Course Title: Solar Photovoltaic System

Course No: ESE 3207

Course teacher : Nibir Mondol
Assistant Professor
Department of ESE , KUET.
 Syllabus of This Course:

Introduction: PV physics, band structure and Fermi level in semiconductors,

pn-junctions, diode models, photon interactions with semiconductors.

PV Cell Fundamentals: Working principle, Computing PV cell power,

equivalent circuit models, short- and open-circuit properties, fill factor, and
parasitic resistances. PV cell external and internal quantum efficiency, and
computing the spectral response. Theoretical cell efficiency, multi-junction
devices, the Shockley-Queisser limit. Antireflection coatings, cell
passivation, and cell optical properties.
 Syllabus of This Course
PV Technology: PV cell architecture and fabrication steps,
characterization techniques crystalline Si substrates, thin film
deposition, amorphous Si, CIGS, and Cd-Te thin-film cells.
 Syllabus of This Course

PV Systems:
Introduction to PV systems,
Location and orientation issues,
factor affecting performance,
PV cells wired in series and parallel, shaded and faulty cell effects, Components of PV
systems,
system integration- online and offline,
inverters,
design criteria,
calculation,
economics and ecology of PV system,
load analysis,
life cycle analysis and cost estimation.
 Reference Books

1. Solar Photovoltaic System Applications: A Guidebook for Off-Grid

Electrification -Mohanty, Parimita, Muneer, Tariq, Kolhe. Mohan L.

[Link] Photovoltaic Technology And Systems - Chetan Singh Solanki

3. Photovoltaic Systems Engineering - Roger A. Messenger

 PV Array
Components

oPV Cells
oModules
oArrays
 Parameters of Solar Cells
A solar cell converts the sunlight into electricity. How nicely a solar cell
does the conversion of sunlight into electricity is determined the
parameters of solar cells. There are several parameters of solar cells that
determine the effectiveness of sunlight to electricity conversion. the list
of solar cell parameters is following:
These parameters can be best understood by Current-Voltage curve (I -V curve) of
a solar cell. The representation of I -V curve is plotted in Figure
Short Circuit Current (Isc)
It is the maximum current (in A or mA) produced by the cell under given conditions of irradiance and
surrounding temperature. Isc is the current when the load is short-circuited, i.e. the output voltage is
zero. The output power at this point is essentially zero.
Open Circuit Voltage (Voc)
It is the maximum voltage generated by the cell under given conditions of light and temperature.
Voc is the voltage when the load is open-circuited, i.e. the output current is zero. The output power at
this point is again essentially zero.
 Electrical Parameters of a Solar Cell
The graphical representation of the relation between the current and voltage produced by a solar cell
is the standard form of representing the output of the cell. This graphical representation is called
current-voltage curve (I-V curve). The I-V curve represents the snap-shot of all the potential
combinations of current and voltage possible from a cell under specified environmental conditions
like irradiance, air mass and surrounding temperature.
Maximum Power (Pmax)
It is the maximum power that can be delivered from the cell under specific environmental conditions.
The point at I-V curve at which the maximum power is attainable is called Maximum Power Point
(MPP).
Current at Maximum Power (Imp) –
It is the current that results in maximum power. Imp is also called the “Rated” current of the cell.
Voltage at Maximum Power (Vmp) –
The voltage that results in maximum power output is called Voltage at maximum power. Vmp is
also called “Rated” voltage of the cell.

Fill Factor (FF) –

The fill factor is a figure of merit that indicates the “squareness” of the I-V curve. It is the ratio
of the actual maximum power Pmax to the unattainable but ideal power that would result from
operating at Isc and Voc.

