Dr. Atma Rai (M.

Tech, PhD)
Assistant Professor
 Coherent sources

 Conditions of interference

 Fresnel’s biprism experiment

 Displacement of fringes

 Interference in thin film

 Interference in wedge shaped film

 Newton’s ring
When light from two different sources moves in the same direction,
then these light waves superimpose upon each other. This results in the
modification of the intensity of light. This phenomenon is called
interference .
Example- Beautiful color in soap film, patch of oil floating on surface
of water etc.

More precisely, the interference can be defined as the interaction

between two or more waves of the same or very close frequencies
emitted from coherent sources (such as laser), where the wavefronts are
combined according to the law of superposition. The resulting variation
in the disturbances produced by the waves is called interference.
Thomas Young, in 1802 explained the interference successfully in his
double slit experiment.
Mathematical Interpretation-
 Let us consider two waves having amplitude a1 and a2 are traveling in
any medium. Let phase difference between these waves are φ then
the displacement due to these waves at any instant can be written as

y1  a1 sin t ……..(i)

y2  a2 sin(t   ) ……..(ii)

According to the principle of superposition, the resultant displacement y can be given as

y=y1+y2 ……..(iii)

y  a1 sin t  a2 sin(t   )
 a1 sin t  a2 sin t cos   a2 cos t sin 
 (a1  a2 cos  )sin t  a2 sin  cos t ……..(iv)
 Let us assume a1  a2 cos   A cos  ……..(v)
a2 sin   A sin  ……..(vi)

Now using equation (iv), (v) and (vi) we get

y  A sin(t   ) ……..(vii)
On squaring and adding equation (v) and (vi) we have
A2 (sin 2   cos 2  )  a22 sin 2   a12  2a1a2 cos   a22 cos 
A2  a12  a22  2a1a2 cos  ……..(viii)
The resultant intensity is therefore given by

I  A2  a12  a22  2a1a2 cos  ……..(ix)

The angle θ can be calculated from equation (v) and (vi)as

a2 sin 
tan   ……..(x)
a1  a2 cos 
Condition for Constructive interference-
For maximum intensity cos φ = 1 , i.e. φ=2nπ (n=0, 1, 2, 3……)
Then the maximum intensity can be given as

I max  (a1  a2 )2
 I max  a12  a22

Thus, the resultant intensity will be greater than the sum of the individual
intensities of the waves. Now if a1=a2=a, then

I max  4a 2
Condition for Destructive interference-
For minimum intensity cos φ = -1 , i.e. φ=(2n+1)π (n=0, 1, 2, 3……)
Then the minimum intensity can be given as
I min  (a1  a2 )2
 I min a12  a22

If a1=a2 , then minimum intensity will be I min  0

So , the condition for constructructive and destructive interference to take
place are as follows;

Constructive Destructive Interference

Interference /Minima/Dark Fringe
/Maxima/Bright Fringe

Phase 2nπ ; (n=0,1,2…etc) (2n+1)π ; (n=0,1,2…etc)

Difference i.e. 0, 2π, 4π, 6π…..
∆φ i.e. π, 3π, 5π, 7π……

Path nλ ; (n=0,1,2…etc) (n+1/2)λ ; (n=0,1,2…etc)

Difference
∆x i.e. 0, λ, 2λ, 3λ….. i.e. λ/2, 3λ/2, 5λ/2…..

Phase difference = (2π/λ) Path difference

 Graphical representation of intensity variations for a1=a2=a

Conservation of Energy
The resultant intensity due to the interference of two waves can be given as
I  a12  a22  2a1a2 cos 
I max  (a1  a2 ) 2
I min  (a1  a2 ) 2

If a1=a2=a then I max  4a 2and I min  0

so, average intensity can be obtained as
I avg  2a 2
For unequal amplitudes the average intensity would be a1  a2 .Thus, in interferenc
2 2

Only some part of energy is transferred from position of minima to the position of
Maxima, and the average intensity or energy remains conserved.
In order to observe interference in light waves, the following conditions must be
met:
• The sources must be coherent—that is, they must maintain a constant phase
with respect to each other.
• The sources should be monochromatic—that is, of a single wavelength.

