugs similar to it, such as Atibrin, Meluvrin, Resochin, Kamaquin,
Chloroquine, etc., are popular nowadays.
• To prevent this disease in malaria affected areas, regular use of anti-inflammatory drugs like Quinine, Daraprim
etc. should be there.
• Pralathrin is a type of pyrethroid insecticide, commonly used as a mosquito repellent.
• Pyrethroid is 2250 times more toxic to insects than to mammals.
• Kala-azar i.e., Leishmaniasis disease is caused by a protozoan parasite called Leishmania. In this, the mucous
membranes of the skin and internal organs become inflamed. The carrier of this disease is sand fly.
• Sleeping sickness is caused by a unicellular protozoan parasite called Trypanosoma and its carrier is the tick fly
or bedbug.
• Due to unsafe drinking water and lack of sanitation, communicable diseases called malaria, acute flu and
schistosomiasis spread in the form of epidemics in developing countries, these diseases extremely fatal.
• Fasciola is a flattened liver worm found in the large bile ducts of the liver of sheep, goats, pigs, buffaloes, etc. This
causes the disease Fascioliasis.
• Sir Ronald Ross discovered that malaria is caused by a single-celled protozoan called Plasmodium and that the
female Anopheles mosquito acts as a carrier of Plasmodium, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize (1902).
Plasmodium is an intraparasitic animal of red blood cells and liver cells.
• However, P vivax (Plasmodium vivax) accounts for 60-65 percent of malaria cases in India, while the P.
falciparum parasite is responsible for 30-35 percent of cases.
• Plasmodium is an inter-parasitic protozoan found in red blood cells (R.B.C.) and liver cells. The most effect of
malaria disease is on RBC and spleen.
• Filariasis, also called slippad, elephantiasis or philips, is caused by infection with a roundworm (nematode)
called Wuchereria bancrofti in the body.
• Gout is caused by the accumulation of uric acid in the joints of the body. Whenever it exceeds the normal level
due to less urine or more urine from the kidney, the blood level of uric acid increases and crystals of uric acid get
deposited on different joints.
• Beri-Beri is a disease affecting the nervous system, mainly caused by a lack of thiamine (vitamin B1) in the diet.
Thiamine is found in very small amounts in polished rice. Therefore, unpolished rice should be consumed.
• Itai-itai disease is caused by long-term exposure to cadmium.
• Urine normally consists of 95 percent water, 2% non-essential salt ions, 2.6 percent urea and small amounts of
uric acid and other waste products. Urine is yellow in color due to a colored substance called urochrome.
• cerebral palsy is a neurological disorder. This disorder is caused by damage to the motor control center of the
developing brain. This disease mainly occurs at the time of conception, childbirth and in children up to the age of
three years.
• Silicosis is a lung disease. The silica present in the dust particles reaches the human lungs through respiration.
This disease occurs due to the regular exposure of silica to the lungs.
• Iodine deficiency causes a disease called goiter in the throat of the body.
• Seafood and iodized salt are the main sources of iodine.
• In Alzheimer's disease, the affected part of the human body is the brain. In this, the memory capacity of a person
becomes impaired. Mostly this disease occurs in humans after 48-65 years.

This study material is only for UPPSC RO/ARO PRE RE-Exam, do not read it for any other exam.

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Plant Physiology and Reproduction

Plant Reproduction-
• Plants perform various physical, chemical activities. The study of these functions is called plant physiology.
Under physiology in plants, their bio-activities, such as transpiration, mineral nutrition, photosynthesis, etc. are
studied.
Photosynthesis -
• The process of manufacturing food by green plants by taking CO2 and H2O as raw material in the presence of
sunlight and chlorophyll pigment is called photosynthesis. About 90 percent of the total photosynthesis on earth
is performed by aquatic plants and algae. About 85 percent of this is in the sea (mainly through algae) and the
remaining 5 percent is in rivers, ponds, etc. All the oxygen produced by the process of photosynthesis of plants is
obtained from water.
• In the process of photosynthesis, green plants convert light energy into chemical energy, which is stored in the
form of organic matter in plants.
• Green plants manufacture food (carbohydrates) by the process of photosynthesis. In this process, plants
naturally take energy from sunlight. The photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplast cell [Link] this
process, plants naturally take energy from sunlight, but sea algae perform this process in moonlight and
photosynthesis takes place in plants in electric light as well.
• Photosynthesis takes place in a cell organelle called chloroplast. The green pigment chlorophyll (chlorophyll) is
found in the chloroplast. Magnesium is the main element of chlorophyll.
• Regarding the effect of different wavelengths, the rate of photosynthesis is maximum red light (650 nanometers)
and then in blue light (475 nanometers). Although foliar greens absorb more blue light than red light, red light is
the most used in photosynthesis.
• Chlorella is a genus of unicellular green algae belonging to the phylum Chlorophyta. Chlorella has the highest
efficiency of 8 percent in converting solar energy into chemical energy.
• Sunlight is essential for photosynthesis, but photosynthesis can also take place in the intense artificial light of
bulbs etc.

Reproduction

• The process through which an organism produces its offsprings is called Reproduction. There are two types of
reproduction - asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction. The reproductive organs of a particular organism
are called the Reproductive System. Each organism produces its own produces its offsprings through
reproduction. Humans, like other vertebrates, are unisexual. That is, they differ in genital and sexual
characteristics of male and female.
• One pair of testes in males and one pair of ovaries in females are the major genitals. Fertilization in humans
takes place in the oviduct or fallaopain tube. Here, in the male gametes (sperm) and the female gametes (ovules),
fertilization is formed by the formation of the zygote, which is diploid and develops into an infant. The time of
birth in humans is ideally 266 days or 38 weeks after fertilization. SCSGYAN
• After reaching the female reproductive tract, the fertility of the sperm is generally preserved for 48 hours and
sometimes up to 72 hours. After ovulation the egg lives for 12 to 24 hours and must be fertilised in that time if a
woman is to become pregnant.

Plant Reproduction -

• Plant reproduction is the process through which plants produce new offspring like themselves. This mainly in
two ways –
• Asexual Reproduction - In this, new offspring develop from a single parent. In this, the progeny are
similar to the cell parent, which is called a clone. It involves point cell division.
• Sexual Reproduction - Sexual reproduction in plants was first described by R. Camerius. Two parents
participate in sexual reproduction. The flower is the sexual part of the plant. The flower has male and
female genitals. If both the genitals are on the same flower, it is called bisexual flower. If a flower has the
same genitalia, it is called unisexual.
• From the point of view of life cycle, the most important part of the plant is flowers. It is helpful in
reproduction of the plant. In a flower, stamens and carpels combine to form reproductive organs.

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Pollination

• The transmission of pollen from the anther to the stigma is called pollination. It is necessary for sexual
reproduction. Pollination is of two types, self-pollination and pollination.
• When pollen is transferred to the stigma of the same flower, pollination is called self-pollination. It is found in
hermaphrodite flowers. When pollination is transmitted by a anther of one flower to the stigma of another
flower, pollination is called cross-pollination.

Vegetative Propagation

• It is an asexual method of reproduction. In this, new plants are obtained from the parts of old plants (such as
stem, root and leaves) without the help of any reproductive organ. Its methods are column shearing or stem
cutting, pressing and tying. New plants produced by asexual reproduction are morphologically and genetically
identical to their parent. In contrast, plants produced by sexual reproduction (from seeds) are not
morphologically and genetically identical to their parents, as there are variations in them.

Plant Hormones and Plant Nutrition

Plant Hormones

• Plant hormones (Phytohormones) are those organic substances, which are formed naturally in one part of the
plant and are transferred to another part. They affect and regulate growth, reproduction and many metabolic
activities.
• The word hormone was first used by Stirling in the year 1906 as a stimulating substance. According to him, these
substances are secreted by ductless glands in animals and spread to different parts of the body to perform
certain functions.

Plant growth regulator

• Specifications - Plant growth regulators are simple and small molecules with diverse chemical compositions.
These indole compounds (indole-3-acetic acid, IAA); Adenine derivatives (furfuryl amino purines, kinetin) can
be keratinoids and derivatives of fatty acids (anisic acid, ABA), teins (gibberellic acid, GA) or gases (ethylene
C2H4), etc. Plant growth regulators are described in the text as plant growth factors, plant hormones and
phytohormones.
• Generally, there are five major classes of plant hormones –
[Link] 2. Gibberellin 3. Cytokinin 4. Abscisic acid 5. Ethylene

Plant Nutrition

• Green plants are autotrophic, that is, they manufacture organic matter (food) themselves. When water and
inorganic elements are obtained from the soil by plants and inorganic elements are present in the form of
minerals in the soil. These are called Nutrient Elements and their nutrition is called Mineral Nutrition.
• Two transport tissues are found in vascular plants – 1. Phloem, 2. Xylem
• Xylem is also called water conducting tissue. Its main function is to transport the absorbed water and mineral
salts to different parts of the plant. It is made up of four types of cells such as vessels, wood parenchyma and
wood fibre.
• Phloem is also called Bast tissue. Its main function is to transfer the food substances made in the green parts of
the plant to other parts. It is made up of four types of cells viz. sieve components, companion cells, phloem
parenchyma and phloem fibres.
• Amarbel (Cuscuta) is a total stem parasite gymnosperm plant, whose stem is thin, weak and yellow in color. Its
stem wraps around the host and receives food, mineral salts and water (H2O) through the parasitic root
(Haustorium).

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Dodar Plant

• Dodders (genus Cuscuta) are among the simplest of plants in their gross appearance. At maturity, they consist
only of thread-like yellow or orange stems, white flowers, and small round fruits. The mature dodder has no
roots or leaves. It is a parasite and is completely dependent on a host plant for its nutrition and water uptake.
• Dodder seeds germinate on the ground but quickly send up a stem that begins searching for a host plant to
parasitize. Assuming contact is made, the dodder produces two types of specialized stems called haustoria that
will penetrate the host’s own stem. One form of haustorium will tap into the host’s water conducting xylem,
while the other type will surround the food-carrying phloem.
• Dodder flowers and fruits share many similarities with morning glories (Convolvulaceae family), though
traditionally dodders are placed in their own family, the Cuscutaceae.
• Five-angled dodder (Cuscuta pentagona) is one of approximately 50 native and introduced dodder species found
in North America.

Important Oneliner Facts

• Saffron is a spice, which is obtained from the style and stigma of the flowers of plants called Crocus sativus of the
family Iridaceae. It is used to make medicines and also used as a taste enhance. Saffronal and picrocrocin are
found in saffron.
• The botanical name of okra plant is Abelmosculus esculentus. Its fruit is capsule type, the whole part of which is
edgible. Kashi Lalima is a major species of okara.
• The edible part of the turmeric plant is the rhizome, which is an underground modified stem type. Its botanical
name is Curcuma longa. It is a member of the Zingiberaceae family. It is used as medicine, spice and colorant etc.
• The most important part of the life cycle is the flower. It helps in plant reproduction.
• Ginger is an example of rhizome, potato is an example of a columnar tuber “garlic and sweet potato are the
examples of tuber” a suran or jimikand is an example of a root. Sweet potato is a plant of the Convolvulaceae
family.
• Pea is a dicotyledonous, herbaceous and one-year plant of the Leguminaceae family. Tendrils are found in it for
support.
• The fruit of mulberry, pineapple and jackfruit is called Psorosis. The fruit of cashew and water chestnut is called
nut. The seed of water chestnut while the fleshy seed of litchi (Fleshy Aril) is edgible. The fruit of apple and pear
is called pome, whereas the fruit of cucumber, watermelon and gourd is called pepo.
• Quinine, a major drug for the treatment of malaria, is obtained from the bark of an angiosperm plant called
cinchona.
• For the diagnosis of malaria, a drug called RT is prepared from the seed plant. Medicines like etravine,
chloroquine etc. are also used for malaria diagnosis.
• Fiber is obtained from the stems of Sunn, hemp and jute, while cotton is obtained from the fibers attached to the
seed coat located in the fruit. These are of two types –
• The botanical name of the poppy plant is Papaver somniferum. It is commonly called Opium Poppy. Medicines
such as noscapine, papaverine, codeine, heroin, opium, morphine, etc. are obtained from it. Morphine is obtained
from the immature fruits of the plant.
• The characteristic odor of garlic and onion is due to the sulfur compounds present in it. The reason for tearing
when peeling an onion is the sulfenic acid released from the onion.
• The pungent taste of chilies is due to a substance called capsaicin present in it. Its chemical formula is C18H27NO3.
• Cork is obtained from the bark of the oak tree, whose botanical name is Quercus suber. The origin of this plant is
the Mediterranean region.
• The Silver Fish is a small, wingless insect. Cray fish is a hard-shell animal. Jelly fish is not a vertebrate animal and
it does not come under the category of fish. Cat fish is the real fish.
• Papaver Somniferum is the main plant of the Papaveraceae family. Its fruit is a capsule containing many seeds,
which is erupted by holes or valves.
• The kangaroo rat can survive for the longest time without drinking water. This compatibility in this animal is
due to the special structure and functioning of his excretory system (kidney).
Silk is obtained from the silkworm. The silkworm breeds on mulberry leaves. Lac is obtained by insects named
Caria lacca and Lacifer lacca. Bees are social insects that collect nectar from flowers to make honey. The pearl is
actually obtained by the genus Pinctida or Pearl Oyster of the phylum of Mollusca.

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Biodegradable and Non-Biodegradable Pollutants

• It is clear that biodegradable pollutants can be broken down into simpler substances through the action of
micro-organisms like bacteria or fungi. Few examples of these biodegradable pollutants include urine, faecal
matter, domestic waste, sewage, agriculture residues, wood, paper, cloth, cattle dung, plants, vegetable stuff,
animal bones, leather, wool, etc.
• Non-biodegradable pollutants refer to the pollutants which cannot be decomposed into simpler substances. Few
examples of these non-biodegradable pollutants include plastics, DDT, polythene, bags, mercury, arsenic, lead,
insecticides, pesticides, synthetic fibres, iron products, etc.

Plants with some characteristics

The Plant of longest root Edansonia digiteta Shootless plant Rhizophora
Oldest Plant Puruemandi Largest Orchids Grammatophyllum speciosum
Smallest Plant flower Wolffia Largest orchid flower Framedium cadetum
Largest Seed Lodoicea Biggest leaf Victoria amazonica
The largest Cactus Cereus giganteus Largest flower Rafflesia arnoldi
Smallest Seed Orchid Smallest Bryophyte Zoopsis genus
Smallest Plant cell Mycoplasma Largest Bryophyte Dawsonia
Largest Metaphasic Trillium Smallest Terrestrial Azolla caroliniana
Chromosome (as well as Pteridophyte
longest chromosome)
Largest ovule, egg and sperm Cycus Plant with the highest Ophioglossum reticulatum
number of chromosomes
Smallest chromosome Algae Plant with the minimum Haplopappus gracilis
number of chromosomes
The tallest angiosperm plant Eucalyptus Rootless angiosperms Cuscuta, Balanophora, Utricularia,
is Aldrovanda or Taeniophyllum, Wolffia
Wolfia are aquatic plants Wolffia Hardest wood Hardwickia binata
which are the smallest
angiosperm
Tallest gymnosperm plant Hyperion (Sequoia Lightest wood Ochromo Lagopus Balsa
sempervirens
Smallest gymnosperm plant Zamia pygmaea
Every year up to 65% changes are made in the course content.

Major Biologists and their contribution

Biologists Contribution
Jonas Salk Discovered vaccines (First Vaccine) to protect against polio
James Young Simpson The first narcosis with chloroform was performed by James Young Simpson
Karl landstiener Detection of 'ABO' blood groups, discovery of Rh factor, discovery of antigen
Albert Sabin The oral polio vaccine (OPV) was developed by physician and microbiologist Albert
Sabin.
A. I. Oparin First description of the origin of organisms by chemical analysis
Bateson The term 'genetics' was given by him.
Andreus Besalis Father of 'modern anatomy'
George Beadle and Edward Propounded the theory, 'one gene-one enzyme one chemical reaction'
Tatum
Dr. Banting & Charles Best Successfully isolated the hormone insulin from pancrease for the first time
Christian Bernard First human heart transplant operation
Charles Darwin Rendering of Biological Development, the creation of a book called Origin of Species
Dresor Discovery of the drug named 'Asprin'

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Ernst Haeckel Formulated Biogenetic law

J. B. Farmer and J. E. Moore The term meiosis was coined by J. B. Farmer and J. E. Moore in 1905.
Oscar Hertwig Meiosis was discovered for the first time in sea urchin eggs in 1876 by the German
biologist Oscar Hertwig.
Francis Galton Father of 'eugenics'
Funk In 1912, Casimir Funk originally coined the term "vitamine".
Gregar Mendel Gregor Mendel, through his work on pea plants, discovered the fundamental laws of
inheritance.
Thomas Huxley Thomas Huxley referred protoplasm as the "physical basis of life" and considered that
the property of liferesulted from the distribution of molecules within this substance.
Hugo De Vries Theory of Mutation
Dujardin and J. E. Purkinje Dujardin in 1835 discovered protoplasm but in 1839 it was J. E. Purkinje who coined the
word protoplasm. Protoplasm is the colourless material comprising of all the living
components of the cell.
Wilhelm Johannsen Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen coined the word gene to describe the Mendelian
units of heredity.
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck Lamarckism was proposed by Jean-Baptiste de Monet Lamarck in the year 1744-1829.

François Jacob and Jacques Operon Theory is the concept of gene regulation proposed by them.
Monod (1961)
Louis Pasteur Louis Pasteur discovered fermentation in 1857.
Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll created the first electron microscope in 1931.
Robert Hook Discovery of Cell, Introduction of the word 'cell', written a book called Micrographia,
Known as "Father of cytology".
Robert Jarvik Dr. Robert Jarvik is renowned for his work on the first permanent artificial heart which
proved to be successful.
Patrick Steptoe and Robert In vitro fertilization (IVF) is an assisted reproductive technology (ART) initially
Edwards introduced by Patrick Steptoe and Robert Edwards in the 1970s to treat female
infertility caused by damaged or blocked fallopian tubes.
Robert Koch Robert Koch discovered in 1882 of the tubercle bacillus that caused tuberculosis and in
1884 the cholera bacillus, Vibrio cholerae.
Dr. Robert Weinberg Dr. Robert Weinberg is credited with discovering the first identified human oncogene in
a human bladder cancer cell line.
Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Cell theory was proposed by a German botanist, Matthias Schleiden and English
Schwann zoologist, Theodor Schwann in the year 1839.
Selman Waksman Discovery of Streptomycin, Introduction of the term 'Antibiotic'
T. H. Huxlay Introduction of 'Biogentic law'
William Harvey Discovery of Blood Circulation
W. Waldeyer The Introduction of the term 'chromosome
Walther Fleming The term "mitosis", coined by Walther Flemming in 1882.
Watson and Crick Formulation of a double stranded pattern for molecular structure of DNA
Z. Jenson and H. Jenson Construction of first 'joint microscope'
Alexandar Fleming Discovery of Penicillin
Robert Hook Discovery and naming the presence of nucleus in cells, postulated Brownian motion
Ronald Ross Discovered of Plasmodium eggs in the stomach of the female Anophilis mosquito
R. Altmaan Discovery of Nucleic acid
Antonie Phillips van Father of microbiology
Leewenhoek

Father of various branches of botany

Branch Scientist Branch Scientist
Father of Immunology Edward Jenner Father of eugenics Fransis Galton

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Father of bacteriology Robert Koch Father of microbiology Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

Father of botany Theophrastus Discovery of bacteriophages Tawartav Deharil
Father of term "ecosystem" A. G. Tansley Father of classification Carl Linnaeus
Father of plant pathology A. J. Butler Father of genetics Gregor John Mendel
Grandfather of phytology Stephen hales The father of Modern Embryology Karl Ernst Von Baer
Father of the rule of Ernst Haeckel
reiteration of caste in
personality

Major glossaries and related products

Apiculture Beekeeping for honey production and pollination of crops at commercial level
Aviculture Bird breeding
Aquaculture Breeding of aquatic organisms (flora and fauna)
Algaculture type of aquaculture under which algae are cultivated.
Pisciculture Fisheries
Agriculture Activity related to cropping, animal husbandry
Sericulture The production of raw silk
Silviculture Forest Cultivation
Spongiculture breeding of sponge
Floriculture Study of flowers
Olericulture Vegetable cultivation
Arboriculture Study of trees and shrubs
Horticulture Cultivation of flowers, fruits, vegetables and spices
Pomology Fruit farming
Agronomy Crops cultivation
Vermiculture Earthworm breeding for increasing agricultural production
Ostriculture Artificial breeding in oysters for trade purpose
Oleiculture Olive production, conservation and trade
Heliculture Breeding of Snails
Viticulture Cultivation of Grapes
Mericulture Breeding of marine organisms (flora and fauna) for human consumption
Moriculture Mulberry Cultivation
Citriculture Cultivation of citrus fruits and fruit products
Hydroponics/ Growing Plants without using Soil
Aeroponics/
Aeroculture
Vegeculture Agriculture of vegetables and plants (mainly root crops, which have periodic propagation.