Total Area Efficiency –

It is the ratio of electrical power output (typically the Pmax) to the total light power incident on
the entire cell area including frames (if applicable), interconnects and pattern lines on the
surface.
The voltage at maximum power point (MPP) of a single solar cell is approximately 0.5
volt under full sunlight. This voltage varies with the exact semiconductor materials
used and is slightly affected by the temperature. The most important fact is that this
voltage does not depend upon the area (or size) of the cell.
On the other hand, the current produced by a cell is the function of cell area, intensity
of light, the semiconductor material used and the surrounding temperature. The larger
the surface area, the more light will enter the cell and more current will be released.
The typical value of Imp for a Cz monocrystalline cell is about 30 mA per square
centimeter and for a Amorphous cell it is about 9 mA/[Link].
The conversion efficiency
Change in the Amount of Input Light
A PV cell can be characterized by the short circuit current Isc, the open circuit voltage is Voc. Isc is the
greatest value of the current generated by the cell is given by

where G is the solar radiance, Is is the photo generated current, Id is the diode current, I is the
output current, V is the voltage terminal, Io is the diode reverse saturation current bias, q is the
electron charge, m is the diode ideality factor, k is the Boltzman's constant, and T is the cell
temperature
 Factors Affecting Electricity Generated by a Solar PV Module

