AQA A Level Physics Your notes
Refraction
Contents
Refraction at a Plane Surface
Snell's Law
Fibre Optics
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Refraction at a Plane Surface
Your notes
Refractive Index
The refractive index of a material is the ratio of how fast light travels through that
particular substance compared to the speed of light in a vacuum
Refraction
Refraction is:
The change in direction of a wave when it passes through a boundary between
mediums of different density
This change of direction is caused by a change in the speed of different parts of the
wavefront as they hit the boundary
In optics, the word medium is used to describe a transparent material
A wavefront changes direction when part of it hits a boundary and changes speed before
the other parts
Conditions for refraction
The more optically dense the medium, the slower the waves travel and the smaller the
angle of refraction
The light bends towards the normal
The less optically dense the medium, the faster the waves travel and the larger the angle
of refraction
The light bends away from the normal
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The amount of refraction that takes place is determined by the difference between the
angles of incidence (i) and refraction (r) of the waves at the boundary
Your notes
The angles of incidence and refraction are measured from the normal line
This is drawn at 90° to the boundary between the two media
The angle of incidence is the angle between the approaching incident ray and the normal.
The angle of refraction is the angle between the ray leaving the boundary and the normal.
The amount of change in direction that takes place depends on the difference in
optical density between the two media
When light passes from a less dense medium to a more dense medium, (e.g. air → glass):
The refracted light has a lower speed and a shorter wavelength than the incident
light
When light passes from a more dense medium to a less dense medium (e.g. glass → air):
The refracted light has a higher speed and a longer wavelength than the incident
light
When light passes from a less to a more dense material the ray refracts towards the
normal
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When a wave refracts, its speed and wavelength change, but its frequency remains the
same
Your notes
This is noticeable by the fact that the colour of the wave does not change
When the light ray is incident on the boundary at 90°:
The wave passes straight through without direction
This is because the whole wavefront enters the boundary at the same time
Light travelling along the normal to the boundary between material 1 and material 2
Refractive Index
The refractive index, n, is a property of a material which measures how much light slows
down when passing through it
The refractive index of a material is calculated using the equation:
Where:
n = refractive index of material
c = the speed of light in a vacuum (m s–1)
cs = the speed of light in a substance (m s–1)
Note that, being a ratio, the absolute refractive index is a dimensionless quantity
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This means that it has no units
Light travels at different speeds within different substances depending on their Your notes
refractive index
A material with a high refractive index is called optically dense, such a material
causes light to travel slower
Since the speed of light in a substance will always be less than the speed of light in a
vacuum, the value of n is always greater than 1
In calculations, the refractive index of air can be taken to be approximately 1
This is because light does not slow down significantly when travelling through air (as
opposed to travelling through a vacuum)
Examiner Tips and Tricks
It can be tricky to understand the concept of refraction. Imagine a car driving at an
angle from a road and onto a patch of mud. The wheel that hits the mud will slow down
first whilst the second wheel continues to travel at the initial speed. This causes the
car to turn.
Always double-check if your calculations for the refractive index are greater than 1.
Otherwise, something has gone wrong in your calculation! The refractive index of air
will not be given in the question. Always assume that nair = 1. The refractive index of air
is often written as n or n1 when solving questions.
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Snell's Law
Your notes
Snell's Law
Snell’s law relates the angle of incidence to the angle of refraction at a boundary
between two media and is given by:
n 1 sin θ 1 = n 2 sin θ 2
Where:
n1 = the refractive index of material 1
n2 = the refractive index of material 2
θ1 = the angle of incidence of the ray in material 1
θ2 = the angle of refraction of the ray in material 2
Angles θ1 and θ2 are always measured from the normal
The ray of light passes from Material 1 to Material 2
Worked Example
A light ray is directed at a vertical face of a glass cube. The angle of incidence at the
vertical face is 39°, and the angle of refraction is 25°, as shown in the diagram.
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Your notes
Show that the refractive index of the glass is about 1.5.