Largest and smallest

Largest Mammal Blue whale Largest living reptile Asian saltwater
crocodile
Largest Terrestrial animal African Elephant The largest known fossil of reptiles Diplodocus
Oldest Molusca Kentoderma The most intelligent homonid Human
Oldest Primate Lemur The fastest land animal Cheetah
The largest Living Bird Ostrich The fastest flying bird Peregrine falcon
Largest Living Snake Snake dragon Most primitive egg-laying Mammal Echidna (It posses four
headed Penis)
Largest Monkey Gorilla Egg Laying mammal Duck-billed platypus
Wisest Monkey Chimpanzee The Smallest flightless Bird Kiwi
Smallest Monkey Gibbon Oldest Fish Scoliodon (Dog fish)
Largest Frog Rana Goliath Oldest Arthopoda Scorpion
Largest mollusca Giant scuid Oldest Snake Viper and Sea Snake
Largest Clamshell Tridacna Only Poisonous Lizard Haloderma

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Largest Gastropods Hemifusus The most poisonous fish Stone fish

Smallest bird Humming bird Tallest Mammal Giraffe
Longest cell Nerve cell (Neuron) The Largest Virus Pox virus
Primitive Helminth Planaria Largest Gland Liver
Primitive Annelid Polygordius Largest bone Femur
Smallest bone Stapes The largest muscle in the human gluteus maximus
body
Busiest part of the body Heart Largest Living Marsupial Red kangaroo
(Macropus rufus)
Most primal arthropods Peripetrus (connecting link
between Arthopoda and
Annelida)

False fishes True fishes

Devil fish Mollusca Dog fish Scholeodon
Jelly Fish Coelentrata Horse fish Hippocampus
Silver Fish Insecta Tiger fish Stegostoma
Starfish Echinodrmata Globe fish Tetraodon
Razor fish Mollusca Electric fish Torpedo
Whale fish Mammals Flying fish Exositus
Cray fish Orthopoda Mosquito fish Gambusia
Cuttlefish Mollusca Mush fish Kaimira

Largest and youngest animals Marine animals and their Phylum

The largest extant animal Blue whale Sea horse Species
The youngest animal Amoeba Sea Anemones Nideria
Largest terrestrial Elephant Sea Hare Mollusca
Biggest fish Whale shark Sea Cucumber Echinoderm
Smallest mammal Mole Sea lily Echinoderm
Largest invertebrate Giant sequin Sea Urchin Echinoderm
Smallest fish Gobi fish Sea Mouse Aneileda
Largest bird Ostrich bird Sea pen Nideria
Smallest bird Humming bird Sea Fan Nideria
Kangaroo gives birth to an immature young kangaroo Sea Cow Mammals
called joey. Right after birth, it crawls up to its
mother’s pouch where the rest of its development
takes place.

Scientists and their innovations

Invention Inventor Invention Inventor
Insulin Frederick Grant Banting, Blood Groups Landsteiner
Charles Best
Lysergic acid Haffmann Father of R. N. A. Leslie Orgel
diethylamide (LSD)
Genetic Code Hargovind Khurana D.N.A Watson and Crick
Polio Drop Albert Sabine Medical Treatment of Louis Pasteur
Hydrophobia
Contraceptive pills Pincus Medical Treatment of Hanniman
Homeopathy
Cardiac surgical Christian Bernard Polio vaccine Jonas Salk
transplant
First test tube baby Steptov Edwards Cholera’s vectors Robert Koch
Genes of Cancer Robert Weinberg Tuberculosis vectors Robert Koch

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Penicillin A. Fleming Malaria vectors Charles Laveran

D.D.T Paul Mooler Diptheria vectors Klebs and Bazarnik
R.H. Factor Landsteiner Aspirin Dressor
B.C.G Albert calmette and Guerin Virology Ivanovsky and Beijaerinck
Beriberi disease Christian Eijakman
Malaria parasite Ronald Ross Antigen Landsteiner
Blood Transfusion Karl Landsteiner Open heart surgery Walton lillehal
Rabies Vaccine Louis Pasteur Virus Ivanovaski
Sulpha Drugs Gerhard Domagk Electrocardiogram Willem Einthoven
(ECG)
Hormone E. H. Starling Vitamin b1 Robert Williams
Vitamin A - Paul Karrer described the chemical structure of vitamin A in 1932. Harry Holmes and Ruth Corbet isolated and
crystallized vitamin A in 1937.
The validity of this study material is only till the year 2024, do not read it after that.

Medical related institutions and centers

Various Institutes/ Centers City

National Institute of Immunology New Delhi
National Cell Science Center Pune, Maharashtra
DNA Fingerprinting and Diagnostic Center Hyderabad, Telangana
National Plant Genome Research Center New Delhi
National Brain Research Center Manesar, Haryana
Institute of Bioresource and Sustainable Development life Sciences Imphal, Manipur
institute
National biology Center Bhubaneshwar, Odisha
Birbal Sahni Institute of Botany Lucknow
National Academy of Medical Sciences New Delhi
Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding Institute Coimbatore, Tamilnadu
Institute of Microbial Technology Chandigarh
Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Luchnow
National blind institute Dehradun
National Orthopedic disabilities Institute Kolkata
Ali Yawarjung National Deaf Institute Mumbai
National Institute of Mental Disabilities Secundarabad and Hyderabad (Telangana)
National Botanical Research Institute Lucknow
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources New Delhi
Indian Institute of Sugar Technology Kanpur
Indian Veterinary Science Research Institute Ijjatnagar (Bareily), U.P.
Central Drug Research Institute Lucknow

Major medical equipment

Stethoscope It is used in measuring of heart rate and heart pulse
Pacemaker Used to bring it to normal state when the heart rate is high or low.
Sphygmomanometer Used to measure blood pressure.
C T Scan It is used to detect any abnormality or deformity in the entire body.
Electrocardiography (ECG) Used to detect cardiac abnormalities.
Electroinsefellogram Used to detect brain malformations.
Auto analyzer Used to check the level of glucose, urea, cholesterol etc.
Magnetic Resonance imaging Used for the complete detection of abnormalities or deformities in the entire body or
organs.

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Biology branches and sub-disciplines

Branches Study
Pathology Study of nature, symptoms and factors of diseases
Parsitology Study of parasitic organisms
Virology Study of viruses
Bacteriology Study of bacteria
Entomology Study of insects
Myrmecology Myrmecology is a branch of entomology focusing on the scientific study of ants.
Malacology Study of mollusca and its opening
Ichthyology Study of fish structure, function etc.
Serpentology Study of snakes
Herpetology Study of amphibians and reptiles
Ornithology Study of birds
Dermatology Study of skin and its diseases
Trophology Study of nutrition and nutritional methods
Tetology Study of acquired symptoms
Zoology Detailed study of different types of living and dead animals
Botany Study of different types of plants and their activities
Palaeobiology/ It is concerned with all aspects of the biology of ancient life forms:
Palaeontology
Palaeobotany Study of plant fossils
Ecology Study of the effect of environment around the living organisms
Genetics Study of genetic traits of animals and their inheritance
Physiology Study of functions and working methods of different parts of the body
Pedology Study of soil, soil formation, soil type etc.
Gerontology Study of aspects of aging and time effects in humans
Ethology Study of behavior of all animals including humans
Bionics Study of principles to build modern equipment and engineering systems using the properties,
principles of the biological world.
Bionomics Study of the relationship of organisms with their environment
Myology Study of human muscles
Mammalogy Study of mammals
Bionomy Study related to rules of life
Biometry Biology study by the techniques of mathematics and statistics
Phrnology The study of the functioning and insanity of various parts of the brain
Anthology Study of flowers
Agrostology Study of Grasses
Palynology Study of different types of pollinators
Oncology Study of cancer and related tumors
Teratology Study of inequalities in physical development
Osteology Study of bones
Chondroglogy Study of Cartilage
Serology Scientific study of blood serum
Haematology Study of blood
Neurology Study related to the nervous system
Lithotripsy A medical procedure in which the patient is treated by breaking the stones located in the
kidneys, gall bladder, bladder with the help of rays.
Ethics Psychological study of moral conduct and duty

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Fruits and their edible parts

Name of Fruits Edible Part Name of Fruits Edible Parts

Banana Mesocarp and Endocarp Wheat Starchy Edosperm
Maize
Cashewnut Cotyledons, Fleshy Thalamus Litchi Fleshy Aril
Gram, Pea Cotyledons and embryos Groundnut Cotyledons and embryos
Mulberry Juicy Perianth Jack Fruit Bracts, Perianth, Seeds
Pine apple Bracts, Receptacles Orange Juicy hair
Apple Fleshy thalamus Pear (Fleshy thalamus)
Mango Mesocarp Guava Pericarp, Placenta
Grapes Pericarp, Placenta Papaya Mesocarp
Coconut Liquid Endosperm Tomato epicarp, Placenta
Cucumber Mesocarp, Endocarp Date Palm Fleshy Pericarp
Fig Fleshy Thalamus Pine Apple Bracts, Receptacles
Pomegranate Juicy Seed coat Straberry Fleshy Thalamus
Tomato Pericarp, Placenta Mustard Seed

Edible Part Plant Edible Part Plant

Stem Sugarcane, Onion, Potato Root Carrots, Beetroot, Radish, Sweet Potatoes
Leaves Mustard, Spinach, Fenugreek Flower Cabbage, cauliflower

Dicotyledonae (Dicot) – In the seed of dicotyledonaeic plant two cotyledons are found

Name of Family Name of Important Plants

Cruciferae Radish, Turnip, Mustard, Cauliflower
Malvaceae Cotton, Okra, Shoeblack Plant/China rose
Leguminose Pea, catechu, pigeon pea, soyabean, lablab bean, Royal Poinciana, Golden shower tree, Tamarind,
Babool, Ashoka, Shameplant, Rosewood, Chickpea, Black gram, Indigo
Compositae Sunflower, Lettuce, Zinnia, Chrysanthemum, Marigold
Rutaceae Key lime, orange, sweet orange,
Cucurbitaceae Watermelon, Muskmelon, Pointed gourd
Solanaceae Potato, Eggplant, Chilli peppers, Tobacco, Bellodonna, Jimson Weed
Rosaceae Apple, Pear, Rose, Peruvian groundcherry
Myrtaceae Guava, Eucalyptus, Jambolan (Java plum), Henna
Umbelliferae Coriander, Cumin, Clove, Fennel, Wild carrot
Ranunculaceae Buttercup, Black cumin

Feature Name Feature Name

"Queen of Fruit" Litchi King of fruits Mango
"Queen of Flower" Gladiolus Queen of Spices Cardamom
King of temperate fruits Apple Queen of all beverages Tea
Fruit of poor people Palm King of dry fruits Almonds
Green gold Opium King of forests Teak
Tree of Heaven Coconut God food Cocoa
Century Tree Date India's golden fiber Jute
World famous fiber Cotton White Gold Cotton
Coarse Grain (Sorghum, Pearl millet) Vegetable meat Mushroom
Wonderful tree Neem National Tree Banyan
Tree of 21st century Neem Queen of pulses Pea
Queen of Grain Maize Golden Fibre Jute
King of Pulses Gram

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Organism Number of Chromosomes Organism Number of Chromosomes

Tomato 24 Cat 38
Lemon 18, 36 Chimpanzee 48
Tobacco 48 Human 46
Potato 48 Dog 78
Wheat 42 Ascaris 2
Pigeon 80 Hare 44
Horse 64 Maize 20
Mosquito 6 Housefly 12
Bee 16, 32 Pea 14
Frog 26 Onion 16

Scientific name of some organism

Common Name Scientific Name Common Name Scientific Name

Man Homo Sapiens Cat Felis domestica
Dog Canis familiaris Housefly Musca domestica
Rice Oryza sativa Pea Pisum sativa
Mustard Brassica campestris
Mango Mangifera Indica Wheat Triticum aestivum
Gram Cicer artictinum Frog Rana Tigrina

False Fruit True Fruit

Definition False fruits arise from floral parts other True fruits arise as a result of fertilization where the
than the ovary fertilized ovary wall becomes the fleshy fruit.
Fertilization Not involved Involved
Process
Parts Involved in Floral parts such as thalamus, peduncle Fertilized ovary
forming the fruit and perianth, parts other than the ovary.
Examples Apple, pears jackfruit, pineapple, Mango, Kiwi fruit, watermelon, cherry, grape, maize
strawberry, Cashew-nut, pear, gourd,
cucumber
Note – Cashew-nut develops from peduncle.
Apple, pear, gourd, cucumber develops from thalamus.
Jackfruit, pineaaple develops from Entire inflorescence.
Parthonocarpic fruit Development of fruit without fertilization. They are seedless fruits example – Banana, Fig,
orange, grape, pear, grapefruit

Examples of Vestigial Organs - Following are a few examples of vestigial organs

Sinuses Human cheekbones hold the maxillary sinuses. The face consists of pockets of air called sinuses. They are
lined by a thin layer of mucosa. It has no significant use but infection can lead to sinusitis.
Appendix It is one of the most commonly known vestigial organs. This finger-like tube closed at one end arises from
the vermiform process. In prime ancestors, the appendix is believed to have brought about the digestion of
cellulose. Today, scientists predict that the appendix may play a role in digestion by bacteria.
Coccyx It forms the last part of the vertebral column, the residue of the lost tail and is often termed as the tailbone.
It is observed during human embryogenesis. This formed as the centrepiece of the theory of
recapitulation'.
Wisdom Tooth Forms the third set of molars in our buccal cavity. They may have been significant in the past (chewing
rough and raw food) but in modern times, as they are inaccessible and remote, it causes pain and infection.
External Ear The Helix (outer rim of the ear) is known to be a vestigial structure. Underdeveloped muscles in the ear
make us incapable to bring about the movement of ears. Darwin's tubercle is a vestigial feature present on
the juncture of the upper part of the ear.

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Nictitating Nictitating membrane is the third eyelid found in a few animals that protect and keep the eyes moist and
Membrane also helps in vision. In humans, it is replaced by plica semilunaris.

Tonsils The tonsils remain as vestigial organs in the human body. They act as the first line of defence and protect
the body from harmful microorganisms that are either inhaled or ingested by the body.

Difference Between oil and Fat

Oil Fat
Oils are viscous liquids found in the fruits and seeds of Fat is an oily substance found around the organs under the
plants. skin of animals.
Oils are mainly made up of unsaturated fatty acids. Fat is mainly made up of saturated fatty acids.
Oils are in liquid state at normal temperature. Fats are in the solid state at room temperature.
Vegetables are the main source of oils. Animals are the main source of fats.
There are mainly two types of oils - monounsaturated and There are mainly two types of fats - Trans Fats and Saturated
polyunsaturated. Fats.
Consumption of oils reduces the risk of heart diseases. Consumption of fats increases the risk of heart diseases.
Examples of oils: Olive, Canola, Peanut, Sesame, Soyabean, Examples of fats: Ghee, Butter. Cream, Meat, Lard etc.
Sunflower, Mustard etc.

Dyspnea Dyspnea is the medical term for difficulty breathing or shortness of breath.
Anosmia Anosmia is the partial or full loss of smell. Anosmia can be a temporary or permanent condition.
Anorexia Anorexia is an eating disorder and serious mental health condition.
Insomnia Insomnia, also known as sleeplessness, is a sleep disorder where people have trouble sleeping.
They may have difficulty falling asleep, or staying asleep for as long as desired.

Sewage is a complex mixture containing suspended solids, organic and inorganic impurities, nutrients, saprophytes and disease
causing bacteria and other microbes. These include the following -

Organic impurities Human faeces, animal waste, oil, urea (urine), pesticides, herbicides, fruit and vegetable
waste, etc.
Inorganic impurities Nitrates, Phosphates, metals.
Nutrients Phosphorus and Nitrogen
Bacteria For example vibrio cholera which causes cholera and salmonella paratyphi which causes
typhoid.
Other microbes For example protozones which cause dysentery
This study material is not valid after the year 2024, after which it will become outdated.

Oneliner Important facts of BIOLOGY

• Taeniasis is an intestinal infection caused by three species of tapeworm-Taenia solium, Taenia saginata and Taenia
asiatica. When cysts develop in the brain, the condition is referred to as neuro-systicercosis (NCC).
• The tastes of the tongue – 1. Sweet 2. Bitter 3. Salty 4. Umami 5. Sour
• The DNA double helix structure was discovered by James Watson and Francis Crick.
• Toxoid vaccine protect against Diphtheria.
• Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are those in which DNA from the desired organism is inserted in the laboratory.
These are also known as transgenic organisms. GMOs are created in the laboratory using scientific methods like
Recombinant DNA technology and Reproductive cloning.
• The chromatin material is formed of DNA and Histones
• The term “chromosomes” literally means Coloured bodies
• The repeating components of each DNA strand lengthwise is Nucleotides.

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• Hydrogen Bond joins the complementary nitrogenous bases.

• Phosphate, Sugar and Nitrogenous base are the three components of nucleotide.
• Root Pressure is responsible for guttation.
• Osmosis is the process by which water enters root hairs.
• Root pressure (Or Turgor Pressure) and Transpiration Pull is responsible for the movement of water molecules across the
cortical cells of the root (Ascent of Sap).
• Most of the transpiration in tall trees occurs through lenticles.
• Hydathodes is the structure in a leaf that allows guttation (caused by increased root pressure).
• Ganong’s potometer is used to measure the rate of water intake by a plant.
• During photosynthesis, the oxygen in glucose comes from carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere
• Photosynthesis stops at a temperature of about 40oC.
• The dark reaction of photosynthesis is known as Calvin cycle.
• In the flowering plants, food is transported in the form of Sucrose.
• When a doctor is recording your pulse, he presses on your wrist exactly on an artery.
• The nearest organ to which the heart supplies oxygenated blood is heart itself
• The chief function of lymph nodes is to destroy pathogens
• Hepatic portal vein is a vein which starts from an organ and ends in another organ besides the heart. It starts from
Gastrointestinal tract to liver
• Pulmonary artery is the only artety carries impure (deoxygenated) blood.
• Mammalian red blood cell when mature circulates in the blood system and are devoid of certain organelles. Loss of
nucleus, makes the red cells biconcave, thus increasing their surface area volume ratio for absorbing more oxygen.
• In humans, urea is formed in Liver
• A hepatic vein is a vein in which urea concentration is maximum.
• The cerebellum is the part of the brain which is responsible for maintaining posture and equilibrium.
• Salivation at the sight and smell of food is a conditioned reflex while knee jerk, eye blinking, and sneezing are the natural
reflex action.
• Reflex action is controlled by spinal cord
• The rod cells of the retina and their pigment rhodopsin get activated in the dark.
• The cone cells of the retina and their pigment iodopsin get activated in the light.
• Dream is controlled by the cerebrum of the central nervous system
• The main function of glucagon is to stimulate the breakdown of glycogen in the liver to glucose.
• Insulin is not given orally but is injected into the fatty tissue because insulin is chemically protein in nature (not starch)
and thus it gets digested by protein digestive enzymes.
• Due to pressure in the abdomen, the intestine bulges into the scrotum through the inguinal canal. This condition is known
as hernia.
• six ancestral forms in their correct sequence through which modern man has evolved
• Australopithecus > Homo habilis > Homo erectus > Neanderthals > Cro-Magnon > Homo sapiens (modern man)
• Use of antibiotics and prophylactic vaccinations was directly responsible for the rapid rise of world population in the
twentieth century
• Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) is a neurodegenerative disorder caused due to the abnormal folding of proteins. It is
known as prion disease.
• Seed Dispersal by Wind - The seeds of the orchid plant, dandelions, swan plants, cottonwood tree, hornbeam, ash, cattail,
puya, willow herb
• Seed Dispersal by Water - Coconut, palm, mangroves, water lily, water mint.
• Seed Dispersal by Animal and Birds - Burdock plant, Dates, rambutan, sea grapes, sea holly, tamarind, raspberry,
sunflower, tomatoes
• Sead Dispersal by explosion - Pea and bean plants also have pods and the seeds burst out when they ripen and pod has
dried.
• Leydig cells are the primary source of testosterone or androgens in males
• Genetic disorders Cystic fibrosis, Haemophilia, Sickle-cell anemia, Phenylketonuria, Colour blindness, Thalassemia
• Polytene Chromosome is found in Salivary Gland cells of Drosophila
• Spleen is also known as “graveyard of RBCs".
• Samara is a simple dry indehiscent fruit which is made up of one or two seeds which have a wing-like structure.
• DNA, Mitochondria and Ribosomes and Endoplasmic Reticulum are not present in mature mammalian RBCs.