 Coherence is a property of waves that helps in getting sustained interference. Two waves are
said to be coherent if they have a constant relative phase. This also means that they have
same frequency. The coherence of a wave depends on the characteristics of its source.
(a) Temporal coherence (b)Spatial coherence
Temporal coherence
Temporal coherence is a measure of the correlation between phases of the wave at different
points along the direction of wave propagation . Let a wave is traveling along positive x-
direction as shown in fig. where two points A and B are lying on x-axis.
Let the phase of the wave at these points at any time t be φA and φB,
respectively and a later time t’ they be φ’A and φ’B. Under this
situation if
φB – φA = φ’B – φ’A
Then the wave is said to have temporal coherence.

Spatial coherence
Spatial coherence is a measure of the correlation between the phases
of a wave at different points transverse to the direction of
propagation.
If the phase difference of the waves crossing the two points lying on
a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation is independent
of time , then the wave is said to have spatial coherence.
Let a wave is traveling along positive x-direction. PQRS is the transverse plane and A
and B are two points on this plane. Let the wave crossing these points at any time t have
the same phase φ and a later time t’ the phase of the waves are again the same but equal
to φ’. This is called spatial coherence .

Coherence length and coherence time are related by following formulae

L  ct

Coherence time
Coherence length
  Two sources of light are said to be coherent , if they emit waves of the same
frequency, nearly same amplitude and maintain a constant phase difference. Laser
is the best example of coherent source.
 In actual practice, it is not possible to have two independent sources which are
coherent. This can be explained as follows

A source of light consists of large number of atoms. Each atom consists of a nucleus
and electron which revolve in different orbits. When an atom gets sufficient energy by
any means, its electrons get excited and jump to higher state and fall back after 10-8s.
During this process atom radiate energy in the form of light. Out of large number of
atoms some radiate instantly and other radiate at different time. This results in the
emission of light waves with different phases. Therefore two independent source of
light can never act as a coherent source.
 An ordinary light bulb is an example of incoherent
source. One can produce coherent light from it by
using spatial and spectral filters.
 Condition for sustained/good Interference
Sustained interference means a constant interference of light waves. In
order to get such interference, the following conditions must satisfied.
 The two sources should emit waves of the same frequency
(wavelength). If it is not so, then the position of maxima and minima
change with time.
 The waves from the two sources should propagate along the same
direction with equal speeds.
 The phase difference between two interfering waves should be zero
or it should remain constant. It means the sources emitting these
waves must be coherent.
 The two coherent sources should be very close to each other,
otherwise the interference fringes will be very close to each other
due to the large path difference between the interfering waves. For
the large separation of sources, the fringes may even overlap and the
maxima and minima will not appear distinctly.
 A reasonable distances between sources and screen must be kept, as
 In order to obtain distinct and clear maxima and minima, the
amplitude of two interfering waves must be equal or nearly equal.
 If the source is not narrow, it may act as a multi source. This will lead
to number of interference patterns. Therefore, the coherent sources must
be narrow.
 In order to obtain the pattern with constant fringe width and good
intensity fringes, the sources should be monochromatic and background
should be dark.

Interference

Interference By Division of Interference By Division of

Wavefront Amplitude

Fresnel’s Biprism Interference in Thin film

Displacement of Fringes Interference in wedge shaped film
Newton’s Ring
 Interference By Division Interference By Division
of Wavefront of Amplitude

The incident wavefront is divided into The amplitude of the incoming beam is
two parts using the phenomenon of divided into two parts using the process of
reflection, refraction or diffraction. The reflection or refraction. Then the two parts
two parts of the wave fronts are then travel along different optical paths before
made to travel unequal distances before superimposing to produce the interference
joining each other at some angle, results pattern. Example–interference due to thin
into interference pattern. Example– film and wedge-shaped film, Newton's
Fresnel’s biprism, Lloyd’s mirror. ring .