Answer:
Step 1: Write down the known quantities
Refractive index of air, n = 1
1
Refractive index of glass = n
2
Angle of incidence, θ = 39°
1
Angle of refraction, θ = 25°
2
Step 2: Write out Snell's law
n2 sin θ 1
=
n1 sin θ 2
Step 3: Calculate the refractive index of glass
sin 39°
n2 = = 1 . 489 = 1 . 5 (2 s . f . )
sin 25°
Note: In a "show that" question, the answer should be given to at least one more
significant figure than the value given in the question
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Always check that the angle of incidence and refraction are the angles between the
normal and the light ray. If the angle between the light ray and the boundary is
calculated instead, calculate 90 – θ (since the normal is perpendicular to the
boundary) to get the correct angle.
Also check that your calculator is in degrees and not radians.
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Keeping track of which angles are θ1 and which are θ2 can be tricky. To help label each
angle as the angle for the material
Your notes
Total Internal Reflection
Critical angle
The larger the refractive index of a material, the smaller the critical angle
For a larger n then θC is smaller
When light is shone at a boundary between a denser and a less dense material, different
angles of incidence result in different angles of refraction
As the angle of incidence is increased, the angle of refraction also increases
Until the angle of incidence reaches the critical angle
When the angle of incidence = critical angle then:
Angle of refraction = 90°
The refracted ray is refracted along the boundary between the two materials
When the angle of incidence < critical angle then:
the ray is refracted and exits the material
When the angle of incidence > critical angle then:
the ray undergoes total internal reflection
As the angle of incidence increases it will eventually exceed the critical angle and lead to
the total internal reflection of the light
Critical angle equation
The critical angle of material 1 is found using the equation:
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n2
sin θ c =
n1 Your notes
Where:
n1 = refractive index of material 1
n2 = refractive index of material 2
θc = critical angle of material 1
The formula finds the critical angle of the denominator of the fraction
The critical angle can also be calculated using the angles of incidence and refraction:
n2 sin θ 1
sin θ c = =
n1 sin θ 2
Total internal reflection
Total internal reflection is a special case of refraction that occurs when:
The angle of incidence within the denser medium is greater than the critical
angle (I > θc)
The incident refractive index n1 is greater than the refractive index of the material at
the boundary n2 (n1 > n2)
Total internal reflection follows the law of reflection
angle of incidence = angle of reflection
A denser medium has a higher refractive index
For example, the refractive index of glass, ng > the refractive index of air, na
Light rays inside a material with a higher refractive index are more likely to be totally
internally reflected
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Angles of incidence, reflection and refraction to satisfy the conditions for total internal
reflection
Your notes
Worked Example
A glass cube is held in contact with a liquid, and a light ray is directed at the vertical
face of the cube. When the angle of incidence at the vertical face is 39° and the angle
of refraction is 25°, as shown in the diagram, the light ray is totally internally reflected
at X for the first time.
(i) Complete the diagram to show the path of the ray beyond X to the air and calculate
the critical angle for the glass-liquid boundary.
(ii) The refractive index of the glass is 1.489. Calculate the refractive index of the liquid.