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• DNA was discovered by Friedrich Mischer (1869) and the double helix model of DNA was given by James Watson and
Francis Crick.
• DNA is a genetic material and carries information about the characteristics of an organism from parent to child like a birth
certificate. Apart from the nucleus, it is also found in mitochondria and chloroplasts. Man is a monogamous animal with a
total number of 23 pairs of chromosomes (46).
• Males have 44+XY chromosomes, while females have 44+XX chromosomes. Autosomes have 22 pairs of chromosomes (44)
in males and females, while the 23rd pair of chromosomes is XY in males and XX in females, which are called sex
chromosomes. The child who gets XY chromosomes from the parent becomes a son and the one who gets XX chromosomes
becomes a daughter.
• Bone is the hardest tissue.
• There are 206 bones found in adult humans, which make up the skeletal system.
• The smallest bone in the human body is the stapes, which is found in the human ear, while the largest bone is the femur,
which is found in the thigh.
• Ligament is the connective tissue that connects one bone to another.
• Tendon is the connective tissue that connects muscle to bone.
• The nail belongs to the outer skeleton, which is made up of alpha keratin. They are formed by the mass of dead cells, in
which there is no circulation of blood. This is the reason why they do not feel pain when they are cut.
• Calcium, phosphorus and fluorine are essential for bone and dental formation and its strength. Their deficiency leads to
bone and dental diseases.
• Mammals including humans ideally have four types of teeth – 1. Incisors 2. Canines 3. Premolars 4. Molars
• Enamel is the hardest part of the human body. It is very hard, white and shiny on the crown of the tooth. It is mainly
composed of calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate.
• The jaw muscles are considered the strongest in terms of their ability to lift a heavy object. The Guinness Book of Records
holds the record for lifting 975 pounds of weight by the jaw muscles for 2 seconds.
• Most of our body is made up of water. About two-thirds (about 70%) of water is found in the human body.
• There are mainly 6 elements found in the human body, which are Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Calcium and
Phosphorous.
• Haemoglobin protein present in red blood cells ([Link].) acts as a carrier of oxygen and transports it to the tissues of
various organs in the body.
• Normally the amount of Haemoglobin in a healthy person is on average 15 grams per 100 ml of blood.
• The maximum amount of CO₂ is transferred to the body in the form of bicarbonate (about 70–75%) in the blood, the rest is
transferred as carboxyHaemoglobin.
• The capacity of the lungs to fill air in a healthy person is 6000 ml (or 6 liters).
• White blood cells perform the function of providing immunity against diseases. Platelets play a major role in blood clotting.
• The red blood cells (R.B.C.) in a normal human are about 54 lakhs per cubic millimeter of blood (somewhat less in
females).
• White blood cells (W.B.C.) are about 5 thousand to 11 thousand per cubic millimeter of blood. It has the highest number of
neutrophils (60-70% of the total W.B.C.) and the least number of basophils.
• The largest WBC in size are monocytes. The number of platelets is 1.5 lakh per cubic millimeter of blood.
• With increasing age, human blood pressure increases. The average human blood pressure is 120/80.
• Plasma consists of about 91-92 percent water and the remaining 8-9 percent in different types of inorganic and organic
matter.
• There are two levels of blood pressure in the arteries. The first is called systolic pressure and the second is called diastolic
pressure. Normally the systolic pressure is 120 ml Hg and the diastolic pressure is 80 ml Hg. Blood pressure is measured
by a doctor's sphygmomanometer.
• In 1900 AD, the Austrian biologist and physician Karl Landsteiner discovered four blood groups (A, B, AB and O). Later, the
Rh factor was discovered in the blood of rhesus monkeys by Landsteiner and Wiener.
• Alum is a colorless crystalline substance. Due to the high coagulation power of aluminum ions present in alum, it is used to
stop the bleeding.
• All vertebrates and some invertebrates have a closed circulatory system.
• All the activities are conducted and regulated by different parts of the human brain. Under the hind brain or
rhombencephalon of human, the brain caudal or medulla oblongata comes, which is often called medula. Its length is about
three cm and it is attached to the pons at the top and the spinal cord at the bottom.
• The brain is responsible for thinking, controlling the heart rate and balancing the body. Cerebrum is the largest part of the
brain and it controls voluntary actions, memory, etc.

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• There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves in humans. Of these, the first, second and eighth pair are sensory and the rest are
mixed (sensory and conductive).
• Most mammals and birds, including humans, are deterministic, that is, their body temperature remains the same in winter
or summer. The average human body temperature is 98.6 Fahrenheit or 370 centigrade. The body temperature is 310 K on
the Kelvin scale.
• The hypothalamus is the part of the anterior brain and it controls hunger and thirst, love, hate, satiety and heat. It also
controls the hormones secreted by the endocrine glands. The hypothalamus is also called the thermostat of the brain.
• The brain will not feel pain when the needle is inserted. The brain lacks pain receptors.
• The smallest endocrine gland in the human body is the pituitary gland, which is round and brownish red. Its weight is
about 0.5 to 1.0 grams and diameter is, 1-1.5 cm. It is also called hypophysis cerebri, which is famous as the master gland.
• The hypothalamus is also considered to be the master of the pituitary gland because this part of the brain plays the role of
a major coordinator of the nervous system and the endocrine system.
• Somatotrophin or growth hormone is related to growth in the body, an excess of which leads to a state of euphoria, while a
deficiency leads to dwarfism.
• Common goiter and Hashimoto's disease also occur due to its deficiency. Ophthalmic goiter or exophthalmic goiter and
Plumer's disease are caused by over secretion of thyroid gland.
• A body with diabetes insipidus often feels excessively thirsty because it dehydrates the body, which is treated with
synthetic ADH or vasopressin, called pitresin.
• Consumption of coffee, tea or whiskey decreases the amount of ADH hormone in the body, due to which increased urine
volume leads to frequent urge to urinate and dehydration of the body.
• When there is an excess of vasopressin or ADH, the urine becomes thick and the blood becomes dilute, which increases the
blood pressure. Vasopressin is secreted by the pituitary gland. Its main function is to increase the reabsorption of water
into the blood from the distal convoluted part of the renal tubules and the collecting ducts in the kidney, hence it is called
antidiuretic hormone or ADH.
• A hormone called adrenaline or epinephrine is secreted from the adrenal medulla, the secretion of which causes an
increase in heart rate and sensation in the body. Due to its effect, blood circulation increases in the brain, skeletal muscles,
heart, lungs, liver etc. This reduces the increased blood pressure due to the effect of norepinephrine.
• The hormone secreted by the adrenal gland is also called the fight and flight hormone. These hormones are ready to react
with severe calamity to face the crisis situation in the body.
• Estrogen, progesterone and relaxin are the major female hormones. Estrogen is produced in females by the cells of the
Theca interna of the Grafian vesicles of the ovary from puberty to the age of menopause (approximately 45 to 52 years).
• The main estrogen is estradiol, which is called the female growth hormone. It is helpful in the proper development of
secondary sexual characteristics of female such as - breasts, milk glands, uterus and vagina in girls etc.
• The hormone relaxin is secreted in pregnancy by the corpus luteum and the placenta. It is a polypeptide. This hormone
makes the joint called the pubic symphysis of the pelvic plexus flexible and dilates, which widens the cervix and facilitates
childbirth.
• Male hormones, i.e., androgens, are secreted from the Leydig cells of the testes in males. The major androgen is
testosterone. It is also called male growth hormone. It induces changes in male sexual characteristics and sexual behavior.
• Hugging or kissing between the mother and the baby, and the feelings of caring for the baby, and feelings of pleasure
during sex, increase the hormone oxytocin. Oxytocin has two target tissues – the uterus and mammary glands of women.
This hormone works by contracting the muscles of the breasts during lactation by the baby to increase milk ejection.
• The enzyme that digests milk protein is renin, which converts the milk soluble protein casein into solid and soluble
calcium paracaseinate and freezes the milk in the form of curd.
• Breast milk provides almost complete nutrition for the newborn, but it is deficient in iron.
• Gastric juice in infants contains a digestive enzyme called renin, but lacks it in adults.
• Milk is spoiled by Lactobacillus bacteria. It is a very important bacterium, which is found in the digestive tract. They
convert milk sugar into lactic acid, due to which the milk becomes sour.
• The work of making curd, buttermilk and cheese from milk is done by these bacteria.
• Alpha keratin is a protein present in horns, hair, nails, hooves, skin, etc. It is a type of keratin.
• Human body cells cannot synthesize essential fatty acids. Linoleic acid and linolenic acid are essential fatty acids for
human health. In oilseed crops, maximum alpha-linolenic acid is found in linseed or teesi.
• Alpha-linolenic acid is an omega-3 fatty acid, which is able to prevent the accumulation of fat in the blood vessels.
• Unsaturated fats are more reactive than saturated fats. There are double bonds between any of the carbon atoms in their
molecules. Saturated fats do not have double bonds.

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• The rate of decomposition in polyunsaturated fatty acids is very rapid, due to which maximum molecules of oxygen (O2)
are taken up in the vascular action. As a result, the vascular activity in man increases. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are found
in abundance in fish, which is a good nutrient for humans.
• Triglyceride is a type of fat found in the body. Our body converts the unused energy from food into triglyceride.
Triglyceride is stored in fat cells.
• The average fat content in buffalo milk is 7.2%, while the average fat content in cow's milk is 3.5-4.0%. Apart from this,
proteins, mineral salts, lactose etc. are the main components found in milk.
• A lactating mother needs protein from 10% to 15% of the total diet per day, this amount is 65 grams to 70 grams per day.
• The condition of malnutrition arises due to unbalanced nutrition i.e., undernutrition or overnutrition.
• A physically active man needs about 3500-4000 kcal daily energy.
• Water is a calorie-free diet. The amount of calories you get from drinking a glass of water is zero.
• Spinach leaves have the highest amount of iron. Iron is a component of Haemoglobin and cytochrome enzymes in the body.
• Two types of starch are found in rice – amylase, amylopectin.
• Starch is the botanical origin of both starch and cellulose. It is a polymer made from glucose molecule.
• Starch reacts with iodine solution to give a blue-black color, whereas cellulose does not react in this way.
• Starch is present in the form of amylase or amylopsin in the seeds and pods of plants.
• The femur is the longest bone in the human body.
• Leukoskin is a herbal medicine developed for the treatment of leucoderma. It has been developed by Defense Bio-Energy
Research Institute (DIBER), a laboratory of DRDO located in Haldwani (Uttarakhand). It is noteworthy that leucoderma
(white spots) is a skin disease.
• Myopia or nearsightedness is a disease in the eye in which nearby objects are clearly visible but distant objects appear
blur. This is corrected by using a concave lens.
• Long Slightedness is also called hypermetropia, in which distant objects are clearly visible, but nearby objects appear blur
or unclear. This is corrected by using a convex lens.
• Astigmatism reduces the visibility of the affected person and he is not able to see objects up-down and left-right properly.
Cylindrical lens is used to get rid of this problem.
• Sleep apnea is a sleep disorder in which the respiratory flow during sleep is repeatedly interrupted for short periods of
time. The affected person snores in sleep and feels tired even after sleeping the whole night.
• Fenugreek is an angiosperm plant, the seed of which is beneficial in maintaining normal blood sugar of a diabetic patient.
• Curry plant is indigenous to India. Its leaf means curry-leaf is useful for the treatment of diabetes.
• Emphysema is a type of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease) that
affects the human lungs.
• In a heart attack, the condition of atherosclerosis arises due to the formation of fibrous tissue and accumulation of
cholesterol and other lipid substances, due to which blood clots in the heart arteries and the internal openings of the
vessels in it become narrow. As a result of which there is a formation of insufficient supply of blood and oxygen in the
body. This study material is only for UPPSC RO/ARO PRE RE-Exam, do not read it for any other exam.
• Obesity, high stress, smoking, fatty diet etc. are the main causes of this disease and anticoagulant drugs are used for its
treatment.
• It is noteworthy that the use of aspirin is useful in heart attack. It is noteworthy that aspirin is a neurologically active drug,
often used as a pain reliever, antipyretic and anti-inflammatory.
• Blank Capsules used in drug delivery are made from starch, which dissolves easily in the stomach. As a result, the medicine
in the capsule reaches the body without any hindrance.
• Jaundice is a fatal disease in which the liver is mainly affected. In this disease, the liver cells are unable to take bilirubin
from the blood. Therefore, yellow bilirubin remains in the blood and spreads throughout the body. In this, the skin and
eyes turn yellow and the urine becomes yellowish-greenish. It should be noted that jaundice is not a contagious disease.
• BMD test is used to diagnose osteoporosis disease. Osteoporosis is a bone disease that increases the risk of fractures. In
this disease, the bone mineral density (BMD: Bone Mineral Density) is reduced and the bone micro-structure becomes
damaged.
• The first hour of a heart attack is known as the golden hour.
• Potassium controls the heartbeat and the functions of the vascular system. Meat, fish, cereals, fruits, vegetables etc. are
good sources of potassium (K). Phosphorus is essential for bone development. Iron deficiency causes anemia.
• Gold-198 is a radioactive isotope of gold, it is used in cancer treatment.
• Long-term fasting has the greatest effect on the kidneys.
• Radio-sodium is used to measure the speed of blood flow in the human body.

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• Madkau disease is a fatal disease affecting the brain of cattle. A disordered protein called prion present in the brain is the
cause of this disease.
• The word anthophobia is derived from the Greek language anthos and phobos, in which fear arises from flowers and
different parts of flowers such as clumps etc. Phobia is the fear of an incongruous and imaginary fear of an object or event.
• Bright's disease, also known as uremia, affects the kidneys in the body.
• In anosmia or olfaction or odor insensitivity, a person's sense of smell is destroyed.
• Minimata disease is caused by mercury poisoning. It has the greatest effect on the central nervous system.
• Excessive consumption of alcohol leads to liver fibrosis tissues cirrhosis or inflammatory disease of the liver. In this
disease, liver cells are largely destroyed and in their place fiber fibers are formed.
• After fertilization, the division starts in the zygote, and the morula, blastula and gastula are formed respectively.
• The male's sperm fertilizes the female's ovum in the fallopian tube.
• The process of gastula formation occurs in the third week and during this three initial germination stages are established.
The heart of a human embryo starts beating in the fourth to fifth week of its transformation.
• The third to eighth week of embryonic development is called the embryonic development period because it is the prime
time of organ development.
• The fruits of Amla (Indian Gooseberry) have medicinal properties. Vitamin C is found in abundance in it. Due to these
qualities, Amla is called "Doctor of the house".
• Mango, Banana, Apple, Grapes, Lemon and Guava are also useful fruits for good health and nutrition in daily life. Grapes are
also used to make wine.
• A chemical called azadirachtin is found in neem. This chemical has insecticidal and fungicide properties. From the point of
view of crop protection, neem is used to control the growth of pests.
• Various parts of neem are used to make medicines for skin diseases, parasitic diseases, contraceptives, malaria, smallpox,
asthma, etc., and to reduce the toxic effects of snakes, scorpions, etc.
• Jatropha, Karanja, Nagchampa, Neem etc. are the major plant species used in the production of bio-diesel. Bio-diesel is
obtained from the seeds of Jatropha or Ratanjot, which is used as a fuel.
• The country's first bio-diesel plant has been set up in Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh.
• The viable biofuel ethanol can be obtained from sugarcane and maize. Generally, sugarcane and sugar beet are used to
make sugar.
• Pinus girardiana is the botanical name of chilgoza pine. Chilgoza is rich in carbohydrates and proteins and is obtained from
pine seeds.
• The main mosquito repellent is derived from neem. Neem has medicinal properties. Antibiotic properties are found in basil
and turmeric.
• Brahmi is also called Jalnimb, because it is mainly found in waterlogged land. The effect of Brahmi mainly affects the brain.
Brahmi nourishes and stimulates the nerve cells and we feel energized.
• The botanical name of Karanja is Pongamia pinnata. It is also a major petro plant, which is used as a substitute for Jatropha.
• Tea, coffee and cocoa are the major beverages. Caffeine alkaloid is a psychoactive or brain stimulant drug, obtained mainly
from coffee seeds and tea leaves.
• Marine weeds are multicellular algae found in the bottom of the ocean. These are important sources of iodine.
• Cricket bats are made from willow wood, whose botanical name is Salix alba.
• Mulberry wood is used to make hockey sticks and cricket stumps. The scientific name of mulberry is Morus alba.
• The leaf extract of the Parthenium plant is used in the biosynthesis of nanoparticles. It is beneficial in cancer treatment.
• Saffron spice is made from the stigma of the flower of a plant called Saffron Crocus.
• Mainly citric acid and malic acid are found in tomato, due to which it acts as an antacid. Oxalic acid is also present in it, but
its amount is very less. Buckwheat flour is obtained from a plant called Fagopyrum esculentum. It is rich in carbohydrates
and proteins.
• Peppermint extract or menthol oil is obtained mainly by steam distillation of mint leaves. The botanical name of mint is
Mentha arvensis.
• The field of biology is very wide. Where on the one hand it strengthens our economy by providing knowledge of diseases
and their treatment methods in crops and animals.
• On the other hand, it provides a high standard of living to human beings by providing knowledge of excellent plants, drugs,
microorganisms and medical equipment and its usefulness.
• Argemone oil is commonly used for adulteration in mustard oil. Due to the adulteration of this oil, a disease called dropsy
occurs in humans.