•
The modules consist of several cells electrically interconnected to each other in series or/and parallel. A solar cell converts some fraction of light energy
falling on it into electrical energy. In this way, a PV module also converts only some portion of the total light falling on it into electrical energy.
The ratio of electrical energy generated to the input light energy is referred as conversion efficiency of PV modules. The efficiency of modules is
always less than the efficiency of solar cells used in it.
All solar cells used in PV modules may not be perfectly identical, that is, all the parameters of solar cells may not be exactly identical. Difference in
solar cells used in PV modules results in less power generation when connected in modules.
Also, the module area is always larger than the total cells area as the spacing area between the cells is considered (shown in Figure ). The area
considered for the calculation of efficiency affects the conversion efficiency. The conversion efficiency of module basically depends on the solar cells
used and the method used for interconnecting them. In a module, the cells can be inter-connected in series or parallel combination. Once a module is
assembled, its efficiency value becomes fixed and it generally does not change.
The efficiency of a module is given in terms of maximum power (Pmax) or peak power (Pm) that module can generate for a given input solar radiation.
The Pmax output or Pm output of module depends on voltage developed across module terminal and current it can supply. In a module, the type of cells
inter-connection greatly affects the output power. If the instantaneous solar radiation or power density is Pin, the expression for the efficiency (h) of
module can be given as:
 Change in the Amount of Input Light (Pin )
the amount of sunlight (intensity of sunlight), falling on solar PV module keeps
changing from morning to evening. The current and voltage output of a solar PV
module depends on the amount of light falling on it. The electric current generated by
solar PV is directly proportional to the amount of light falling on it.
Suppose, a solar PV module produces 5A current under 1000 W/m2 input solar
radiation, then under 500 W/m2 input solar radiation, the PV module will only produce
2.5 A current (because input radiation is half).
As the amount of sunlight falling on solar PV module increases from morning till
afternoon, the current output of a solar PV module also increases from morning till
afternoon. From afternoon till evening, the amount of sunlight falling on a solar PV
module decreases, and hence the current output of a solar PV module also decreases
from afternoon till evening.
The output voltage of a solar PV module is not affected strongly by change in the
amount of light. If a solar PV module produces 20 V at noon time, its voltage will
roughly remain same in the morning as well as evening hours.
The solar PV module current output is proportional to the amount of solar radiation and voltage is
relatively not affected by variation in the sunlight intensity.
Therefore, the amount of power generated (Power = Current x Voltage) by solar PV module is
proportional to the amount of light falling on it. The amount of power generated by the solar PV
modules throughout the day keeps changing (i.e., it is not constant). So, a solar PV module gives high
power when the intensity of light falling is high. Similarly, less power is generated when the intensity
of light falling is low. An example of a 75 Wp (or 75 Wmax or 75 Wm) PV module is shown in
Figure . The expected power output of the 75 Wp PV module under various input solar radiation
intensity is given, including the PV module power output under STC. The corresponding I-V
characteristics of the same PV module, for 25 °C cell temperature and for various solar radiation
intensity (1000 W/m2, 800 W/m2, 600 W/m2, 400 W/m2 and 200 W/m2) are also given in Figure.
 Effect of Change in PV Module Temperature
Like all other semiconductor devices, solar cells are sensitive to temperature. Increases in temperature reduce
the bandgap of a semiconductor, thereby effecting most of the semiconductor material parameters. The
decrease in the band gap of a semiconductor with increasing temperature can be viewed as increasing the
energy of the electrons in the material. Lower energy is therefore needed to break the bond. In the bond model
of a semiconductor bandgap, a reduction in the bond energy also reduces the bandgap. Therefore increasing
the temperature reduces the bandgap.
The solar PV modules output voltage, power and efficiency ratings are given at standard test condition (STC =
1000 W/m2 and 25 °C). The PV module output voltage, PV module efficiency and output power depends on
cell temperature in PV module. In practical applications, the operating temperature of solar cells in PV
modules may be different than 25 °C. The cell temperature varies due to ambient temperature. In many cases,
the ambient temperature is higher than the STC temperature of 25 °C.
Moreover, in practice, the cells in a PV module are encapsulated with glass cover. The presence of glass cover
has a greenhouse effect, which results in heating of solar cells and increase in their temperature. The change in
temperature from standard operating temperature directly affects the output voltage of a PV module. With
increase in cell temperature in PV modules, the voltage output of PV module decreases, which results in
decrease in PV module efficiency and PV module output power.
The change in PV module parameters with increase in cell’s operating temperature (or temperature coefficient
of PV module parameters) in PV module is given in Table. The different values of module output at different
temperatures.
where:
q is the electronic charge .
A is the area;
D is the diffusivity of the minority carrier given for silicon as a function of doping in the Silicon Material
L is the minority carrier diffusion length;
ND is the doping; and
ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration given for silicon in the Silicon Material.
Typical Value of Change in Parameter Value Per °C Rise in Cell Temperature From Standard Test
Condition (STC) Value of 25 °C (The PV module parameters of various commercially available
technologies are given)
The temperature coefficient of parameters is given in percentage of parameter value at STC. Thus,
following formulae can be written to find out the change in parameter value as compared to STC
value due to increase in temperature:
 Temperature Effects on Short Circuit Current
When the temperature increases on PV cell, the sc I also increases simultaneously. In this
case, the band gap of PV cell shrinks (4 to 5.6x10-4 eV/deg , so that more number of
electrons could move easily from the valence band to the conduction band.
Similar effects observed with increases in solar irradiation. The PV module output current (I)
and voltage (V) can be predicted from the standard values of I-V curve and correction factors
( a = -0.009 °C -1 , δ= --0.0039, β = - 0.0028°C -1 ). The relationship expression is given by
 Temperature Effect on the Band Gap Level
In direct band gap semiconductor material, the electrons fall off and to occupy an empty state of
valence band, which releases the energy in terms of photons of light.
However, in indirect band gap semiconductor, the electrons fall off and occupy an empty state of
valence band which releases the thermal heat in the band gap of semiconductor material. The
influence of thermal effects of the various PV cell material bandgap level changes due to variation in
operating temperature level.
 Need for cooling
The change in surface temperature is influenced by external climate variables such as sunlight, wind velocity,
moisture, atmospheric temperature and concentrated dust.
Improvement of efficiency can be accomplished by reducing the operating temperature as it is more problematic
to modify other parameters involved. Of example, in the construction of photovoltaic panels on the building
facades, which are vertical and non-directional surfaces, solar radiation is an uncontrollable parameter.
To make photovoltaics more efficient, by avoiding the issue of temperature rise, a variety of cooling techniques
have been carried out.
Scientists are working on cooling systems for reducing solar cell operating temperatures, which are known as
active and passive cooling systems.
The appropriate cooling of the P.V. array tends to reduce the loss of output and increases the reliability of the P.V.
module. Passive cooling and active methods of cooling are employed to improve performance of P·V. modules.
Active cooling requires a coolant, like air or water, which typically involves fan or pump power Whereas passive
cooling requires no special power to cool P.V. cells . In order to control and maintain the operating temperature,
extensive research was carried out on the use of liquid coolant, air and other liquids, often water or glycols.
Whether or not increased power output through active cooling will offset power consumption is an important
economic factor.
Passive cooling techniques are classified into three main categories: passive cooling of the air, passive cooling of
water and conductive cooling. Passive cooling might include extra components, like heat pipe or sink or
exchanger to drive natural convection cooling . The heat sinks were indeed high thermally conductive material.
They are placed at the bottom of the solar panel to maintain the overall transfer of heat from the panel to the local
environment . Passive cooling technologies are, therefore considered to be effective in reducing the temperature
of P.V. cells, as they are relatively easy and cost-effective to produce.
Cooling technologies have evolved towards more complex approaches,
which include heat sinks, microchannels, heat exchangers,
phase - change materials (PCMs),
nano-fluids, thermoelectric generators (TEGs) or combinations with
other systems.