Answer:
(i)
Step 1: Draw the reflected angle at the glass-liquid boundary
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When a light ray is reflected, the angle of incidence = angle of reflection
Therefore, the angle of incidence (or reflection) is 90° – 25° = 65°
Step 2: Draw the refracted angle at the glass-air boundary Your notes
At the glass-air boundary, the light ray refracts away from the normal when the
ray leaves to air (as air is less dense)
Due to the reflection, the light rays are symmetrical on either side of the glass
(39°)
Step 3: Calculate the critical angle for the glass-liquid boundary
The question states the ray is “totally internally reflected for the first time”
meaning that this is the smallest angle at which TIR occurs
Therefore, 65° is the critical angle
(ii)
Step 1: Write down the known quantities
Refractive index of glass, n1 = 1.489
Refractive index of liquid = n2
Angle of incidence / critical angle, θ1 = θc = 65°
Angle of refraction, θ2 = 90°
When the angle of incidence = critical angle, the ray travels along the
boundary between the media, making it perpendicular to the normal
Step 2: Write out Snell’s law or the equation for critical angle
n2 sin θ 1 n2
= or sin θ =
n1 sin θ 2 c n1
Step 3: Calculate the refractive index of the liquid
sin θ 1
n2 = n1 ×
sin θ 2
sin 65°
n 2 = 1 . 489 × = 1 . 35 (3 s . f . )
sin 90°
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Fibre Optics
Your notes
Fibre Optics
Total internal reflection is used to reflect light along optical fibres
Light, that is normally monochromatic, refracts when it enters the optical fibre at
one end
It undergoes repeated total internal reflection against the sides of the fibre until it
reaches the other end
Where it is refracted back out
In this process, the light signals travel long distances without losing information or
speed
Optical fibres utilise total internal reflection where the angle of incidence on the side of
the fibre is greater than the critical angle
These have many important uses, including:
Communications, such as telephone and internet transmission
Medical imaging, such as endoscopes
The three main components of optical fibres are:
An optically dense core tube, made of plastic or glass
A lower optically dense cladding surrounding the core
An outer sheath
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A light ray is totally internally reflected down an optical fibre against the core-cladding
boundary
Your notes
TIR only occurs when ncladding < ncore
This type of optical fibre is called a step-index fibre because the refractive index of
each component increases moving from the outside to the centre of the fibre
The role of the cladding is to:
Protect the thin core from damage and scratching
Prevent signal degradation through light escaping the core, which can cause
information from the signal to be lost
It keeps the signals secure and maintains the original signal quality
It keeps the core separate from other fibres preventing information crossover
Material & Modal Dispersion
Material and model dispersion both cause pulse broadening
Where the pulses emerging from the fibre are longer than those entering
Material Dispersion
When white light is used instead of monochromatic light inside an optical fibre it is
separated into all the colours of the spectrum
The white light is therefore dispersed, so the beam gets wider as it travels down the
optical fibre
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White light is dispersed into its spectral components
Each wavelength of light travels at the same speed in a vacuum but at different speeds Your notes
in a medium
Violet light has the shortest wavelength, so it travels the slowest in the fibre
This means its angle of incidence on the fibre boundary is smallest compared to the
other colours
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, so the angle of reflection
is also smaller
This means it takes longer for the violet colour to travel down the fibre because it
undergoes more reflections
Remember when a light ray is reflected then the angle of incidence = angle of reflection
Modal Dispersion
Modal dispersion occurs when the monochromatic light pulses in the optical fibre
spread out
This is because each part of the wavefront has a different angle of incidence and
consequently a different angle of reflection
So each part of the wavefront undergoes total internal reflection a different
number of times
Hence, each part of the wavefront reaches the end of the fibre at a slightly different
time
This effect is more prominent when the core of the fibre is wider
So the total internal reflection takes place more times
To prevent modal dispersion, the core needs to be very narrow
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Your notes
Modal dispersion occurs in a wide optical fibre where it spreads out and broadens
Pulse Broadening & Absorption
The absorption of a signal in an optical fibre occurs when the fibre absorbs part of the
signal’s energy
This reduces the amplitude of the signal, which can lead to a loss in the information
transmitted
Pulse broadening is caused by modal and material dispersion
This can result in the merging of pulses, which distorts the information in the final
pulse and decreases the amplitude of the signal
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Reducing Pulse Broadening & Absorption
To reduce absorption: Your notes
Use an extremely transparent core
Use optical fibre repeaters so the pulse is regenerated before significant
absorption has taken place
To reduce pulse broadening:
Use a core that is as narrow as possible to reduce the possible differences in the path
length of the signal
Use of a monochromatic source so the speed of the pulse is constant
Use optical fibre repeaters so the pulse is regenerated before significant pulse
broadening has taken place
Use a single-mode fibre, where only a single wavelength of light passes through the
core, to reduce multipath modal dispersion
Worked Example
A cross-sectional view of a step-index optical fibre is shown in the diagram.
The light ray enters the end of the fibre and refracts along the core-cladding
boundary.
Calculate the angle of incidence, θ, of the ray at the point of entry to the fibre.
The speed of light in the core is 2.027 × 108 m s–1
The speed of light in the cladding is 2.055 × 108 m s–1
Answer:
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Your notes
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