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• Computed tomography or CT scan is a powerful non-fractional evaluation technique. Through this two-dimensional and
three-dimensional pictures of objects are taken. It uses X-rays. With this, the picture of the internal structure of an object
such as its dimensions, its size, its internal development and its density can be easily taken.
• Dentists use concave mirrors. Large concave mirrors are used in reflecting telescopes to photograph celestial objects, stars,
etc. They are also used to examine the internal parts of the ear, nose and throat.
• Chicory is derived from a wild herbal plant, which is found naturally growing along roadsides in Europe, North America
and Australia. Vanilla is obtained from trees of the vanilla orchid family.
• Sunflower oil is useful for heart patients, as the amount of fat in it is very less. Sunflower belongs to the Asteraceae family
and is an angiosperm plant that is used to make oil.
• Honey Bees is a social insect. It is useful in detecting landmines. A hive or colony consists of a queen bee, a few male bees
or drones, and a number of worker bees. We get honey and wax in its hive.
• It is to be noted that the honeycomb has a distinctive smell by which the members of the colony recognize each other. Karl
von Frisch was an Austrian zoologist. He did a detailed study of the communication system in bees and he explained it
successfully, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize for the year 1973.
• Myoglobin is a protein found in the muscle tissue of almost all mammals, generally vertebrates. Iron is its essential
component.
• Dingoes and Basenjis are subspecies of dogs that do not bark like normal dogs and produce a kind of chirping sound.
• The objective of Red Ribbon Express is to travel across the country to make people aware about the dangers of HIV/AIDS
disease and ways to prevent it, for which AIDS related exhibition is organized in it.
• The seven colors of the seven rainbows are depicted in Mission Indradhanush. This mission aims to cover all children who
are either not vaccinated or partially vaccinated against seven vaccine-preventable diseases by the year 2020.
• These seven vaccine preventable diseases include diphtheria, whooping cough, tetanus, polio, tuberculosis, measles and
hepatitis B.
• The world's largest convention on HIV/AIDS so far was held in Bangkok, the capital of Thailand, in July 2004.
• EEG (Electroencephalography) is the process of recording electrical activity generated in the brain.
• EOG (Electrooculography) is a technique for measuring the resting potential of the retina.
• EMG (Electromyography) is a technique of examining the health of a muscle and the nerves that control it.
• The audiogram is related to the ear. This is a graph that gives a detailed description of a person's hearing ability.
• The mammogram is related to the thorax. In this, breast imaging is done by X-rays, which gives information about various
diseases, mainly breast cancer.
• Diseases are identified in the inner part of the human body by an instrument called Endoscope.
• Tetraplegia refers to the paralysis of both hands and both legs. It is also called quadriplegia. Paraplegia in the lower part
of the body (including the legs) due to injury or disease is called paraplegia.
• Electron beam therapy is a type of external radiotherapy used to treat certain types of cancer.
• Trans fat is dangerous to human health, as it lowers levels of good HDL (High Density Liproprotein) and increases levels of
harmful LDL (Low Density Liproprotein).
• Sunflower oil is suitable for heart patients. Because the amount of fat in it is very less. Sunflower belongs to the Asteraceae
family and is an angiosperm plant. Which is used to make oil.
• Pheromones are chemicals that are released by insects. They work to attract opposite sex insects and determine the
nature.
• Bacillus thuringiensis is a Gram-positive bacterium commonly used as a biological pesticide.
• A yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae is used in the commercial production of ethanol.
• There are two eyes in the human body in the form of sense organs, which are located on either side of the nostrils.
Ophthalmology is a branch of medical science under which the structure, physiology and diseases and treatment of the
eyes are studied.
• In eye donation, transplantation of the cornea is done.
• Dr. Christian Bernard was a renowned surgeon from South Africa. He performed the first successful replacement or
transplant of a human heart.
• The function of the pace maker is to adjust the heartbeat. It is needed when the heart starts working at an abnormal rate.
• The crocodile species found in India have been included in the list of endangered species by the IUCN (International Union
for Conservation of Nature) and elephant is also in the list of endangered species.
• Silk filaments, hairs, nails are made up of keratin.
• Photoreceptor cells located in the human eye are most sensitive to light of wavelengths from 530 to 555 nanometers. The
eye's sensitivity to yellow and green is the highest.

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• Most of the animals with backbone have gall bladder but there are exceptions like horse, rat etc. Animals without a
backbone do not have gall bladders.
• A bitch named Laika was the first animal to be taken into Earth's orbit in space. It was sent into space by the Sputnik-2
spacecraft on November 3, 1957.
• SANRAKSHA organization is associated with AIDS Research and Control Project (Bangalore).
• Angora wool is obtained from the Angora rabbit.
• Established in the year 1992 as a division of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare of India, NACO (National AIDS
Control Organization) is involved in the conduct of HIV/AIDS control program in India.
• Termites are also called white ants.
• The Central Electrochemical Research Institute is located in Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu.
• High Security Animal Disease Laboratory is located in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh.
• The Survey of India Department is under the Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India.
• Bones are not found in shark fish. The skeletal system of shark fish is made up of cartilage.
• Panda is a species within the family Ursidae of Bear.
• Two bacteria found to be very useful in genetic engineering experiments are Escherichia coli and Agrobacterium.
• The sperms used for artificial insemination of cattle are stored in Liquid nitrogen.
• The transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of the same flower is called self-pollination or Autogamy.
• Earthworm is an animal without red blood corpuscles.
• Many of the well-known timber-producing plants, such as pine, fir, spruce, cedar, larch and cypress, are also found in the
hilly regions of India. All these are called gymnosperms.
• Mostly enzymes are proteins. In 1877, German physiologist Wilhelm Kühne first used the term enzyme. Enzymes are
biocatalysts made of proteins (except ribozymes). Enzymes are made of proteins, except for RNA modifying catalysts
known as ribozymes. Enzymes are divided into six classes- (1) Oxidreductases (2) Transferases (3) Hydrolases (4) Lysases
(5) Isomerases (6) Ligases
• All enzymes are protein by composition but all proteins are not enzymes.
• Chikungunya is caused by chikungunya virus which is an insect borne virus of genus Alphavirus. Its symptoms include high
fever, maculopapular rash, headache, etc.
• Vitamin-C is enough in guava fruits. Vitamin-C helps in strengthening of immunity, serves as an antioxidant and provides
relief in hypertension too.
• Thyroid gland in human body contains iodine. Deficiency of iodine creates goitre disease. It is characterised by the
enlargement of larynx.
Disease Part of Human Body Affected
Conjunctivitis Eyes
Dermatitis Skin
Gout Joints
Meningitis spinal cord
• Benzene (C6H6) is cause of bone marrow failure.
• Somatotrophin is produced by the anterior pituitary.
• Cowper's gland is related with reproductive system. Cowper's gland is the bulbourethal gland found in human males. They
are found in pair and secrete viscous secretion called pre-ejaculate that helps in coitus.
• Asthma is a chronic lung disease. It inflames and narrows the air ways. Tuberculosis is a lung disease caused by
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Workers in textile factories and carpet manufacturing units are the common sufferess of
asthma and tuberculosis.
• Airbag used for safety and protection of car driver contains sodium azide.
• The odour of garlic is due to allyl methyl sulphide.
• DNA fingerprinting includes the extraction and identification of the base pair pattern of an individual’s DNA. The
identification process of specific DNA sequences is carried out by Southern blotting.
• The human heart possesses four chambers, two superior atria and two inferior ventricles. The atria are receiving
chambers and ventricles are providing chambers. Left ventricle pumps fully oxygenated blood to aorta then to the body.
Right atrium gets deoxygenated blood from superior vena cava.
• Homeostatic regulation includes sweating. It is the main process through which the body gets coolness.
• Chloramphenicol affects bacteria which are resistant to all other medicine. Chloramphenicol is a prototypical broad
spectrum bacteria killing drug.

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• Cinchona bark creates quinine which is an anti- malarial drug. Poppy plant creates morphine which is an opium alkaloid, it
is a strong analgesic and also has sedative and soothing effect. Fungus and bacterium are the sources of antibiotics
penicillin and tetracycline respectively.
• The root nodules of gram plant contain symbiotic bacteria which is responsible for fixing nitrogen. So, gram is preferred
for mixed farming.
• Henna (Lawsonia inermis) is a flowering plant. It is used to dye skin, hair, fingernails, leather and wood. Colouring feature
of henna is due to lawsone, an organic compound that shows affinity for proteins and amino acids in animals.
• The stimulating nature of tea is due to alkaloid caffeine found in tea. Caffeine is bitter due to white crystalline xanthine
alkaloid.
• Sun is the primary source of vitamin D. The body can synthesise vitamin-D itself in presence of sunlight. Vitamin-D is
soluble in fat and assists the body to absorb calcium. Its deficiency can cause osteoporosis.
• Bougainvillea is popularly planted roadside for absorption of vehicular pollutants.
• Wine is an alcoholic beverage made from Beer is the oldest alcoholic beverage manufactured by brewing and enationaion
of cereal grains (e.g., barley). Whisky is a type of distilled alcoholic beverage produced from molasses. Rum is also a
distilled alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane’s juice.
• A milkman puts banana leaf in milkpot because leaf can make the milk basic and avoid yeast formation (fermentation).
Banana leaf has tryptophan which creats basicity.
• Tips of leaves in grasses and common garden plants exhibit water droplets in early morning hours because of a
atmospheric phenomenon of dew formation. Dew is produced due to condensation of atmospheric moisture.
• Vitamin-B is water soluble. Its over-dose is excreted out in urine, vitamin A, D, E and K are fat soluble therefore, they are
not excreted in urine.
• Progeria (pro means prior; geria means ageing) causes early ageing and the death of child occurs at the age of 12-13 years.
It is a progressive genetic disease and created due to the mutation in the LMNA gene.
• A pregnant woman requires an additional 400mg of folic acid daily during the first trimester of pregnancy. Green
vegetables are rich in folic acid because they contain folate.
• Mammalian digestive system do not secrete enzymes to digest cellulose, but the cellulose digesting bacteria present in the
rumen of cattles can digest the cellulose existing in fodder.
• Photochemical smog takes place in warm, dry and sunny climate. The word smog means 'smoke' and 'fog' means 'smoky
fog'. Its main components are created from the action of sunlight on unsaturated hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxide emitted
by automobiles and factories.
• The sprinkled salt dissolves in the water present on the moist skin of Earthworm and makes concentrated solution. The
body fluid, being hypotonic, diffuses out and the worm dies due to osmotic shock (water loss- dehydration).
• Exposure to microgravity in the environment of space results in the loss of calcium from the bones of astronauts. This loss
takes place due to absence of 'Earth gravity' which disrupts the process of bone maintenance. The calcium is excreted out
with urine.
• Transpiration is a process like evaporation part of the water cycle and it is the loss of water vapour from different parts of
plants, particularly in leaves but also in stems, flowers and roots.
• Due to lower atmospheric pressure, N2 gets mixed with O2 to form such oxide which is inhaled by the passengers or crew.
• If human blood becomes acidic (low pH), The amount of CO2, is increased and O2 carrying capacity of Haemoglobin is
reduced. Every year up to 65% changes are made in the course content.
• Blood is a viscous fluid in human being. This viscosity is due to presence of different proteins in blood.
• Deficiency of calcium causes weakening of bones because bone consists of calcium and phosphate both.
• Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder characterised by improper food restriction, inappropriate taking meal habits or
rituals, obsession with having a slim body, and an irrational fear of weight gain, and a distorted body self-perception.
• Marchantia belongs to group bryophytes. In bryophytes plants absorb water through general body surface and other
substances also. Bryophytes lack xylem and phloem Marsilea and fern belong to group pteridophytes having xylem tissue
for transport of water. Cycas belongs to gymnosperm also having xylem.
• The kidneys filter metabolic wastes, excess ions, and chemicals from the blood to form urine. The ureters are a pair of
tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. The urethra is the tube through which urine passes from
the bladder to the exterior of the body.
• Mushroom is not autoroph.
• In human digestive system the process of digestion starts in buccal cavity. The buccal cavity is more commonly known as
the mouth, and it is the beginning of the digestive system for humans and animals alike. It starts with the lips and ends
with the throat, covering the oral cavity, the tongue, and the jaw in between.

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• Genetic screening is a process through which analysis of gene is performed to find out defective gene causing a specific
disorder in a person.
• Paul Berg (1926), an American biochemist is considered as the father of genetic engineering. He evolved a technique to
join DNAS from two different organisms.
• Cobalt is an element taking part in the composition of Vitamin B12. It plays an important role in production of blood cells.
• Bone marrow is located within the bone cavities. It is composed of stromal cells and parenchymal cells. Neutrophils and
lymphocytes are blood cells which are produced within bone marrow.
• DOTS (Directly Observed Treatment, Short course) launched by WHO is a therapy for treatment of TB patient.
• The Artificial Insemination (AI) is the process in which a thin, flexible tube (Catheter) is used to put sperm artificially into a
woman's cervix.
• Insulin is a peptide hormone produced by beta cells in the pancreas and by Brockann body in some teleost fish.
• Good cholesterol refers to HDL (High Density Lipoprotein), Lipoproteins are complex particles composed of multiple type
of proteins.
• Dengue virus after infection, interferes the production of platelets in bone marrow, infects endothelial cells and bind with
platelets.
• Environmental changes affect the entire world and influence all organisms. Amphibians are one of the most sensitive
groups to change, whether that is caused by habitat loss, invasive species, disease, trade or climate change. Nearly 33% of
the amphibian species of the world are categorized as threatened on the Red List. Furthermore, given their complex life
cycles and other traits, amphibians are often recognized as indicators of ecosystem health.
• Fluorine deficiency is a disorder which may cause increased dental caries (or tooth decay, which is the breakdown of
dental tissues by the acidic products released by the "bacterial fermentation of dietary carbohydrates.") and possibly
osteoporosis (a bone disorder which leads to a decrease in bone mass, and an increase in bone fragility), due to a lack of
fluoride in the diet.
• Altitude sickness is a disorder caused at high altitude due to low partial pressure of oxygen. Symptoms of altitude sickness
include weakness, sleepiness, and lack of appetite.
• The process by which the genetic information in a strand of DNA is copied into a new molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA)
is termed as transcription. It is carried out by an enzyme called RNA polymerase and a number of accessory proteins called
transcription factors.
• Heart beat originates from sinoatrial node, a group of cells situated in the upper part of the right atrium wall. The electrical
impulses causing the heart beat are generated in sinoatrial node. Hepatic portal system comprises hepatic portal vein and
veinlets.
• Silk is a fibre produced by the silkworm in production of its cocoon. It consists mainly of two proteins, fibroin and sericin.
Silk consists of 70-80% fibroin and 20-30% sericin; fibroin being the structural center of the silk, and sericin being the
gum coating the fibres and allowing them to stick to each other.
• Starch is a polymer of α-glucose (alpha-glucose) and consists of two components-amylose and amylopectin. Glycogen is a
polymer of 1000 glucose units. Cellulose is a linear polymer of β-D-glucose. Natural rubber is an addition polymer that is
obtained as a milky white fluid known as latex from a tropical rubber tree. Natural rubber is obtained from the monomer
isoprene (2-methyl-1,3-butadiene), which is a conjugated di-ene hydrocarbon
• Kidney directly controls water content of blood. Kidneys purify the blood by removing toxins from it, and in doing this
water is excreted along with these toxins. Potassium and sodium elements are involved in the process.
• Adipocytes are cells which are derived from multipotential mesenchymal cells; their main role is to store energy in the
form of lipids to cushion and insulate the body from the outer environment.
• Colostrum is the first form of milk produced by the mammary glands immediately following delivery of the newborn.
Colostrum is known to contain immune cells (as lymphocytes) and many antibodies such as IgA, IgG and IgM. These are
some of the components of adaptive immune system.
• Salamander belongs to group Amphibia, which shows 3 chambered heart (two auricles and one ventricle). In the 3
chambered heart, partial mixing of blood takes place. All amphibians have three chambered heart.
• Energy is usually liberated from the ATP molecule to do work in the cell by a reaction that removes one of the phosphate-
oxygen groups, leaving adenosine diphosphate (ADP). so the energy currency of the cell is ATP.
• Salivary amylase, present in saliva, is the first digestive enzyme that gets mixed with food in oral cavity during the process
of mastication and bolus formation.
• Endocrineglands are a pair of testis in males and a pair of ovaries in females. Pituitary gland is the master gland that
regulates the activity of other endocrine glands. Hence, pituitary gland does not exist in pairs.
• The three organelles that contain DNA are the nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts.

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Important Oneliner Questions of Biology in tabular form

Question Answer
Lichens, which are capable of initiating ecological succession even on a bare rock, are Algae and fungi
actually symbiotic associations of?
Litmus acid base indicator is obtained from - Lichen
From where is iodine obtained? Laminaria
Which is known as 'Pond Silk'? Spirogyra
What is the reason for the growth of algae? Nutrition
In which major stage is the Gametophyte? Bryophyta
The edible part of onion is- Concentric Fleshy
In which form food is stored in onions? Cellulose
What is a true fruit denoted by? When only the ovary of a flower
develops into a fruit.
What is the arrangement of leaves on an axis or stem called? phyllotaxis
Plants climb up by extension
From the point of view of life cycle, the most important part of the plant is- Flowers
Hermaphrodite flowers are related to? they have both stamens and carpels
Which is the useful part of cauliflower plant? fresh flower arrangement
What is pollination by wind called? Anemophily
The process of pollination done by birds is also known as ……………. ornithophily
What are the seeds of flowering plants made of? Cotyledon
What is the formation of an embryo in an egg without fertilization called? Parthenogenesis
Gametes – What is formed as a result of fusion? Diploid zygote
Coriander contains useful components- leaves and dried fruits
The bark of this tree is used as a spice. Cinnamon
Which part of the plant is used to make saffron spice? Stigma
Which fiber is not a product of plant stem? Cotton
Opium is obtained from – Latex from unripe fruit
Which wood is used to make cricket bats? Salix Purpurea
How does water move up in vascular plants? Xylem
What happens due to the presence of xylem in plants? Water transport
Phloem in plants is mainly responsible for - The transport of food substances
Which technique is used to find out the age of a tree in years? Counting the number of tree rings
From whom is cork of commercial value obtained? Quercus
The green color of the leaves is due to the presence of? Chlorophyll
Magnesium is a component metal of? Chlorophyll
Which element is helpful in making chlorophyllin plants? Mg
The green colored substance that photosynthesises in plants is called? Chlorophyll
The process of preparing plant and tree food is called – Photosynthesis
From what do plants get energy to make food? Sun
By whom is the maximum compounding of solar energy done? Green plants
Where does most of the photosynthetic activity take place? in the blue and red regions of light
Which light is the least effective in photosynthesis? Green light
Which light is most effective in photosynthesis? Red
Photosynthesis takes place in- in the chloroplast
The end product of photosynthesis is- Carbohydrates

Which gas is necessary for photosynthesis? carbon dioxide (CO2)

Which process removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere? Photosynthesis
What is the name of the gas released during photosynthesis? oxygen
The oxygen released during photosynthesis comes from the fission of? Water
Why is oxygen released during photosynthesis? Photolysis of water

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If the vegetation (plants) found on the earth ends, then which gas will be lacking? Oxygen
In the process of 'photosynthesis', 'light energy' changes into- Chemical energy
Which is mainly used to prepare the storage of food grains (Starch) in plants? Carbon dioxide and water
At which stage of photosynthesis is glucose formed? Calvin Cycles
Which organelle mediates the breakdown of pyruvate into CO2, H2O and energy in Mitochondria
plants?
By what is energy transferred from the light reaction to the dark reaction? ATP
What is the evaporation of water from the leaves of plants called? Transpiration
The wilting of plants is due to …………. Transpiration
Which of the plant structures is responsible for transpiration? Stoma
What is called anaerobic respiration? respiration without oxygen
What are the elements known as primary nutrients for plants? Nitrogen, Phosphorus and
Potassium
Which element is not essential for plant growth? Sodium
The plants receive Nitrogen in form of, that is - Nitrate
Which crop enriches the soil with nitrogen? peas
Which plants have the ability of nitrogen fixation? gram and other pulses
Uses of Oxanometer- to measure growth rate
Which is a plant hormone? cytokinin
Which one chemical is generally used by farmers to destroy weeds? 2,4 –D
Dwarf plants can be made taller by the application of cytokinin
______________ is a group of chemicals that affect cell division and plant formation. cytokinin
Which is a natural fruit ripening hormone? Ethylene
Pip growth regulators are small simple molecules of different chemical structures. What Indole compounds, adenine,
are these? derivatives, carotenoids and
terpenes
Red rot of sugarcane is caused by what? Colletotrichum falcatum
What causes the damp down disease of the plant? Pium dibarianum
'Karnal bunt' is a disease of- of wheat
The deficiency of which causes white bud disease in plants? Zinc
The deficiency of which element causes the disease of paddy? Zinc
Which bacteria causes 'Crown gall disease' disease in plants? Agrobacterium tumefaciens
Who coined the word "Ecology"? Ernst heckel
What is the scientific analysis and study of the interaction between organisms and the Ecology
environment called?
What is the study of the relationship of animals and plants with their surrounding Ecology
environment called?
Ecology is the study of mutual relations between organisms and environment
Who defined the concept of ecosystem? Arthur Tansley
Which one is the best description of the term 'ecosystem'? the community of organisms as well
as the environment in which they
live
Which is not true about ecosystem? it is a closed system
What are the two components of ecosystem? organic and inorganic
Flora and Fauna means - plants and animals
Which is an artificial ecosystem? paddy field
What is the difference between primary consumers and secondary consumers in a food Primary consumers eat only plants,
chain? secondary consumers eat plants
and other consumers.
In the food chain, humans are- primary and secondary consumers
When we eat goat or sheep meat, we- are secondary consumers
Who make up the food chain? grass, goat and human
Where is competition for food, light and space most severe? closely related species growing in
the same area or niche