The novel, sophisticated field relates to beam splitting (or spectrum

filter) technology, which distinguishes the wavelengths used for P.V.
cells from those used for the thermal conversion of the PVT system.
The amount of maximum output current (Isc or short circuit current) of a solar cells
depends on the area of a solar cells. The current output is directly proportional to the
cell area. So, when solar cell area is large, the amount of electric current generated
by it will be large. Similarly, less amount of electric current will be generated
when the cell area is small. For a given amount of input sunlight if 100 cm2 cell
produces 2 A current, then a 200 cm2 cell will produce 4 A current, and a 50 cm2
cell will produce 1 A current under same input sunlight intensity. When we divide
the generated current by area of solar cells, we get current/area or current per unit
area, which is also referred as current density. The current density is given in units
of A/cm2 or mA/cm2. The current density of solar cell does not depend on area and
for a given sunlight intensity the current density of solar cell is also fixed.
The output voltage of solar cells does not change with the change in solar cell area (A). The output
voltage is independent of cell area. Thus, at a given input sunlight intensity, if a 100 cm2 cell
produces 0.5 V, then cell of 100 cm2, or 200 cm2 or 50 cm2 or 10 cm2, etc. will produce same 0.5 V.
Generally, the modules of a large area give high power compared to the modules of
a small area. It is very important to understand the reason behind it. When we say
the area of a module has increased or decreased, it means the area of module
increases or decreases with the increase or decrease in the number of cells in a
module. For example in a module there are 36 cells and the area of each cell is 156
cm2 then total area of 36 cells = 36 × 156 = 562 cm2 = 0.562 m2. Now, if the
number of cells in same module is increased to say 72 cells then the total area of
cells becomes 1.12 m2 (i.e., double of 0.562 m2).
Comparsion of Commercially Available Modules of Different Wattages at Stc
Along with A, Im, Vm and n Respectively
 Change in Angle of Light Falling on Solar Cell (q )
The angle of sunlight with respect to solar cell greatly affects the output power. Solar cell produces
maximum power (for given light intensity) when sunlight falls perpendicular to the surface of solar
cells. When the light does not perpendicular to solar cells, it always gives less output power than
maximum possible output power. This is because when light falls at some angle, some part of light
falling on solar cell is reflected. Hence, the actual light utilized by a solar cell is less than the amount
of light falling on it. So, the output power generated is less when light is
not falling perpendicular to solar cell as shown in Figure 3.9. Therefore, one should always try to
install a solar cell or module in such a way that most of the time sunlight is close to perpendicular,
especially in the afternoon time when the intensity of sunlight is high.
 Solar tracking
Solar tracking is a technology used in solar energy systems to optimize the capture of sunlight
throughout the day by tracking the movement of the sun across the sky. The basic idea behind solar
tracking is to orient solar panels or mirrors in such a way that they continuously face the sun,
maximizing the amount of sunlight they receive. This increases the efficiency of solar energy
generation and can significantly improve the overall energy output of a solar installation.
There are several types of solar tracking systems:
Depending on the method of working, solar trackers can be categorised as:
– Passive Tracking Devices
– Active Tracking Devices
– Open Loop Trackers (controlled algorithms or simple timing systems)
Open Loop Trackers are further divided into two types:
– Timed Trackers
– Altitude / Azimuth Trackers
By the mode of their motion or directional flexibility, solar trackers can be categorised as:
– Single-Axis Solar Trackers
– Dual-Axis Solar Trackers
Single-axis Solar Trackers:
A single-axis tracker moves or adjusts the solar panels by rotating around one axis. Its movement is
usually aligned in North and South directions.
This device enables the PV panels to move in the direction of the sun as it rises and sets, i.e., from
East to West.
It enhances the efficiency of a solar system without having to install more PV modules. Notably, you
should install a single-axis tracking system on a flat area of land that is usually sunny and dry.
Although a single-axis solar tracking system has a high initial cost of installation, it can considerably
improve the productivity of your solar system.
Hence, it is capable of quickly recovering the expenses.