 It is an optical device which is used to produce two

coherent sources of light by the phenomena of
refraction of light. In this we use division of wavefront
method to produce two coherent source of light.
It is combination of two prism which are joined with their bases in such a way that one
angle becomes obtuse angle 1790 and remaining two angles are acute angle 0.50.
Let monochromatic
light from slit S falls
on the biprism, placed
at a small distance
from S. When light
falls from S to the
upper part of biprism,
it bends downward
and appears to come
from S1. Similarly,
the other part of light
when falls on the
lower part of biprism,
it bends upward and
appears to come from
source S2 .
In this situation, S1 and S2 act as two virtual coherent source of light. On placing
the screen XY on right side of the biprism alternate bright and dark fringes
appears due to interference.
Let A and B be two virtual sources
of light separated by distance 2d.
The point C on the screen is
equidistant from A and B .
Therefore, the path difference for
two waves will be zero. Thus the
point C will be the centre of a
bright fringe. On both sides of C,
alternatively bright and dark
fringes are produced.
Let P be any point on screen which is xn distance away from C. from geometry we have
NP  xn  d ; MP  xn  d …………(i)
From triangle right angle triangle ANP similarly from triangle BMP we have
AP 2  D 2  ( xn  d ) 2
1 ( xn  d )2 …………(iii)

 D 1 
2 ( xn  d ) 2  BP  D 
 2 D
 D2 
1/ 2 Hence the path difference between waves
 ( xn  d ) 2 
 AP  D 1   reaching at P from S1 and S2 can be given as
 D2 
 1 ( xn  d ) 2   1 ( xn  d )2   1 ( xn  d ) 2 
AP  D 1     BP  AP   D    D  
 2 D2   2 D   2 D 
1 ( xn  d ) 2
AP  D  …………(ii)
2 D
  1 ( xn  d ) 2   1 ( xn  d ) 2 
  BP  AP   D    D  
 2 D   2 D 
4x d
 n
2D
2d
 xn …………(iv)
D

Condition for Bright Fringes-:

As we know that, for constructive interference the phase difference between waves
should be 2nπ or path difference must be integral multiple of λ, i.e.
  n where n= 0, 1, 2, 3….
2d
xn  n
D
n D
 xn  …………(v)
2d
As xn is the nth order bright fringe from the central maxima. Similarly the distance of
next maxima from C can be given as D
xn 1  (n  1)
2d
The separation between two consecutive maxima gives the fringe width β
D
  xn1  xn  …………(vi)
2d
Condition for Dark Fringes-:
In order to get destructive interference at point P, two rays must have phase difference
(2n+1)π or path difference (n+1/2)λ. Therefore
1 where n= 0, 1, 2, 3….
  ( n  )
2
2d 1
xn  (n  )
D 2
(2n  1) D
 xn  …………(vii)
4d
As xn is the nth order distance of dark fringe from the central maxima. Similarly the
distance of next (n+1)th minima from C can be given as
xn 1 
 2(n  1)  1  D
4d

xn 1 
 2n  3  D …………(viii)
4d
Hence the fringe width between two consecutive minima would be
(2n  3) D (2n  1) D
  xn 1  xn  
4d 4d
D …………(ix)