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Which is the correct sequence in the ecosystem in the order of decreasing productivity? Mangroves, Grasslands, Lakes, Seas
Which work disturbs the ecological balance? deforestation
Which one is the main reason for ecological imbalance in India? Deforestation
Which tree is popularly known as 'Green Gold', but which is ecologically disastrous? Eucalyptus
Who is not an ecological friend? Eucalyptus
Which means re-establishment of forests either naturally or artificially? Reforestation
Maximum stabilization of solar energy is done by? Green plants
What provides maximum oxygen? Phytoplankton mass
The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere remains relatively constant because it is plants
released by
Which shows unidirectional flow in an ecosystem? energy
Which of the energy sources is best for keeping the environment clean? solar cell
'Red Data Book' is published by IUCN
For the protection and conservation of endangered or rare species, they are said to be Ex-situ conservation
taken from their natural habitat to some other system areas.
The most correct description of the biosphere reserve is- Sustainable Development Study Site
The main feature of biological hotspot is- Some species currently on the
verge of extinction
What is the meaning of ECOTONE? ecotone is where two biomasses
meet
On which day the World Environment Day is celebrated? June 5
In which year was the first World Environment Day celebrated? 1973 AD
Where is the headquarter of United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)? Nairobi
Where is the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute located? Nagpur
Forest Research Institute is located at – Dehradun
Where is the headquarter of Botanical Survey of India? Kolkata
What is the full form of NGT? National Green Tribunal
Which is an example of anthropogenic biome? Crop Land
Which naturally occurring greenhouse gas has the greatest greenhouse effect? CO2
Which is the unit to measure the thickness of the ozone layer of the atmosphere? Dobson
Where is the ozone hole found in the atmosphere located? Over Antarctica
The ozone layer present in the atmosphere absorbs- to ultraviolet rays
What happens due to the depletion of ozone layer? skin cancer
Which rays damage the skin? uv rays
What is present in the atmosphere when there is no ozone layer? ultraviolet
Which gas is responsible for global warming? carbon dioxide and methane
Which is likely to have less impact on global warming? reduction in the rate of
photosynthesis in plants
Combustion of coal, petrol diesel etc. is the basic source of? air pollution
Sulfur dioxide pollution is an indicator of excessive increase in which of the following? lichens
Afforestation is one way to reduce the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the Trees act as a carbon sink
atmosphere because -
It is said that the Taj Mahal is suffering from 'marble cancer'. What is this marble Acid rain which corrodes marble.
cancer?
Which one air pollutant combines with the Haemoglobin of a human reducing its ability carbon monoxide
to carry oxygen, leading to asphyxia and even death?
The presence of pollutants in the environment is generally expressed in ppm, here what parts per million
is the full form of 'ppm'?
What is the full form of Index SPM in pollution? Suspended particulate Matter
In the context of air pollution, what does PM stand for? particulate matter
What does CER refer to in the context of environmental studies? Certified Emission Reduction
What is 'Peroxyacetyl Nitrate' (PAN)? secondary pollutant
…………. means fog which has become polluted by mixing with smoke? smog

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Earth Summit was held in- in Rio-de-Janeiro

What is Kyoto Protocol? It is an agreement between
The validity of this study material is only till the year 2024, do not read it after countries to take measures to
that. reduce global warming.
In which year did the Kyoto Protocol come into force? 2005 AD
What is the 'Montreal Protocol' related to? halting the depletion of the ozone
layer
Where was the first protocol to ban chloro-fluorocarbon emissions in the atmosphere Montreal
made?
Which major decision was taken in the Montreal Conference in 1987? Developed countries to completely
ban CFC production by 2000
Excessive use of fertilizers is caused by- soil pollution, water pollution, air
pollution
Which is not a cause of water pollution? shore fishing
The presence of coliform in drinking water supply is a symptom of. contamination from human waste
Which weed can control water pollution caused by industrial effluents? parthenium
What is ensured by the use of chloramine in a water treatment plant? removal of permanent hardness
Iron and manganese present as pollutants in water cannot be removed by chlorination
Which is the treatment of water pollution? reverse osmosis
Noise above which level of noise causes ear pain and damage? about 130 decibels
Which is not an effect of noise pollution? ozone depletion
Which is not an effect of noise pollution? skin disease
Persistent organic pollutants are mostly transported by air and water
……………waste consists of an organic waste. vegetable peels
Which is not an environment friendly way of producing electricity? thermal power
What is the cause of biomagnification (or bioaccumulation)? organo-chlorine
Which problem is not related to environment? Afforestation
Chernobyl catastrophe is the result of whose pollution? radioactive waste
What is solid waste also known as? Sludge
Which one is most sensitive to environmental change? amphibian
Which language is used in standard zoological nomenclature? Latin
Which is an example of a unicellular organism? protozoa
Amoeba belongs to .......... species. protozoa
Its mode of nutrition is holophytic. Euglena
Which animal does not have blood, but they breathe? Hydra
Which organism does not reproduce by budding? Annelida
'Pheromones' are generally produced by- by insects
How do most insects respire? by ventilation
Spiders belong to which species? Arthropoda
In which class of animal classification do spiders come? arachnids
How many pairs of eyes do spiders have? 4
Who has the maximum number of legs? Millipede
Crabs come under ……… species. Arthropoda
From where do male mosquitoes take food? plant fluid
These are saguvores - SCSGYAN Mosquito
On which the silkworm thrives, they are- Mulberry leaves
How is silk produced? from silkworm pupa
Rearing of silkworms is called- Sericulture
Cockroach cannot survive in water because its respiratory organ is- trachea
Which has an open vascular system? Cockroach
Which animal belongs to the Mollusc family? Snail
Which animal belongs to Mollusca? heliotis
Octopus is a- parenchyma

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What is the color of octopus blood? Blue

Which is the vertebrate animal? Kiwi
In which homodont teeth are found? Fish
Which is the most poisonous fish? Puffer Fish
The insectivorous fish used for the control of mosquitoes is- Gambusia
Where do fish breathe? Gill
Why can't fish survive in distilled water? Osmosis dilutes the body fluids of
the fish
Amphibia are- animals that can live on both land
and water
Which animal breathes through its skin? frog
Due to the presence of which chameleon changes colour? chromophore
Ellipdae naja is the scientific name of ……………. cobra
The only snake that builds a nest is- King Cobra
Dinosaurs were Mesozoic reptiles
Archaeopteryx is archaic bird of the jurassic era
Which of the flying creatures does not come in the bird class (Aves)? Bat
Where is the penguin bird found? Antarctica
Where is Kiwi bird found? New zealand
Which is the smallest bird? Humming bird
Which is the largest living bird on earth? ostrich
Which is the only bird that flies backwards? humming bird
Which living bird lays the world's smallest egg? humming bird
Which one maintains a constant temperature under changing environmental Bird
conditions?
The most important reason for the scarcity of vultures in India is- give pain relievers to animals
Which one animal is a mammal? platypus
Which organism lays eggs and apparently does not give birth to children? Echidna
Which mammalian animal lays eggs? platypus
Which is an egg laying mammal? Monotreme
Which is the egg-laying mammal? Spiny anteater
Which is the largest mammal? blue whale
Which are the warm blooded animals? blue whale
Which animal gives birth to the biggest child? blue whale
Which is the fastest land animal in the world? Tiger
Which is the warm blooded animal? Bat
Dolphins are classified as- Mammals
Who is the national aquatic animal of India? Gangetic Dolphin
…………….is the most intelligent mammal on earth. Dolphin
Which was the first successful cloned animal? Sheep
What is Siberian Ibex? big and heavy goats
Which one is the biggest monkey? Gorilla
The smallest human-like ape is- Gibbon
Which option is an example of marsupials? Kangaroo
What is the meaning of the scientific name of humans, homo sapiens? large brain hominid
The earliest hominoids to be classified as Homo sapiens were ………. Cro-magnon
Which part is the outermost part of the human skin? epidermis
What is the outermost layer of skin in the human body called? Epidermis
What is the tissue that connects muscle to bone called? Tendon
Blood is- a connective tissue
Which is not a connective tissue? skeletal muscle
Lymph is present in- vascular tissue
Where does blood formation take place? bone marrow

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How much blood is there in a normal adult person? 5-6 liters

What is the approximate value of pH of human blood? 7.4
The normal Haemoglobin content per 100 ml of blood for an adult male is- 14.5 grams
Plasma, which is a component of blood, is a fluid
The percentage of water in plasma is- 90 percent
The ion which is not present in the blood plasma is- Cu+
In which part of our body are red blood cells (RBCs) made? Bone marrow
What is the life span of human red blood cells? 120 days
Which is called the graveyard of RBC? spleen
How many types of white blood cells are there? 5
What is the main purpose of white cells in the blood? To fight infection
white blood cells in blood protect the body from infection
The main function of white blood cell (WBC) is- Bear immunity
The main function of white blood cells (WBCs) in the body is- protect the body against diseases
How are antibodies made? from Lymphocytes
The color of blood is red due to the presence of? Haemoglobin
Which metal is present in Haemoglobin? iron
The function of Haemoglobin in human body is- transporting oxygen.
Which is correct with respect to blood platelets? They are also called thrombocytes.
By what is fibrinogen converted to fibrin? thrombin
‘Neutrophils' and 'lymphocytes' originate from - from bone marrow
Human blood platelets release ………… which helps in clotting of blood. prothrombin
Which is the anti-coagulant substance in the blood? heparin
Due to the presence of which the blood does not coagulate inside the body? heparin
The bleeding time and clotting time of normal human blood are ......... and ......... 2-7 and 3-10 minutes
respectively.
The discoverer of blood group is- Karl Landsteiner
Who invented the AB, O blood group system? Karl Landsteiner
The 'RH' factor took its name from which animal? Monkey
A person of AB blood group is called universal recipient because- antibodies are not found in his
blood
In AB blood group - Antibodies are not found
A person with AB blood group- can take blood from any group
If the blood group of a man is AB and the blood group of a woman is B, then which blood O
group cannot be present in their children?
If a father's blood group is A and the mother's blood group is O, then what can be the O
blood group of their son?
If the blood group of a father and mother are A and O respectively, then which blood B
group is not possible in their child?
If the blood group of both the parents is AB, then the possible blood groups of their A, B and AB
children will be-
If the blood group of one of the parents is AB and that of the other is O, then the possible A or B
blood group of their child will be-
A person with type B blood can donate blood to a person with type B blood in an AB or B
emergency.
A person with blood group O can receive blood from persons of which blood group? O only
Which blood group is the universal donor for human blood transfusion? O group

Which blood group has universal acceptance? AB

human body temperature SCSGYAN neither decreases in winter nor
increases in summer
In which tissue of human there is no cell division after birth? nerve
The food that provides instant energy to an athlete is- glucose
What are the two known sources of food protein in abundance? soybeans and peanuts

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Most protein is found in- in soybeans

Which is the best source of protein? Groundnut
Which is the main protein found in milk? Casein
The white color of milk is due to the presence of Casein
The color of cow's milk is slightly yellow due to the presence of Carotene
A person takes a diet of rice and a vegetable made of potatoes only. Whose inferiority is proteins and fats
he likely to suffer from?
Which group of compound is called 'helper food factor'? vitamins
Which are the fat soluble vitamins? Calciferol, carotene, tocopherol
Which is not a fat soluble vitamin? Vitamin B and C
Which vitamin is water soluble? Vitamin B and Vitamin C
Vitamin A is also known as ……………. retinol
Which is the highest source of Vitamin A? Carrot
Which one is the richest source of Vitamin A? Mango
Vitamin-A is stored in the human body- in the liver
'Golden Rice' is an abundant source of- Vitamin A
Which vitamin provides immunity? A
Which disease is caused by the deficiency of Vitamin-A? night blindness
Outbreak of xerophthalmia in humans is due to deficiency of which vitamin? Vitamin A
Another name of Vitamin B2 is- Riboflavin
Which vitamin contains nitrogen? Vitamin B
Which disease is caused by the deficiency of Niacin – which is a vitamin of B-complex pellagra
group?
Pellagra and scurvy are caused by the deficiency of which vitamins respectively? Vitamin B3 and Vitamin C
Which metal ion is present in Vitamin B12? cobalt
Bleeding of gums, loss of teeth, brittleness of bones and delay in wound healing are Vitamin C
caused by the deficiency of which vitamin?
Deficiency of which vitamin causes scurvy? Vitamin C
Which is the best source of Vitamin C? Gooseberry
Which of the vitamins is helpful for wound healing? vitamin c
'Cholecalciferol' is the common name of the chemical compound - Vitamin D
Which vitamin helps in the absorption of calcium? Vitamin D
Deficiency of which causes rickets? Vitamin D
If a person is suffering from Rickets, then the person is deficient in- Vitamin D
Vitamin D is maximum in ........... SCSGYAN cod liver oil
Cod liver oil obtained from fish is rich in which vitamin? Vitamin D
Which is such a vitamin that when consumed in excessive amounts, they get stored in A and D
the body and cause fatal effects?
This vitamin tocopherol is- E
Which is a good source of Vitamin E? fresh vegetables
Who is the important source of Vitamin-E? wheat-germ oil
Vitamin K has a special role in the synthesis of? prothrombin
Which one of the vitamins is involved in the clotting of blood? (Alpha-Alpha is a good Vitamin K
source of vitamin K.)
Which compound is not a vitamin? Thyroxine
What causes Kwashiorkar's disease in children? Sufficient amount of carbohydrate
and fat in the diet, but lack of
protein
Which are needed for bone and teeth formation? calcium and phosphorus
Which vitamin is easily destroyed by heat? ascorbic acid
The main use of salt in diet is- produce small amounts of
This study material is not valid after the year 2024, after which it will become hydrochloric acid needed for the
outdated. digestion of food

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Which disease is caused due to deficiency of iodine? goiter

Goitre is caused by the deficiency of? iodine
Anemia is caused by what? RBC deficiency
Which disease is caused due to iron deficiency? Anemia
Iron deficiency is a disease caused by inhaling what? Iron dust
Why are pregnant women advised to include adequate amounts of green leafy They are a rich source of folic acid,
vegetables in their diet, especially in the first trimester? which is essential for DNA
synthesis.
Which food source is the best source of iron? apple
For what is the need of calcium? blood clotting, muscle function,
bone development
Which one is not a rich source of calcium? Carrot
Why is organic food considered better for human consumption? It is grown without the use of
chemicals and synthetic pesticides.
How is the energy obtained from food measured? calories
How many calories do you get from drinking a glass of water? Zero
Which compounds are necessary for enzymes to function properly? vitamins
How does food pass through the process into the esophagus? ingestion
The contraction and expansion of the walls of the food pipe is called …………… motion. peristalsis
In what is food usually digested? small intestine
What is the sigmoid colon a part of? large intestine
Duodenum is a part of ………. Small intestine
Enzyme is protein
Enzyme is a Biocatalyst
Which of the following are in a series of enzymes? Amino acids
Which one is not a digestive enzyme in the human system? Gastrin
Saliva helps in digestion of what? starch
Bile juice is produced in which part of the body? liver
Bile accumulates- gall bladder
The fat-digesting enzyme lipase is secreted by? pancreas
Hydrolysis of fat by lipase gives- fatty acids and glycerol
X acid is produced in the human stomach, which helps in the digestion of food. Which is hydrochloric acid
that X acid?
Which is not secreted by the stomach as a component of gastric juice? sulphuric acid
The acidic semi-digested food coming out of the stomach is neutralized by? bile juice
Which is the major end product of carbohydrate digestion? glucose
When hungry, a person first uses his- glycogen
Which enzyme is involved in the digestion of proteins inside the stomach? pepsin
Lungs are the primary organs of ........... respiration
Where does the oxygenated blood from the lungs come? left atrium
What is released in human respiration? Carbon dioxide
Which organ is not a part of the human excretory system? Uterus
Which organ performs an important function of excretion in mammals? kidneys
In which part of the human body are the sweat glands present? skin
Which part of the body is related to the purification of blood? kidneys
The functional unit of kidney is- nephron
.................converts ammonia into urea in humans. Liver
Where is urea manufactured? Liver
Where is the highest concentration of urea found? in the hepatic vein
Which substance is found in normal urine? Creatinine
The yellow colour of urine is due to the presence of - pigment urochrome.
Due to the presence of which pigment, the color of human faeces is yellow? Urovelin
Sweating cools the body because –SCSGYAN Latent heat is required for

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vaporization
Which cells of the human body have the least regenerative power? brain cells
How much does the human brain weigh? about 2 percent of total body
weight
Which part of the human brain is the center of smell, intelligence, memory and Cerebrum
emotions?
Which part of the human brain is the center of hunger, thirst and sleep? hypothalamus
Regulates body temperature- hypothalamus
With which part of the brain is motor skills related? frontal part
Which part of the brain plays an important role in motor control? cerebellum
What is related to the decoding and interpretation of visual information in the brain? Inferior temporal lobes
Where is the control center of reflex actions located? in the spinal cord
What is the background of balance? cerebellar balance
The brain is responsible for- to think, to control heart rate, to
balance the body
Respiration is controlled by which part of the brain? medulla oblongata
The number of chambers in the human heart is- Four
The average rate of heart beat in a normal person is- 72
Why is the pulse rate of the human body checked? To check the functioning of the
heart
What increases the speed of heart beat? sympathetic nerve
In the human wrist the pulse pulses- at the same rate as the heart
Who is the scientist who explained blood circulation for the first time? William Harvey
The work of pace maker is- initiate heartbeat
What causes heart attack? lack of blood supply to the heart
Which is the largest artery in the human body? Aorta
Arteries carry blood, which is filled with- oxygen
Impure blood is circulated by pulmonary artery
Which blood vessels carry clean blood from the lungs to the heart? pulmonary vein
The blood bank of human body is called …………. spleen
Why is the presence of air bubbles in the blood stream dangerous for life? obstruction of blood flow
The process of purification of blood in the human body is called- dialysis
The pressure exerted by blood on whose walls is called blood pressure? of arteries
When a person gets old, normally his blood pressure- decreases
What is the normal blood pressure in an adolescent human? 120/80 mmhg
Which of the instruments is used to measure blood pressure? sphygmomanometer
In which sphygmomanometer measures the blood pressure? arteries
The normal fasting blood glucose level in humans per 100 ml of blood is- 80-100 mg%
The normal level of cholesterol in human blood is- 140-180 mg%
The number of bones in an adult human body is- 206
Approximately how many bones are there in a newborn baby? 300
How many bones are there in the human skull? 8
How many pairs of ribs are there in the human body? 12
How many pairs of nerves emerge from the spinal cord in humans? 31
The human spinal column is made up of ………… bones. 33
What is the number of teeth that can be reestablished in humans? 20
The longest bone in the human body is - Femur
Which is the longest and strongest bone in the human body? Femur
What is the smallest bones in the human body ? Stapes
The bones of the legs in the human body are- Fibula and Tibia
How are the two bones connected together in the human body? from ligaments
Vertebrae are part of what in the human body? spinal cord
Which is not an axial bone? shoulder