Dual-axis Solar Trackers:

A dual-axis tracker enables your panels to rotate on two axes simultaneously. It is aligned
horizontally as well as vertically, i.e., it can adjust in all directions – North, South, East, And West.
These trackers may be appropriate for some commercial properties. A dual-axis solar tracking system
is designed to maximize solar energy generation across the year.
It uses algorithms and sensors, which can track the changes corresponding to seasons and changes in
the height of the sun, alongside the general daily motion.
Dual-axis active solar tracker
Active Solar Tracker:

Most tracking systems installations are active solar tracking systems. These tracking systems have an
energy supply to run a motor or mechanical device. It helps to tilt the attached solar panels directly.

– An active solar tracker determines the intensity of the sunlight by utilising light sensors.
– Then, its system evaluates where the solar modules should be oriented.
– Active solar trackers are ideally suitable for large and complicated solar arrays.

Passive Solar Tracker:

A passive solar tracker tracks the sun without any additional source of energy. It moves by utilising the
heat from the sun to warm a gas present inside. When the gas expands, it creates a mechanical
movement of the PV panels.

The mechanism works in a way that if one side gets heated, the other side’s piston rises, which leads
to tilting the panel over the sunny side. When the sun sets, the gas cools and becomes compressed
again. Hence, the panels rotate back.
Solar tracking offers several advantages:
Increased Energy Production: Solar tracking can boost energy production by 20% to
40% compared to fixed solar panels.
Improved Efficiency: Panels or mirrors that continuously face the sun can operate closer
to their maximum efficiency, resulting in a higher energy yield.
Reduced Installation Costs: Solar tracking can reduce the number of solar panels needed
to generate a certain amount of energy because of their increased efficiency, potentially
saving on installation costs.
Simple & Eco-friendly Energy: Solar energy trackers are convenient devices to track the
sun for better energy output. The increased output offers a sustainable power source for our
requirements.
Land Optimization: Solar trackers are significant land optimisation tools. They can
generate more electricity than the installations devoid of tracking systems and occupy the
same amount of land.
Easy Monitoring: You can easily monitor the working of your solar tracking system from
your PC right away.
 Disadvantage of a Solar
Tracker
– High Cost: Solar tracking devices are a bit more expensive. They
have a high initial cost as they have moving parts.
– More Maintenance: Solar tracking systems demand more
maintenance. Though, the requirements of maintenance depend on the
type & quality of the tracking system.
– Site Preparation Requirements: All types of solar energy tracking
systems require significant preparation at the site of installation. It
includes additional trenching for wiring and grading, etc.
– Weather Constraints: A solar tracking system is not favorable in
snowy weather. Such tracking systems are only beneficial in hot
climates.