2d
It is clear from equation (vi) and (ix) that the bright and dark fringes are of equal width
Let S1 and S2 be two virtual coherent sources of light. The point C on the screen is
equidistant from two sources. If any transparent material plate G of thickness t and
refractive index μ is placed in the path of one of the light wave, it is observed that the
fringe which was originally at C shift to another position P.
Now, time required by light to reach from S1 to P is given by
S1 P  t t
T 
c v
c
S P  t (   1) as v 
T 1 …………(i) 
c
 So, the equivalent path is covered by light in air will be
S1P  t (   1)
Therefore, the optical path difference of two light at P can be given as
  S2 P   S1 P  t (   1) 
 S2 P  S1 P  t (   1)
2d
 xn  t (   1) …………(ii)
D
For central bright fringe ∆=nλ =0 (as n=0 for central bright fringe). Hence shift in
fringe can be given as
D
xn  (   1)t …………(iii)
2d
This equation is independent of n which shows that all the bright fringes are displaced
through the same amount. Similarly it can also be shown that the displacement of dark
fringe also be the same.
The thickness of the glass plate can also be estimated by knowing xn, 2d,D and μ
x .2d
t n
(   1) D
 Interference due to thin films
Thin film has two surfaces. The waves reflected from these surfaces can attain a path difference
and interfere. The same may be applied on the waves that transmitted through the film.

Let a transparent thin film of thickness t and refractive index μ. A ray of light AB
incident at an angle i on upper surface of film, is partly reflected along BC and partly
refracted along BF at an angle r. at point F, it again partly reflected from second surface
along FD and partly emerges out along FK and so on. In this situation, the interference
occurs between BC and DE. Similarly the same occurs between transmitted ray
between FK and GL.
 The path difference between the reflected rays

A= (BF+FD)in film - (BM)in air

A=μ (BF+FD) - BМ
BF=FD

A=2 µBF-BM (i)

In the right angled ABFH,

1
cos r=- or BF = (ii)
BF cos

BH
and tan r= or BH =t tan r
t

BD=2x BH

BD =2t tan r
(iii)
In the ABMD,

BM
sin i=or BM = BD sin i
BD

BM=2t tan r sin i (iv)

From Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iv), we get

t
A=2μ - 2t tan r sin i (v)
cos r

sin i
=or sin i= u sin r (vi)
sin r

2ut
Δ= -21µ sin
sin r
r= 2t_[1- sin²r]
cos cos COS r

A = 2ut cos r (vii)

Equation (vii) represents only apparent path difference and does not represent the
effective total path difference. When the light is reflected from the surface of an
optically denser medium (such as ray BC), a phase change of π equivalent to the path
difference of λ/2 is introduced. Therefore the total path difference between BC and DE
will be given as 
  2t cos r  …………(viii)
2
Condition for Maxima:
  n ( n= 0, 1, 2, 3….) …………(ix)
From equation (viii) and (ix) we have

2  t cos r   n
2

2  t cos r  n 
2

2  t cos r  (2n  1) …………(x)
2

Condition for Minima:   (n  1 ) ( n= 0, 1, 2, 3….) …………(xi)

2
From equation (viii) and (xi) we have
2t cos r  n …………(xii)
In order to obtain the interference between the transmitted waves, we calculate the path
difference between the waves, FK and GL
Since two waves are emerging from the same medium, so the additional phase/path
difference will not be introduced. Hence the effective path difference will be
  2t cos r …………(xvii)

Condition for Maxima:

2t cos r  n ( n= 0, 1, 2, 3….) …………(xix)

Condition for Minima:

1
2t cos r  (n  ) ( n= 0, 1, 2, 3….) …………(xx)
2
Thus the condition for interference with transmitted light are obviously opposite to
those obtained with reflected light. Hence if the film appears dark in reflected light, it
will appear bright in the transmitted light and vice versa. This shows that the
interference pattern in the reflected and transmitted lights are complementary to each
other.
A thin film of varying thickness having a zero thickness at one end and progressively
increasing to a particular thickness at other end is known as a wedge. The interference
pattern obtained from such type of film is interesting and discussed below.