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How many muscles are there in our body? 639

Where are involuntary muscles located in a human body? heart
How many muscles are used to control the eyeball? Six
In which one of the parts of the human body does the sperm fertilize the egg? fallopian tubes
In the process of 'artificial insemination', which is inserted into the uterus of a woman? only sperm
Which situation correctly represents the phenomenon of 'test tube baby'? When fertilization is external and
development is internal
Amniocentosis is a method which tells- the sex of the fetus
Which organ is not a gland? gall bladder
Which is the largest gland in the human body? Liver
Which is the largest endocrine gland in the human body? Thyroid
Which is the smallest endocrine gland in the human body? pituitary
Where is the place of 'thyroid gland'? Throat
What is the function of Thyroid? Control of metabolism
Which hormone is not secreted by the thyroid gland? Thymosine
Which is called master gland? pituitary
Where is the pituitary gland located in the body? In the base of the brain
Which hormone is not secreted by the Pituitary Gland? somatostatin
Growth hormone is produced by- by the pituitary gland
The gland in the human body that secretes both enzymes and hormones pancreas gland
Which gland secretes insulin? pancreas
Which hormone is essential for the uptake of glucose by cells in the human body? Insulin
Which hormone controls the amount of blood sugar? Insulin
What are the cells of the pancreas that produce insulin called? Islets of langerhans
Where are the islets of Langerhans found in the human body? Pancreas
insulin- raises blood sugar
Insulin is protein
Which gland secretes sex hormones? Adrenal gland
Which is the emergency hormone in humans? Adrenaline
Blood pressure in human body is controlled by- from the thymus gland
What are the hormones produced by the thymus gland called? Thymosin
Which of the hormones in the human body regulates blood calcium and phosphate? Parathyroid hormone
Example of hormone is- oxytocin
Which is the antidiuretic hormone? Vasopressin
Prostate is a …………… in the human body. Gland
Where is the lacrimal gland located? Orbital part of the Lacrimal gland
Where is the meibomian gland located? Eye
The sweat glands in mammals are basically related to- With temperature regulation
Which is the female hormone? Estrogen
Which hormone plays a role in the secretion of milk from the mammary glands? Oxytocin
The human newborn is fed the first secretion from the mammary gland, which is called Immunity
colostrum. Colostrum provides ………….
Which is the largest organ in humans? skin
Against what does the fat under the surface of the skin act as a barrier in our body? body heat loss
'Vermiform 'Appendix' is a - vestigial organ
Energy is needed to maintain life, by which one process energy is obtained? metabolism
Which biotransformation provides maximum energy to the human body? ADP-ATP
What is the study of Genetics? heredity and variance
By whom the science of heredity was called genetics? W. Watson
Who is considered the 'Father of Modern Genetics'? Gregor Mendel
Who proposed the laws of heredity? SCSGYAN Gregor Mendel
What constitutes a 'gene'? Polynucleotides
Name the person associated with coining the word 'gene'? Johansson

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Gene is- A part of DNA

A color blind man marries a normal woman. Symptoms of color blindness will arise, his- sons of daughters
Sequence-base change within a gene is called- mutation
Which is the idea that new species have evolved due to sudden and unexpected changes mutation
in their defining characteristics?
The theory of mutation was proposed by Hugo De Vries
The basis of DNA finger-printing is- DNA polymorphism
Which technique is used by the forensic department to identify the criminal? DNA fingerprinting
DNA fingerprinting technique is used for the detection of disputed parentage
What is a pair of opposing characteristics that control similar characteristics called? Allele
Who first explained biological evolution? Lamarck
In the context of biological evolution, loss of limbs in snakes is explained- due to use and disuse of organs
By whom was the theory of evolution proposed? Charles Darwin
What is the process of creating a better adapted environment for living and for more Natural selection
procreation by organisms called?
In which book did the famous evolutionist Charles Darwin propound his theory? the origin of species
Who ‘Propounded the theory 'survival of the fittest' Darwin
If a human disease spreads over a large area of the world, then what is it called? Epidemic
What is an organism that transmits diseases from one person to another called? vector
By what name is 'White Plague' commonly known? Tuberculosis disease
What is BCG vaccination for? Tuberculosis
For which disease is the treatment called 'dots' done? Tuberculosis
What does P refer to in DPT vaccine? pertussis
What type of vaccine is there in DPT vaccine? a combined vaccine
Leprosy bacillus was discovered by- H. Armauer Hansen
Leprosy is also known as ……………. SCSGYAN Hansen disease
AIDS is caused by which of the following ? Virus
The cause of AIDS is Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). HIV infection is usually transmission of contaminated
transmitted through? blood and products
AIDS virus affects the growth of? Haemoglobin
How does the HIV virus weaken a person's immunity? by destroying lymphocytes
The most tried medicine for AIDS virus is- Zidovudine (AZT)
Western blot is a diagnostic test for …………. H.I. V.
In which year was India removed from the list of polio endemic countries by the World 2012
Health Organization (WHO)?
What is break bone fever commonly called? Dengue
Dengue fever is a mosquito-borne tropical disease caused by dengue virus. breakbone feature
What is deficient in the human body in dengue fever? of platelets
Yellow fever mainly spreads among humans through? female mosquito bite
Jaundice is caused by whose infection? liver
Jaundice disease increases the quantity in the blood of- bilirubin
Hepatitis affects which part of the human body? liver
Which type of pathogen causes water borne disease Hepatitis-A? viral
Hepatitis B is an infectious disease that affects the liver, caused by virus
Who does meningitis affect? Brain
Which is an acute viral disease of animals, which is transmitted to humans through the rabies
bite of an infected animal?
This study material is only for UPPSC RO/ARO PRE RE-Exam, do not read it for any other exam.
H1N1 is caused by - Virus
Which is bird flu virus, also known as avian flu virus? H5N1

Japanese encephalitis is caused by- Virus

By whom is Zika virus transmitted to humans? Mosquito
Zika virus known to cause neurological congenital disorders is spread by? from mosquito bites

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Which mosquito is the carrier of Zika virus? Aedes

Zika virus affects which part of the human body? Brain
Zika virus that damages the brain of the fetus is carried by ……………. Mosquito
‘What do you understand by the term 'Ebola'? A viral disease outbreak in West
Africa
‘What causes the disease called 'athlete's foot'? fungus
Ringworm disease is caused by …………. fungus
What is the disease of herpes? Fungal
The presence of which in high level causes diabetes? Glucose
Malfunction of which part of the body leads to outbreak of diabetes? pancreas
A person suffering from diabetes needs- insulin
Who invented the hormone insulin used for the treatment of diabetes? F G. Banting
Cell growth and differentiation in human body are highly controlled and regulated, but Deterioration of these regulatory
in cancer cells - mechanisms leads to the formation
of benign and malignant tumors.
_____ is done to check for cancer tissue. biopsy
If someone is suffering from cancer, to whom should he be shown? tumor specialist
Dialysis is done in the treatment of which diseases? kidney failure
Which is not generally a cause of cancer? transmission
Which is used in the treatment of cancer? chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is given for the treatment of which disease? cancer
Which is not generally classified as a blood cancer? carcinoma
'Blood cancer' is commonly known as - leukemia
Leukemia is a type of cancer in which there is an abnormal increase in- in the number of white blood cells
Which is used in the treatment of blood cancer? cobalt-60
Leukemia is a type of human disease, which is known as - Cancer of the white blood cells.
Which condition becomes due to the increase of RBC in the blood? polysathemia
Malaria is related to- Fever
Which stage of malarial parasite is infective? Sporozoite
is a carrier of sleeping sickness - Tse-Tse fly
With whom is the communication of 'Kalazar'? phlebotomine sandflies
Which metal causes itai-itai disease? cadmium
Enlargement of goiter is mainly due to the deficiency of which of the following? Iodine
The disease called goitre is due to the deficiency of which of the following? Iodine
The disease caused due to deficiency of iron in the body is- Anemia
'Minamata disease' is spread by the pollution of water by whom? Mercury
What is likely to happen to the workers of the cement factory? Cytosilicosis
White lung disease is found in - employees of the paper industry
Nearsightedness (myopia) disease is related to? Eye
Antacid is found in medicines that provide relief from? stomach pain
Thalassemia is a genetic disease that affects- blood
Which one disease is genetic? hemophilia
Haemophilia is- a genetic disorder
What are the symptoms of hemophilia? non-coagulation of blood
What is color blindness in general? a genetic predisposition
Which colors cannot be distinguished by a color blind person? red and green
Which organ is generally affected by aflatoxin food poisoning in humans? liver
Too much calcium oxalate in the body causes ……. Stone
What is 'Gynecomastia'? breast development in men
Osteoporosis is related to which disease? bone
Whose digestion is affected by the stone present in the gall bladder? fat
Excess uric acid in the blood is an indicator of ……… disease. Gout
What stops bleeding gums? Ascorbic acid

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Which is useful in the treatment of scurvy disease? Gooseberry

Which disease is generally spread by fleas? typhus
Protein energy malnutrition is the result of- Marasmus
Which disease is carried by the female Culex mosquito? filariasis
What causes corrosion of tooth enamel? high fluoride content in water

Which one health problem is caused by fluoride deficiency? tooth decay

Cirrhosis disease affects which part of the body? liver
Lucodema can be treated by which herbal medicine? lucosyn
Trisomy of chromosome number 21 in humans is responsible for- for down syndrome
Which disease is not related to heart? Diphtheria
.................disease is mainly caused by occupational health hazards. Silicosis
What is the most common treatment for bacterial infections in humans? Antibiotics
The formation of mucous membrane is called ……………. Bronchitis
What is Melioidosis? Infectious disease
What is studied in Phytology? Plants
The study of cells is also called ......... Cytology
What is Mycology? study of fungi
What is Exobiology related to? life in outer space
What is a branch of science that deals with life or possibilities of life beyond Earth Exobiology
called?
The science of studying the preserved remains or signs of animals, plants and other Paleontology
organisms of ancient times is called- SCSGYAN
The study of classification of living beings is called Taxonomy
By what name is the study of fertilization, development, division and differentiation Embryology
known?
The study of plants used for vegetables is called? Olericulture
Whose study is 'Tree Cultivation'? Cultivation of trees and vegetables
Which is the study of spiders? Arachnology
'Entomology' is a science in which study is done? of insects
Saurology is the study of ……………. lizard
Ornithology is the study of? Bird
Oneirology is the study of what? Dreams
What is Toxicology the study of? Poison
Nephrology is associated with ………. Kidney
Oncology is associated with the treatment of which disease? Cancer
Which branch of medical science deals with the study and treatment of liver? Hepatology
Science in which animal/human anatomy is learned by dissection Anatomy
'Pediatrics' is related to the study of? Infant disease
The study of human societies and cultures and their development? Anthropology
____________ is a written document that an anthropologist prepares from research Ethnography
depicting a culture.
What is the application of genetic laws for the betterment of mankind related to? Eugenics
Which is the branch of physiology and medicine, which deals with the specific diseases Andrology
and conditions of men?
Which instrument is used to examine the internal organs of the body? Endoscope
Rhinoscope is an instrument for examining ......... Nose
………… is used by doctors in the examination of patients- Stethoscope
In which year was the first human heart transplanted? 1967
By whom was the first replacement of the heart done? Dr. Christian Bernard
Who discovered the first antibiotic? A. flaming
Which animal can live for the longest period without drinking water? Kangaroo rat
For whose discovery Waksman was awarded the Nobel Prize? Streptomycin

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Who is the founder of Homeopathy? SCSGYAN Samuel Hahnemann

Who presented the homeopathic principle of 'like cures like'? Samuel Hahnemann
By whom was the origin of life from chemical synthesis proved in the laboratory? Miller
Who developed the 'Immunization Technique'? Edward Jenner
Who invented the vaccine? Edward Jenner
What did Louis Pasteur discover? Anti-rabies vaccine
Who provided the vaccine for smallpox? Edward Jenner
Oral polio vaccine was developed by ……………. Albert Sabin
By whom was the polio vaccine discovered? Jonas salk
Who discovered the blood group? Landsteiner
Who was awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery of insulin? frederick banting
Sushruta is known as ……………. father of Indian surgery
What is the name of the instrument made by Sir Jagdish Chandra Bose to measure the Crescograph
growth of plants?
Which is a specific type of milk produced by a lactating mother and essential for the Colostrum
development of an immune response in a human newborn?
Which is a water communicable disease? Jaundice
What is the basic unit of life? the cell
Which cell organelle is found in plant cell, but not found in animal cell? Chloroplast
The living part of the cell is called protoplasm. What is it made of? cytoplasm, nucleus and other
organelles
The substance found in more than 80% of the cell is - Water
Which cells do not have a nucleus? red blood cell
Which one of the cell organelles is semipermeable? cell membrane
In which of the cells present in the human body, mitochondria are not found? red blood cell
What is the control center of the cell? nucleus
Whish Cell is the smallest living cell. of mycoplasma
What is the most basic protein associated with DNA called? Histone
Which one cell organelle group contains DNA? Mitosis, Nucleus, Chloroplast
What is included in the polynucleotide chain of DNA? a nitrogenous base, deoxyribose
sugar and phosphate group
One of the supplementary functions of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is- detoxification
What is present in DNA, but not present in RNA? Thiamine
The primary function of RNA is- protein synthesis
Ribosomes are- RNA
Genetic units ie 'gene' are found in- in chromosomes
Who gave the double helix structure of DNA? Watson and Crick
Who isolated DNA first? Friedrich Miescher
The two strands of DNA are linked by- by hydrogen bonds
What is the process of copying genetic information from one strand of DNA into RNA transcription
called?
Who first synthesized DNA in the laboratory? Khurana
DNA fingerprint is used to identify whom? parents, rapists, thieves
Which of the following is responsible for the control of genetic characteristics in living DNA
cells?
Which chromosome combination is responsible for masculinity in a male? XY
Due to the combination of which chromosomes in humans, a child will be born? Y of male and X of female
Which type of cell division is used to repair an injury in the body? only mitosis
Which one of the following is not a characteristic of viruses? presence of cell wall
In viruses what is found- either RNA or DNA
What happens in most of the viruses that infect plants? double stranded RNA only
Which virus was first discovered? TMV
Which one shows a useful functional relationship between fungi and the roots of higher Mycorrhiza
plants?

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The fastest growing plant in the world is- Bamboo

In which crop Azolla and Anabina biofertilizer is used? Rice
Chilgoza is obtained from the seeds of which one species? Pine
The longest living tree is- Sequoia
Aquatic fern, which is used as bio-fertilizer, is- Azolla
Companion cells are found only in Angiosperms
Pulses are obtained from this family of plants- laguminosy
The scientific name of which plant is Solanum tuberosum? potato
Delonix Regia Ruffin is the scientific name of? Gulmohar
Azadirachta indica is the botanical name of which of the following? Neem tree
Artocarpus integra is the scientific name of SCSGYAN Jackfruit
Which is/are the main absorptive organ(s) of plants? root only
Radish is an example of? Root
what is potato ? Stem
Is there a modified stem? potato
……………… is an example of Rhizome. Ginger
Turmeric is obtained from this part of the plant- Stem
Turmeric powder is obtained from which part of turmeric? dried rhizome
In which plant does the stem perform the functions of storage and longevity? Turmeric
Ecomark is given to those Indian products which- Product which are friendly to the
environment
Chipko movement was basically against whom? Deforestation
Who coined the Chipko slogan 'Ecology is sustainable economy'? Sundar Lal Bahuguna
What are plants that grow in salt-rich soil called? halophyte
Hydrophyte is called- to a water plant
In which condition do Xerophytes grow? hot and dry
Soil erosion can be stopped by- by afforestation
Which pollution factor is biologically degradable? Stool
Which is biodegradable? Paper
Which is biodegradable? Rubber
The concept of green house gases was given by – Joseph Fourier
Green house effect means- Increase in the temperature of the
atmosphere due to the
Every year up to 65% changes are made in the course content. condensation of greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere
Which gases are most important for the greenhouse effect? carbon dioxide, methane, ethane,
chlorofluorocarbons
AIDS is caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which is- retro virus
What causes the disease 'foot and mouth' in animals? Fungus
What is 'Ebola'? Virus
The reason for setting of milk in the form of curd is- lactobacillus
Which is nitrogen fixing bacteria? rhizobium
In which of the following is the symbiotic germ responsible for the fixation of in peas
atmospheric nitrogen found?
Nitrogen fixing bacteria found in the nodules present in the roots of leguminous plants Symbiotic
are -
Which bacterial strain developed from natural isolates, by genetic manipulation, can be Pseudomonas
used to remediate oil spills in the sea?
Refrigeration helps in preserving food- reduce the rate of biochemical
reactions
What is the bacterial decomposition of organic matter under anaerobic condition Fermentation
called?
What is a common edible mushroom? tightly packed fungus trap

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What is the reason for the rise of the dough when yeast is added? release of carbon dioxide gas
Yeast is related to fungus
Yeast used in making bread- Acts as a catalyst for fermentation.
which is prepared through budding yeast
Who invented penicillin? Alexander Fleming
What is the antibiotic penicillin obtained from? from fungus
What is the cause of itching related disease scabies? fungus
the brain's center for understanding spoken words and language occurs in the left part of the
cerebrum
Rice bran is a good source of - Vitamin B6
The excretory product of spider is Guanine
what is the excretory product of fish Ammonia
Angiotensinogen is a protein that is produced and secreted by by liver cells
The main nitrogenous waste of hydra is by ammonia
The organ of the human body that produces erythropoietin, a hormone that is Kidney
important for the production of red blood cells.
Renin (or Angiotensin) ……… is an enzyme produced by specialized cells. in kidney
The master chemist of the human body is called - Kidney
Fructan is a polymer of fructose molecules found in in the roots of dahlias

Miscellaneous - Important facts of Physics, Chemistry and Biology

• Cloves are the aromatic flower dried buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae, Syzygium aromaticum.
• Diffusion of light in the atmosphere takes place due to dust particles.
• Fruits stored in a cold chamber exhibit longer storage life, because rate of respiration is decreased.
• Site of gaseous exchange in lungs is Alveoli.
• Dichlro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) is a non-biodegradable pollutant.
• Thermodynamically the most stable form of carbon is Graphite.

• The bacillus haemophilus influenza causes of whooping cough.

• Photochemical smog always contains ozone. Photochemical smog always contains ozone gas (O3) as a pollutant.
Photochemical smog is a type of air pollution produced by vehicular emissions and the burning of agricultural waste.
• A solution of table salt in a glass of water is homogeneous.
• The maximum amount of methane gas is found in the atmosphere of Saturn.
• The earth atmosphere is mainly heated by long wave terrestrial radiation.
• Carbohydrate, Fat, Protein etc diet provides maximum energy to human body.
• Plants accepts nitrogen in form of Nitrate.
• Antibiotics are mostly obtained from Bacteria.
• Turmeric is an example of underground stem, known as Rhizome.
• Cholesterol is a Steroid.
• Ethylene gas is used in manufacturing of polythene.
• The blood of crayfish is blue.
• Electron transport system is located in mitochondrial matrix.
• Fungi is a Carnivores organism.
• Air pollution effects are usually found on leaves.
• The study of production, properties of ionic state of matter in physics is called plasma physics.
• A second pendulum is mounted in a rocket. Its period of oscillation decreases when the rocket moves up with uniform
acceleration.
• Bithional is generally added to the soaps as an additive to function as an antiseptic.
• Artificial sweetener, which is stable (non-decomposable) under cold conditions only, is aspartame.
• Novalgin is an analgesic.
• Adrenaline is produced under the condition of stress which stimulates glycogenolysis in liver of human beings.

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• Antiseptics and disinfectants either kill or prevent growth of micro-organisms. Chlorine and iodine are used as strong
disinfectants. Disinfectants harm the living tissues. A 0.2% solution of phenol is antiseptic while 1% solution acts as
disinfectant.
• The liquified gas that is used in dry cleaning along with a suitable detergent is Carbon Dioxide (CO2).
• Luminal is a hypnotic drug.
• Interferon is connected with virus. When the cells of the body are attacked by a viral infection, the cells produce an
antiviral protein called interferon (IFN) in response to it.
• A part of DNA that provides information for a protein is called a Gene. The DNA in each chromosome constitutes a number
of genes.
• The sex chromosomes in birds are designated Z and W, and the male is the homomorphic sex (ZZ) and the female
heteromorphic (ZW).
• Lizards have suction pads under neath their feet, which create suction. The vacuum created by the suction pads helps in
sticking to the walls. That is how they do not fall from the verticle walls.
• The boiling point of a liquid increases with increase in pressure.
• When sound travels as a wave, the particles of the medium transfer energy without leaving their mean position.
• When an electrical appliance is switched off, the live wire gets disconnected.
• If an inflated balloon is brought near a burning bulb, it bursts because the air inside the balloon heats up and exerts
pressure on the inner wall of the balloon.
• Maharishi Kanad was the first to suggest that matter is made up of very small particles called molecules.
• The process of separating the different dissolved components of a mixture by the method of adsorption on a suitable
substance is called chromatography.
• The formation of bubbles of gas in a liquid during a chemical reaction is called effervescence.
• 97.4% of the total water available on the earth is in the seas and oceans.
• Stamen is the male reproductive part of a flower, while pistil is the female reproductive part of a flower. The stamen is
surrounded by anther and filament. The anthers produce pollen grains.
• Excess glucose is converted to glycogen by insulin. The process is called glycogenesis. Glycogenesis is the method of
preserving excess glucose for subsequent use by the body. Glycogenolysis occurs when a person requires energy and
prefers glucose as a source of energy.
• The pulmonary arteries are a pair of blood vessels that transport deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs. The
pulmonary arteries are considered ''great vessels'' and are unique because they are the only arteries in the body that carry
deoxygenated blood.
• The non-cellular portion of lymph is composed of about 94% water.
• The smell of good food makes the mouth water. It is an acquired reflex action.
• Bacillus thuringiensis is used as Biochemical insecticide.
• Biometric identification – Fingerprints and Iris scan
• Cloning – Genetic replica
• DNA Fingerprinting – Paternity or criminal identification
• U-235 Uranium isotope is used in nuclear power plants to produce electricity.
• Silicon is used in solar cells. Solar cells are made from silicon bowls. These are polycrystalline structures whose atomic
structure is that of a single crystal.
• Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting like hormones outside the body of the secreting individual, to affect the
behavior of the receiving individuals.
• The amount of external pressure required to stop osmosis is called osmotic pressure. The osmotic pressure of any solution
is directly proportional to the concentration of solute molecules present in the solvent. Isotonic solutions have the same
osmotic pressure.
• Diodes can be used to convert alternating current to direct current.
• Nitrogenous waste called uric acid is excreted by birds and lizards.
• John Mc Carthy is considered as the “Father of artificial intelligence”.
• DNA fingerprinting was discovered by Sir Alec Jeffreys.
• Corona Virus got its name from due to crown like appearance.
• Sickle cell anaemia is a group of disorders that affect the molecule Haemoglobin (found in red blood cells) that carries
oxygen to cells throughout the human body. This disorder is characterized by a low number of red blood cells (anaemia),
recurrent occurrence of pain, and frequent infections. Sickle cell anemia is an autosomal recessive disease.
• Octopus have three hearts and blue blood.
• Meiotic cell division chiasmata are formed in Prophase stage.

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• Alcohol is more volatile than water, because its boiling point is lower than that of water.
• Insulin is the product of Pancreas endorine gland.
• W.B.C. are often called as the soldiers of the body.
• Formalin is an aqueous solution of Formaldehyde.
• Coprophagy is seen in Rabbits.
• Acrosome of sperm is formed by Golgi apparatus.

• Gases present in the primitive earth were – Methane, Ammonia, Hydrogen and Water Vapour.
• First forms of like on earth were - Chemo Autotrophs (Prokaryotic unicellular Bacteria).
• Red Oats grass, Star Grass, Lemon grass (used as mosquito repellent) belong to – Savanah grassland
• Neurospora crassa is a fungi belonging to ascomycete also known as red bread mould.
• Prions are infectious pathogens that do not contain nucleic acids
• The smallest virus - The virus which causes "foot and mouth disease" also called FMDV.
• First virus cultured in human cells is Polio Virus.
• Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) is a largest known RNA virus.
• E Coli benefits humans by producing vitamin K2 in human intestine.
• Brown algae are and important source of Iodine and Potash.
• Measurement of glycosylated Haemoglobin (HbA1c) in the blood is beneficial in the management of diabetes.
• Potassium maintains the cell turgidity, cation-anion balance, respiration, protein synthesis, opening and closing of stomata,
etc. in plants.
• The mineral present in cell wall is Calcium.
• The root nodule formation in leguminous plants and sugar transport and pollen germination is associated with Boron.
• Brown heart disease is caused due to the deficiency of Boron.
• The elements like carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are known as framework elements.
• Photophosphorylation is the process in which light energy is converted into chemical energy through the production of
ATP.
• The major nutrients in our food are named carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals. In addition, food contains
dietary fibres and water which are also needed by our body. The main carbohydrates found in our food are in the form of
starch and sugars.
• Carbohydrates Food are also called ‘energy giving foods Proteins are needed for the growth and repair of our body. Foods
proteins are often called ‘body building food’. Vitamins help in protecting our body against diseases. Vitamins also help in
keeping our eyes, bones, teeth and gums healthy. For example, rice has more carbohydrates than other nutrients. Thus, we
say that rice is a “carbohydrate rich” source of food.
• Besides these nutrients, our body needs dietary fibres and water. Dietary fibres are also known as roughage. Roughage is
mainly provided by plant products in our foods. Whole grains and pulses, potatoes, fresh fruits and vegetables are main
sources of roughage. Roughage does not provide any nutrient to our body, but is an essential component of our food and
adds to its bulk. This helps our body get rid of undigested food.
• Vitamin C gets easily destroyed by heat during cooking.
• The major nutrients in our food are carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals. In addition, food also contains
dietary fibres and water.
• Carbohydrates and fats mainly provide energy to our body.
• Proteins and minerals are needed for the growth and the maintenance of our body.
• Vitamins help in protecting our body against diseases.
• Balanced diet provides all the nutrients that our body needs, in right quantities, along with adequate amount of roughage
and water.
• Deficiency of one or more nutrients in our food for a long time may cause certain diseases or disorders.
• Some examples of synthetic fibres are polyester, nylon and acrylic.
• The process that is used to separate grain from stalks etc. is threshing.
• This method of separating components of a mixture is called winnowing. Winnowing is used to separate heavier and
lighter components of a mixture by wind or by blowing air.
• When the heavier component in a mixture settles after water is added to it, the process is called sedimentation. When the
water (along with the dust) is removed, the process is called decantation
• Difference in the size of particles in a mixture is utilised to separate them by the process of sieving and filtration.
• In a mixture of sand and water, the heavier sand particles settle down at the bottom and the water can be separated by
decantation.

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• The part of leaf by which it is attached to the stem is called petiole. The broad, green part of the leaf is called lamina.
• The innermost part of flower is called the pistil.
• The joint where our neck joins the head is a pivotal joint. It allows us to bend our head forward and backward and turn the
head to our right or left.
• There are some additional parts of the skeleton that are not as hard as the bones and which can be bent. These are called
cartilage. The validity of this study material is only till the year 2024, do not read it after that.
• The human skeleton comprises the skull, the back bone, ribs and the breast bone, shoulder and hipbones, and the bones of
hands and legs.
• Fish swim by forming loops alternately on two sides of the body.
• Earthworms move by alternate extension and contraction of the body using muscles.
• Snails move with the help of a muscular foot.
• The end of the magnet that points towards North is called its North seeking end or the North pole of the magnet. The other
end that points towards the South is called South seeking end or the South pole of the magnet. All magnets have two poles
whatever their shape may be. Usually, north (N) and south (S) poles are marked on the magnets.
• The gases in air are mainly nitrogen, oxygen, small amount of carbon dioxide, and many other gases. We see that air
contains mostly nitrogen and oxygen. In fact, these two gases together make up 99% of the air. The remaining 1% is
constituted by carbon dioxide and a few other gases and water vapour.
• The rotting and conversion of some materials into manure is called ‘composting’.
• This method of preparing compost with the help of redworms is called vermicomposting.
• Redworms do not have teeth. They have a structure called ‘gizzard’, which helps them in grinding their food.
• Paper can be recycled to get useful products.
• Plants are the only organisms that can prepare food for themselves by using water, carbon dioxide and minerals. The raw
materials are present in their surroundings.
• The nutrients enable living organisms to build their bodies, to grow, to repair damaged parts of their bodies and provide
the energy to carry out life processes. Nutrition is the mode of taking food by an organism and its utilisation by the body.
The mode of nutrition in which organisms make food themselves from simple substances is called autotrophic nutrition.
Therefore, plants are called autotrophs. Animals and most other organisms take in food prepared by plants. They are
called heterotrophs.
• plants synthesise carbohydrates through the process of photosynthesis. The carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen. These are used to synthesise other components of food such as proteins and fats. But proteins are nitrogenous
substances which contain nitrogen.
• They need nitrogen in a soluble form. The bacterium called Rhizobium can take atmospheric nitrogen and convert it into a
usable form. But Rhizobium cannot make its own food. So, it often lives in the roots of gram, peas, moong, beans and other
legumes and provides them with nitrogen.
• Many fungi derive nutrition from dead and decaying matter. They are saprotrophs.
• Amarbel is one such plant parasite. They get their food from the host plant.
• The female silk moth lays eggs, from which hatch larvae which are called caterpillars or silkworms.
• The temperature of human body normally does not go below 350 C or above 420 C. That is the reason that this
thermometer has the range 350 C to 420 C.
• Clinical thermometer is used to measure our body temperature. The range of this thermometer is from 35°C to 42°C. For
other purposes, we use the laboratory thermometers. The range of these thermometers is usually from –10°C to 110°C.
• The solutions which do not change the colour of either red or blue litmus are known as neutral solutions. These substances
are neither acidic nor basic.
• In neutralisation reaction a new substance is formed. This is called salt. Salt may be acidic, basic or neutral in nature. Thus,
neutralisation can be defined as follows: The reaction between an acid and a base is known as neutralisation. Salt and
water are produced in this process with the evolution of heat.
• Properties such as shape, size, colour and state of a substance are called its physical properties. A change in which a
substance undergoes a change in its physical properties is called a physical change. A physical change is generally
reversible. In such a change no new substance is formed.
• A change in which one or more new substances are formed is called a chemical change. A chemical change is also called a
chemical reaction.
• Chemical changes are very important in our lives. All new substances are formed as a result of chemical changes. For
example, digestion of food in our body, ripening of fruits, fermentation of grapes, etc., happen due to series of chemical
changes.

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• The day-to-day condition of the atmosphere at a place with respect to the temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind-speed, etc.,
is called the weather at that place. The temperature, humidity, and other factors are called the elements of the weather.
• The average weather pattern taken over a long time, say 25 years, is called the climate of the place.
• Yeasts are single-celled organisms. They respire anaerobically and during this process yield alcohol. They are, therefore,
used to make wine and beer
• The accumulation of lactic acid causes muscle cramps.
• The taking in of air rich in oxygen into the body is called inhalation and giving out of air rich in carbon dioxide is known as
exhalation.
• The number of times a person breathes in a minute is termed as the breathing rate. During breathing inhalation and
exhalation take place alternately. A breath means one inhalation plus one exhalation.
• Insects have a network of air tubes called tracheae for gas exchange. SCSGYAN
• Gills in fish help them to use oxygen dissolved in water. Gills are projections of the skin.
• In a plant the roots take in air present in the soil. Leaves have tiny pores called stomata through which they exchange
gases. The breakdown of glucose in the plant cells is similar to that in other living beings.
• The number of beats per minute is called the pulse rate. A resting person, usually has a pulse rate between 72 and 80 beats
per minute.
• An adult human being normally passes about 1–1.8 L of urine in 24 hours. The urine consists of 95% water, 2.5% urea and
2.5% other waste products.
• Sometimes a person’s kidneys may stop working due to infection or injury. As a result of kidney failure, waste products
start accumulating in the blood. Such persons cannot survive unless their blood is filtered periodically through an artificial
kidney. This process is called dialysis
• Circulatory system consists of the heart and blood vessels.
• In sexual reproduction a male and a female gamete fuse to form a zygote.
• The cell which results after fusion of the gametes is called a zygote. The process of fusion of male and female gametes (to
form a zygote) is called fertilisation. The zygote develops into an embryo
• Periodic events are used for the measurement of time. Periodic motion of a pendulum has been used to make clocks and
watches.
• The distance-time graph for the motion of an object moving with a constant speed is a straight line.
• The wire gets hot when an electric current passes through it. This is the heating effect of the electric current.
• So, when electric current passes through a wire, it behaves like a magnet. This is the magnetic effect of the electric current.
• Light travels along straight lines.
• Any polished or a shining surface acts as a mirror.
• An image which can be obtained on a screen is called a real image.
• Rich in lather, mixed with oil, black– brown water that goes down the drains from sinks, showers, toilets, laundries is dirty.
It is called wastewater.
• on 22 March 2005, the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed the period 2005–2015 as the International
Decade for action on “Water for life”.
• Microorganisms are classified into four major groups. These groups are bacteria, fungi, protozoa and some algae.
• Diseases like dysentery and malaria are caused by protozoa(protozoans) whereas typhoid and tuberculosis (TB) are
bacterial diseases.
• Yeast reproduces rapidly and produces carbon dioxide during respiration.
• Louis Pasteur discovered fermentation in 1857. SCSGYAN
• Streptomycin, tetracycline and erythromycin are some of the commonly known antibiotics which are made from fungi and
bacteria.
• Edward Jenner discovered the vaccine for small-pox in 1798.
• Female Aedes mosquito acts as carrier of dengue virus.
• Robert Köch (1876) discovered the bacterium (Bacillus anthracis) which causes anthrax disease.
• Salts and edible oils are the common chemicals generally used to inhibit the growth of microorganisms. Therefore, they are
called preservatives. We add salt or acid preservatives to pickles to prevent the attack of microbes. Sodium benzoate and
sodium metabisulphite are common preservatives. These are also used in jams and squashes to inhibit their spoilage.
• Jams, jellies and squashes are preserved by sugar. Sugar reduces the moisture content which inhibits the growth of
bacteria which spoil food.
• PET (polyethylene terephthalate) is a very familiar form of polyester. It is used for making bottles, utensils, films, wires
and many other useful products.

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• Such plastic which gets deformed easily on heating and can be bent easily are known as thermoplastics. Polythene and PVC
are some of the examples of thermoplastics. These are used for manufacturing toys, combs and various types of containers.
• On the other hand, there are some plastics which when moulded once, can not be softened by heating. These are called
thermosetting plastics. Two examples are bakelite and melamine. Bakelite is a poor conductor of heat and electricity. It is
used for making electrical switches, handles of various utensils, etc. Melamine is a versatile material. It resists fire and can
tolerate heat better than other plastics. It is used for making floor tiles, kitchenware and fabrics which resist fire.
• The property of metals by which they can be beaten into thin sheets is called malleability. SCSGYAN
• The property of metal by which it can be drawn into wires is called ductility.
• Metals like sodium and potassium are soft and can be cut with a knife. Mercury is the only metal which is found in liquid
state at room temperature. These are exceptions.
• When a copper vessel is exposed to moist air for long, it acquires a dull green coating. The green material is a mixture of
copper hydroxide (Cu (OH)2) and copper carbonate (CuCO3).
• Sodium metal is very reactive. It reacts vigorously with oxygen and water. A lot of heat is generated in the reaction. It is,
therefore, stored in kerosene.
• On burning, metals react with oxygen to produce metal oxides which are basic in nature. Non-metals react with oxygen to
produce non- metallic oxides which are acidic in nature.
• More reactive metals displace less reactive metals from their compounds in aqueous solutions.
• the slow process of conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonisation.
• Coke tough, porous and black substance. It is an almost pure form of carbon. Coke is used in the manufacture of steel and
in the extraction of many metals.
• Coal tar is a black, thick liquid with an unpleasant smell. It is a mixture of about 200 substances. Products obtained from
coal tar are used as starting materials for manufacturing various substances used in everyday life and in industry, like
synthetic dyes, drugs, explosives, perfumes, plastics, paints, photographic materials, roofing materials, etc. Interestingly,
naphthalene balls used to repel moths and other insects are also obtained from coal tar.
• Coal gas was used for street lighting for the first time in London in 1810 and in New York around 1820. Now a days, it is
used as a source of heat rather than light.
• The world’s first oil well was drilled in Pennsylvania, USA, in 1859. Eight years later, in 1867, oil was struck at Makum in
Assam. In India, oil is found in Assam, Gujarat, Mumbai High and in the river basins of Godavari and Krishna.
• Petroleum is a dark oily liquid. It has an unpleasant odour. It is a mixture of various constituents such as petroleum gas,
petrol, diesel, lubricating oil, paraffin wax, etc. The process of separating the various constituents/ fractions of petroleum
is known as refining. It is carried out in a petroleum refinery.
• Many useful substances are obtained from petroleum and natural gas. These are termed as ‘Petrochemicals’. These are
used in the manufacture of detergents, fibres (polyester, nylon, acrylic etc.), polythene and other man-made plastics.
Hydrogen gas obtained from natural gas, is used in the production of fertilisers (urea). Due to its great commercial
importance, petroleum is also called ‘black gold’.
• India has vast reserves of natural gas. In our country, natural gas has been found in Tripura, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and
in the Krishna Godavari delta.
• A chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen to give off heat is called combustion. The substance that
undergoes combustion is said to be combustible. It is also called a fuel. The fuel may be solid, liquid or gas.
• The lowest temperature at which a substance catches fire is called its ignition temperature.
• The substances which have very low ignition temperature and can easily catch fire with a flame are called inflammable
substances. Examples of inflammable substances are petrol, alcohol, Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) etc.
• There are substances like phosphorus which burn in air at room temperature.
• The type of combustion in which a material suddenly bursts into flames, without the application of any apparent cause is
called spontaneous combustion. There is probably no fuel that could be considered as an ideal fuel.
• The amount of heat energy produced on complete combustion of 1 kg of a fuel is called its calorific value. The calorific
value of a fuel is expressed in a unit called kilojoule per kg (kJ/kg).
• Inflammable substances have very low ignition temperature.
• Coloured bodies called plastids are found in the plant cells only. Green plastids containing chlorophyll are called
chloroplasts.
• The male reproductive organs include a pair of testes (singular, testis), two sperm ducts and a penis. The testes produce
the male gametes called sperms. Millions of sperms are produced by the testes. SCSGYAN
• The female reproductive organs are a pair of ovaries, oviducts (fallopian tubes) and the uterus. The ovary produces female
gametes called ova (eggs). In human beings, a single matured egg is released into the oviduct by one of the ovaries every
month. Uterus is the part where development of the baby takes place. Like the sperm, an egg is also a single cell.