Let two plane surfaces of air thin film OM and OM’ are inclined at an angle θ. When a
beam of monochromatic light is incident on upper surface of film then the interference
pattern appears between rays reflected at lower and upper surfaces of the film.
The path difference between two reflected rays

  [ BC  CD] film  [ BE ]air

  ( BC  CD)  BE
CD  CI
   ( BC  CI )  BE
   BI  BE
   ( BN  NI )  BE …………(i)

In right angled ∆BED, BE

sin i  …………(ii)
BD
In right angled ∆BND, sin r 
BN
BD …………(iii)

Dividing eq. (ii) by (iii), we get

sin i BE
 
sin r BN
 BE   BN …………(iv)

From eq. (i) and (iv), we get

   NI …………(v)
 NI
cos(r   ) 
In right angled ∆ DNI, DI
DI  DH  HI  t  t  2t
NI
so cos(r   ) 
DI
NI  2t cos(r   ) …………(vi)
From eq. (v) and (vi), we get   2t cos(r   ) …………(vii)
As we already know that, in case of reflected light, a phase difference π (stokes phase
change) is introduced when it reflect at the boundary of denser medium. Hence total
path difference in that case becomes

  2t cos(r   )  …………(viii)
2
It is clear from the above equation that path difference between two reflected rays
depends on thickness t of the thin film which is not uniform and it is different at
different position.

At t = 0 
2
Which is the condition of darkness, therefore edge of the film appears to be dark. This
is called zero order band.
For normal incidence i=0 and r=0, then the path difference becomes

  2t cos   …………(ix)
2
Condition for Maxima:
  n ( n= 0, 1, 2, 3….) …………(x)

From equation (ix) and (x) we have 

2 t cos    n
2
 …………(xi)
or 2 t cos   (2n  1)
2
Condition for Minima:
1
  ( n  ) ( n= 0, 1, 2, 3….) …………(xii)
2
From equation (viii) and (xi) we have
 1
2t cos    (n  )
2 2
or 2t cos   n …………(xiii)
 If a plano-convex lens is placed such that its curved surface lies on a glass plate,
then the air film of gradually increasing thickness is formed between the two
surfaces.
 When a beam of monochromatic light is allowed to fall normally on this film and
analyzed, an alternate dark and bright circular fringes are observed.
 These circular fringes are observed due to interference between the reflected waves
from the top and the bottom surfaces of air film. These fringes are circular since the
air film has a circular symmetry and the thickness of the film corresponding to each
fringe is same through out the circle.
 The path difference between two reflected rays can be given as

  2t cos(r   )  …………(i)
2
For normal incidence and air thin film, we have i=0, r=0 and μ=1. in addition to that is
θ is very small, then cos θ =1. under this situation, path difference becomes

  2t  …………(ii)
2
At the point of contact, t=0 hence we get


2

Which is the condition of minimum intensity and hence, the central spot of the ring will be dark.
Condition for Maxima:
  n ( n= 0, 1, 2, 3….) …………(iii)

From equation (ii) and (iii) we have 

2t   n
2

or 2t  (2n  1) …………(iv)
2
Condition for Minima:
1
  ( n  ) ( n= 0, 1, 2, 3….) …………(v)
2
From equation (ii) and (v) we have
 
2t   n 
2 2
or 2t  n …………(vi)
 Diameter of dark and bright Rings

Let us consider the thickness of air film at point Q be t, r is the radius of the fringe at
that point. Let R be the radius of curvature of the lens, then we have
OC=CQ=R , HQ=rn
HC=R-t
In right angled ∆ CHQ, We have
R2=(R-t)2+ rn2
Or rn2 = 2Rt-t2
In actual practice, R is quite large and t is very small. Therefore t2 may be neglected in
comparison with 2Rt.
hence rn2 = 2Rt= R * 2t …………(vii)
For Bright Ring:

For Dark Ring: 2t  n

rn2  n R
Dn2
 n R
4
Dn2  4n R
 Dn  n …………(x)
Thus the diameter of dark circular fringe is proportional to the square root of natural numbers.