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• Cloning is the production of an exact copy of a cell, any other living part, or a complete organism. Cloning of an animal was
successfully performed for the first time by Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland.
They successfully cloned a sheep named Dolly. Dolly was born on 5th July 1996 and was the first mammal to be cloned.
• Reproduction resulting from the fusion of male and female gametes is called sexual reproduction.
• Amoeba reproduces by dividing itself into two. This type of asexual reproduction is called binary fission.
• All human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes in the nuclei of their cells. Two chromosomes out of these are the sex
chromosomes, named X and Y. A female has two X chromosomes, while a male has one X and one Y chromosome. The
gametes (egg and sperm) have only one set of chromosomes. The unfertilised egg always has one X chromosome. But
sperms are of two kinds. One kind has an X chromosome, and the other kind has a Y chromosome.
• When a sperm containing X chromosome fertilises the egg, the zygote would have two X chromosomes and develop into a
female child. If the sperm contributes a Y chromosome to the egg (ovum) at fertilisation, the zygote would develop into a
male child.
• When one body rolls over the surface of another body, the resistance to its motion is called rolling friction.
• Sliding friction comes into play when an object is sliding over another.
• Sliding friction is smaller than static friction. SCSGYAN
• When one body rolls over another body, rolling friction comes into play. Rolling friction is smaller than sliding friction.
• The vocal cords in men are about 20 mm long. In women these are about 15 mm long. Children have very short vocal
cords. This is the reason why the voices of men, women and children are different.
• The incident ray, the normal at the point of incidence and the reflected ray all lie in the same plane.
• The impression of an image does not vanish immediately from the retina. It persists there for about 1/16th of a second. So,
if still images of a moving object are flashed on the eye at a rate faster than 16 per second, then the eye perceives this
object as moving.
• The most comfortable distance at which one can read with a normal eye is about 25 cm.
• Raw carrots, broccoli and green vegetables (such as spinach) and cod liver oil are rich in vitamin A. Eggs, milk, curd,
cheese, butter and fruits such as papaya and mango are also rich in vitamin A.
• The melting point of a solid is an indication of the strength of the force of attraction between its particles.
• Solid CO2 gets converted directly to gaseous state on decrease of pressure to 1 atmosphere without coming into liquid
state. This is the reason that solid carbon dioxide is also known as dry ice.
• A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture.
• The size of particles of a colloid is too small to be individually seen by naked eyes.
• Colloids are big enough to scatter a beam of light passing through it and make its path visible.
• They do not settle down when left undisturbed, that is, a colloid is quite stable
• They cannot be separated from the mixture by the process of filtration. But, a special technique of separation known as
centrifugation can be used to separate the colloidal particles.
• To separate a mixture of two or more miscible liquids for which the difference in boiling points is less than 25 K, fractional
distillation process is used, for example, for the separation of different gases from air, different factions from petroleum
products etc.
• The number of elements known at present are more than 100. Ninety-two elements are naturally occurring and the rest
are man-made
• Majority of the elements are solid.
• Eleven elements are in gaseous state at room temperature.
• Two elements are liquid at room temperature–mercury and bromine.
• Elements, gallium and cesium become liquid at a temperature slightly above room temperature (303 K).
• Mitochondria - Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell. Mitochondria have two membrane coverings. The
outer membrane is porous while the inner membrane is deeply folded. These folds increase surface area for
ATPgenerating chemical reactions. The energy required for various chemical activities needed for life is released by
mitochondria in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphopshate) molecules. ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell. The
body uses energy stored in ATP for making new chemical compounds and for mechanical work.
• Mitochondria are strange organelles in the sense that they have their own DNA and ribosomes. Therefore, mitochondria
are able to make some of their own proteins.
• In some situations, it contains chlorophyll and performs photosynthesis, and then it is called chlorenchyma.
• Epidermal cells of the roots, whose function is water absorption.
• In some plants like desert plants, epidermis has a thick waxy coating of cutin (chemical substance with waterproof quality)
on its outer surface.

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• Blood has a fluid (liquid) matrix called plasma, in which red blood corpuscles (RBCs), white blood corpuscles (WBCs) and
platelets are suspended. The plasma contains proteins, salts and hormones. Blood flows and transports gases, digested
food, hormones and waste materials to different parts of the body.
• The brain, spinal cord and nerves are all composed of the nervous tissue. The cells of this tissue are called nerve cells or
neurons. A neuron consists of a cell body with a nucleus and cytoplasm, from which long thin hair-like parts arise.
• An individual nerve cell may be up to a metre long. Many nerve fibres bound together by connective tissue make up a
nerve.
• Plant tissues are of two main types – meristematic and permanent.
• Striated, unstriated and cardiac are three types of muscle tissues.
• The potential energy of an object at a height depends on the ground level or the zero level you choose. An object in a given
position can have a certain potential energy with respect to one level and a different value of potential energy with respect
to another level.
• Ultrasonic waves are made to reflect from various parts of the heart and form the image of the heart. This technique is
called ‘echocardiography. SCSGYAN
• Ultrasound scanner is an instrument which uses ultrasonic waves for getting images of internal organs of the human body.
A doctor may image the patient’s organs such as the liver, gall bladder, uterus, kidney, etc. It helps the doctor to detect
abnormalities, such as stones in the gall bladder and kidney or tumours in different organs.
• Ultrasonography is also used for examination of the foetus during pregnancy to detect congenial defects and growth
abnormalities.
• For hearing a distinct sound, the time interval between the original sound and the reflected one must be at least 0.1 s.
• Cereals such as wheat, rice, maize, millets and sorghum provide us carbohydrate for energy requirement. Pulses like gram
(chana), pea (matar), black gram (urad), green gram (moong), pigeon pea (arhar), lentil (masoor), provide us with protein.
And oil seeds including soyabean, ground nut, sesame, castor, mustard, linseed and sunflower provide us with necessary
fats. Vegetables, spices and fruits provide a range of vitamins and minerals in addition to small amounts of proteins,
carbohydrates and fats. In addition to these food crops, fodder crops like berseem, oats or sudan grass are raised as food
for the livestock. This study material is not valid after the year 2024, after which it will become outdated.
• when two or more substances (elements or compounds) combine to form a single product, the reactions are called
combination reactions.
• Reactions in which heat is released along with the formation of products are called exothermic chemical reactions.
• Such reactions in which there is an exchange of ions between the reactants are called double displacement reactions.
• Litmus solution is a purple dye, which is extracted from lichen, a plant belonging to the division Thallophyta, and is
commonly used as an indicator. When the litmus solution is neither acidic nor basic, its colour is purple. There are many
other natural materials like red cabbage leaves, turmeric, coloured petals of some flowers such as Hydrangea, Petunia and
Geranium, which indicate the presence of acid or base in a solution. These are called acid-base indicators or sometimes
simply indicators.
• Limestone, chalk and marble are different forms of calcium carbonate. All metal carbonates and hydrogencarbonates react
with acids to give a corresponding salt, carbon dioxide and water
• All bases do not dissolve in water. An alkali is a base that dissolves in water. They are soapy to touch, bitter and corrosive.
Never taste or touch them as they may cause harm. SCSGYAN
• Aqua regia, (Latin for ‘royal water’) is a freshly prepared mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and concentrated
nitric acid in the ratio of 3:1. It can dissolve gold, even though neither of these acids can do so alone. Aqua regia is a highly
corrosive, fuming liquid. It is one of the few reagents that is able to dissolve gold and platinum.
• Gold, silver, platinum and copper are found in the free state. Copper and silver are also found in the combined state as their
sulphide or oxide ores.
• The metals in the middle of the activity series such as iron, zinc, lead, copper, are moderately reactive. These are usually
present as sulphides or carbonates in nature.
• The highly reactive metals such as sodium, calcium, aluminium, etc., are used as reducing agents because they can displace
metals of lower reactivity from their compounds.
• Pure gold, known as 24 carat gold, is very soft. It is, therefore, not suitable for making jewellery. It is alloyed with either
silver or copper to make it hard. Generally, in India, 22 carat gold is used for making ornaments. It means that 22 parts of
pure gold is alloyed with 2 parts of either copper or silver. SCSGYAN
• Solder an alloy of lead and tin (Pb and Sn), has a low melting point and is used for welding electrical wires together.
• Ethanoic acid is commonly called acetic acid and belongs to a group of acids called carboxylic acids. 5-8% solution of acetic
acid in water is called vinegar and is used widely as a preservative in pickles. The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is
290 K and hence it often freezes during winter in cold climates. This gave rise to its name glacial acetic acid.

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• The group of organic compounds called carboxylic acids are obviously characterised by their acidic nature. However,
unlike mineral acids like HCl, which are completely ionised, carboxylic acids are weak acids.
• The molecules of soap are sodium or potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic acids.
• Carbon is a versatile element that forms the basis for all living organisms and many of the things we use.
• Carbon forms covalent bonds with itself and other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen and chlorine.
• The functional groups such as alcohols, aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids bestow characteristic properties to the
carbon compounds that contain them.
• The energy released during cellular respiration is immediately used to synthesise a molecule called ATP which is used to
fuel all other activities in the cell. In these processes, ATP is broken down giving rise to a fixed amount of energy which can
drive the endothermic reactions taking place in the cell.
• In human beings, the respiratory pigment is haemoglobin which has a very high affinity for oxygen. This pigment is present
in the red blood corpuscles. Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than oxygen is and hence is mostly transported in the
dissolved form in our blood.
• Isaac Newton was the first to use a glass prism to obtain the spectrum of sunlight.
• The red light has a wavelength about 1.8 times greater than blue light.
• Bio-gas is an excellent fuel as it contains up to 75% methane. It burns without smoke.
• This is done in many animals, including human beings, using a hormone called adrenaline that is secreted from the adrenal
glands.
• Adrenaline is secreted directly into the blood and carried to different parts of the body. The target organs or the specific
tissues on which it acts include the heart. As a result, the heart beats faster, resulting in supply of more oxygen to our
muscles.
• The famous botanical gardens are at Kew (England), Indian Botanical Garden, Howrah (India) and at National Botanical
Research Institute, Lucknow (India).
• R.H. Whittaker (1969) proposed a Five Kingdom Classification. The kingdoms defined by him were named Monera,
Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
• All prokaryotic organisms were grouped together under Kingdom Monera and the unicellular eukaryotic organisms were
placed in Kingdom Protista. Kingdom Protista has brought together Chlamydomonas, Chlorella (earlier placed in Algae
within Plants and both having cell walls) with Paramoecium and Amoeba (which were earlier placed in the animal
kingdom which lack cell wall).
• Dmitri Ivanowsky (1892) recognised certain microbes as causal organism of the mosaic disease of tobacco.
• In addition to proteins, viruses also contain genetic material, that could be either RNA or DNA. No virus contains both RNA
and DNA.
• In 1971, T.O. Diener discovered a new infectious agent that was smaller than viruses and caused potato spindle tuber
disease. SCSGYAN
• Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic and largely aquatic (Adapted to both fresh and saline water)
organisms. They occur in a variety of other habitats: moist stones, soils and wood. Some of them also occur in association
with fungi (lichen) and animals (e.g., on sloth bear). The form and size of algae is highly variable, ranging from colonial
forms like Volvox and the filamentous forms like Ulothrix and Spirogyra. A few of the marine forms such as kelps, form
massive plant bodies. The algae reproduce by vegetative, asexual and sexual methods. Vegetative reproduction is by
fragmentation. Each fragment develops into a thallus. Asexual reproduction is by the production of different types of
spores, the most common being the zoospores. They are flagellated (motile) and on germination gives rise to new plants.
Sexual reproduction takes place through fusion of two gametes. These gametes can be flagellated and similar in size (as in
Ulothrix) or non-flagellated (non-motile) but similar in size (as in Spirogyra). Such reproduction is called isogamous.
Fusion of two gametes dissimilar in size, as in species of Eudorina is termed as anisogamous. Fusion between one large,
nonmotile (static) female gamete and a smaller, motile male gamete is termed oogamous, e.g., Volvox, Fucus.
• Chlorella a unicellular alga rich in proteins is used as food supplement even by space travellers. The algae are divided into
three main classes: Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae.
• The gymnosperms (gymnos: naked, sperma: seeds) are plants in which the ovules are not enclosed by any ovary wall and
remain exposed, both before and after fertilisation. The seeds that develop post-fertilisation, are not covered, i.e., are
naked. Gymnosperms include medium-sized trees or tall trees and shrubs. One of the gymnosperms, the giant redwood
tree Sequoia is one of the tallest tree species.
• Plant kingdom includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms. Algae are chlorophyll-bearing
simple, thalloid, autotrophic and largely aquatic organisms. Depending on the type of pigment possesed and the type of
stored food, algae are classfied into three classes, namely Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae.
• Bryophytes are plants which can live in soil but are dependent on water for sexual reproduction.

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• Golgi apparatus- Camillo Golgi (1898) first observed densely stained reticular structures near the nucleus. These were
later named Golgi bodies after him. They consist of many flat, disc-shaped sacs or cisternae of 0.5µm to 1.0µm diameter.
• Ribosomes are the granular structures first observed under the electron microscope as dense particles by George Palade
(1953). They are composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins and are not surrounded by any membrane
• Nucleus as a cell organelle was first described by Robert Brown as early as 1831. Later the material of the nucleus stained
by the basic dyes was given the name chromatin by Flemming.
• In 1860, Julius von Sachs, a prominent German botanist, demonstrated, for the first time, that plants could be grown to
maturity in a defined nutrient solution in complete absence of soil. This technique of growing plants in a nutrient solution
is known as hydroponics. SCSGYAN
• The respiratory pathway is an amphibolic pathway as it involves both anabolism and catabolism. The respiratory quotient
depends upon the type of respiratory substance used during respiration.
• a healthy human breathes 12-16 times/minute. The volume of air involved in breathing movements can be estimated by
using a spirometer which helps in clinical assessment of pulmonary functions.
• Our lungs remove large amounts of CO2 (approximately 200mL/ minute) and also significant quantities of water every day.
Liver, the largest gland in our body, secretes bile-containing substances like bilirubin, biliverdin, cholesterol, degraded
steroid hormones, vitamins and drugs.
• In front of the lens, the aperture surrounded by the iris is called the pupil. The diameter of the pupil is regulated by the
muscle fibres of iris. The ear can be divided into the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear. The middle ear contains
three ossicles called malleus, incus and stapes.
• The juxtaglomerular cells of kidney produce a peptide hormone called erythropoietin which stimulates erythropoiesis
(formation of RBC). Endocrine cells present in different parts of the gastro-intestinal tract secrete four major peptide
hormones, namely gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin (CCK) and gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP). Gastrin acts on the gastric
glands and stimulates the secretion of hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen.
• On the basis of their chemical nature, hormones can be divided into groups:
• (i) peptide, polypeptide, protein hormones (e.g., insulin, glucagon, pituitary hormones, hypothalamic hormones, etc.)
• (ii) steroids (e.g., cortisol, testosterone, estradiol and progesterone)
• (iii) iodothyronines (thyroid hormones) (iv) amino-acid derivatives (e.g., epinephrine).
• Prokaryotes and unicellular organisms reproduce asexually by cell division or binary fission of the parent cell. In several
aquatic and terrestrial species of angiosperms, structures such as runners, rhizomes, suckers, tubers, offsets, etc., are
capable of giving rise to new offspring. This method of asexual reproduction is generally referred to as vegetative
propagation. SCSGYAN
• Genetics is a branch of biology which deals with principles of inheritance and its practices. Progeny resembling the parents
in morphological and physiological features has attracted the attention of many biologists. Mendel was the first to study
this phenomenon systematically. While studying the pattern of inheritance in pea plants of contrasting characters, Mendel
proposed the principles of inheritance, which are today referred to as ‘Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance’. He proposed that the
‘factors’ (later named as genes) regulating the characters are found in pairs known as alleles. He observed that the
expression of the characters in the offspring follow a definite pattern in different–first generations (F1), second (F2) and
so on. Some characters are dominant over others. The dominant characters are expressed when factors are in
heterozygous condition (Law of Dominance).
• The factors (now known as gene) on chromosomes regulating the characters are called the genotype and the physical
expression of the chraracters is called phenotype.
• In humans, a normal female has 22 pairs of autosomes and a pair of sex chromosomes (XX). A male has 22 pairs of
autosomes and a pair of sex chromosome as XY. In chicken, sex chromosomes in male are ZZ, and in females are ZW.
• Mutation is defined as change in the genetic material. A point mutation is a change of a single base pair in DNA. Sickle-cell
anemia is caused due to change of one base in the gene coding for beta-chain of Haemoglobin. Inheritable mutations can be
studied by generating a pedigree of a family. Some mutations involve changes in whole set of chromosomes (polyploidy) or
change in a subset of chromosome number (aneuploidy). This helped in understanding the mutational basis of genetic
disorders. Down’s syndrome is due to trisomy of chromosome 21, where there is an extra copy of chromosome 21 and
consequently the total number of chromosomes becomes 47. In Turner’s syndrome, one X chromosome is missing and the
sex chromosome is as XO, and in Klinefelter’s syndrome, the condition is XXY. These can be easily studied by analysis of
Karyotypes.
• RNA was the first genetic material. There is now enough evidence to suggest that essential life processes (such as
metabolism, locomotion, etc.), evolved around RNA. RNA used to act as a genetic material as well as a catalyst (there are
some important biochemical reactions in living systems that are catalysed by RNA catalysts and not by protein enzymes).
But, RNA being a catalyst was reactive and hence unstable

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• Nucleic acids are long polymers of nucleotides. While DNA stores genetic information, RNA mostly helps in transfer and
expression of information. Though DNA and RNA both function as genetic material, but DNA being chemically and
structurally more stable is a better genetic material. However, RNA is the first to evolve and DNA was derived from RNA.
The hallmark of the double stranded helical structure of DNA is the hydrogen bonding between the bases from opposite
strands. The rule is that Adenine pairs with Thymine through two H-bonds, and Guanine with Cytosine through three H-
bonds. SCSGYAN
• Salmonella typhi is a pathogenic bacterium which causes typhoid fever in human beings. These pathogens generally enter
the small intestine through food and water contaminated with them and migrate to other organs through blood. Sustained
high fever (39° to 40°C), weakness, stomach pain, constipation, headache and loss of appetite are some of the common
symptoms of this disease.
• Bacteria like Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae are responsible for the disease pneumonia in
humans which infects the alveoli (air filled sacs) of the lungs. As a result of the infection, the alveoli get filled with fluid
leading to severe problems in respiration.
• Different species of Plasmodium (P. vivax, P. malaria and P. falciparum) are responsible for different types of malaria. Of
these, malignant malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum is the most serious one and can even be fatal.
• Many fungi belonging to the genera Microsporum, Trichophyton and Epidermophyton are responsible for ringworms
which is one of the most common infectious diseases in man.
• Coca alkaloid or cocaine is obtained from coca plant Erythroxylum coca, native to South America. It interferes with the
transport of the neuro-transmitter dopamine. Cocaine, commonly called coke or crack is usually snorted. It has a potent
stimulating action on central nervous system, producing a sense of euphoria and increased energy. Excessive dosage of
cocaine causes hallucinations. Other well-known plants with hallucinogenic properties are Atropa belladona and Datura.
These days cannabinoids are also being abused by some sportspersons.
• Cyanobacteria are autotrophic microbes widely distributed in aquatic and terrestrial environments many of which can fix
atmospheric nitrogen, e.g., Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillatoria, etc. In paddy fields, cyanobacteria serve as an important
biofertiliser. Blue green algae also add organic matter to the soil and increase its fertility.
• The path taken by a fluid particle under a steady flow is a streamline. It is defined as a curve whose tangent at any point is
in the direction of the fluid velocity at that point.
• The carburetor of automobile has a Venturi channel (nozzle) through which air flows with a high speed.
• The blood pressure of a patient is presented as the ratio of systolic/diastolic pressures. For a resting healthy adult it is
typically 120/80 mm of Hg (120/80 torr). Pressures above 140/90 require medical attention and advice. High blood
pressures may seriously damage the heart, kidney and other organs and there for, it must be controlled.
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that ‘two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third system separately are in
thermal equilibrium with each other’. The Zeroth Law leads to the concept of temperature.
• A quasi-static process is an infinitely slow process such that the system remains in thermal and mechanical equilibrium
with the surroundings throughout. In a quasi-static process, the pressure and temperature of the environment can differ
from those of the system only infinitesimally.

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