POWER SYSTEM ENGINEERING

Complete Handwritten Notebook Digitalized Copy

Language: English & Punjabi Core Blend

Comprehensive Notes covering Power Transfer, SIL, Transmission Line Classification, Ferranti Effect, Skin
Effect, ACSR & Bundle Conductors, Line Constants, Transpositioning, and Insulators.

As per Notebook Page-by-Page Specifications

Power System Handwritten Notes Master Copy Page 1

1. Power Transfer & Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)

1.1 Core Power Transfer Formula

NOTEBOOK DATA

Power transfer between a Sending end (S) and Receiving end (R) over a line with reactance X_s is given by:

P = (E_f * V_t / X_s) * sin(θ)

[S] (Ef ∠ θ°) --------- Line (Xs) --------- [R] (Vt ∠ 0°)

ਪੰਜਾਬੀ EXPLANATION

ਂ ਫਰ ਹੋਵੇਗੀ। ਜੇ ਲਾਈਨ Loss Less Line ਹੋਵੇ, Surge Impedance Loading

ਇਹ ਫਾਰਮੂਲਾ ਦੱਸਦਾ ਹੈ ਕਿ ਇੱਕਿ ਜਗ੍ਹਾ ਤੋਂ ਦੂਜੀ ਜਗ੍ਹਾ ਕਿੰਨੀ ਪਾਵਰ ਟ੍ਰਾਸ
(SIL) ਹੋਵੇ, Natural Loading ਹੋਵੇ ਜਾਂ Flat Voltage Profile ਹੋਵੇ, ਤਾਂ ਹੇਠ ਲਖੀਆਂ ਸ਼ਰਤਾਂ ਬਣਦੀਆਂ ਹਨ:

1.2 Maximum Power Conditions

For maximum power transfer, we set E_f = V_t = V and power angle θ = 90°:

P_max = V^2 / X_s

ਨੋਟਬੁੱਕ ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਹਾਈਲਾਈਟ

ਜੇਕਿਰ P_max ਨੂੰ ਵਧਾਉਣਾ (high) ਹੈ, ਤਾਂ X_s ਨੂੰ ਘਟਾਉਣਾ (low) ਪਵੇਗਾ ਅਤੇ R ਹਮੇਸ਼ਾ High ਰੱ ਖਆ ਜਾਂਦਾ ਹੈ (X_s ↓, R ↑ high).

1.3 Surge Impedance & SIL Equation

Surge Impedance (Z_c): It is the characteristic impedance of a lossless line.

Z_c = √(L / C)

Surge Impedance Loading (SIL): The maximum power capacity of a line at SIL is:

SIL = V^2 / Z_c = V^2 / √(L/C) = V^2 * √(C / L)

(SIL)^2 = V^4 / (L/C) = (V^4 * C) / L

1.4 Drawback of High Capacitance

If Capacitance (C ↑) increases, the Charging Current (I_c ↑) also increases. As a result:

I_c ↑ ⇒ I^2R losses increase (↑)

Power System Handwritten Notes Master Copy Page 2

2. Classification of Transmission Lines
Transmission lines are classified into three types based on length and operational characteristics:

2.1 Short Transmission Line

• Length Range: 0 to 80 Km.
• Capacitive Effect: (↓) No capacitive effect is considered on this line.
• Thermal Effect: Due to load, I^2R (↑) Increase (Thermal heating effect).

2.2 Medium Transmission Line

• Length Range: 80 to 160 Km.
• Analysis Methods: 1) End Condenser Method, 2) T-Method, 3) π-Method.

T-Method Circuit Structure π-Method Circuit Structure

Series impedance is divided into two halves (L/2) and the The total inductance (L) is in the center, and the
entire capacitance (C) is lumped in the middle. capacitance is divided into two halves (C/2) at both
ends.
---[ L/2 ]---+---[ L/2 ]---
| ---+---[ L ]---+---
[ C ] | |
| [C/2] [C/2]
| |

Associated with Ferranti Effect.

2.3 Ferranti Effect

V_R > V_S

Receiving end voltage (V_R ↑) becomes greater than Sending end voltage (V_S ↓). This occurs specifically at No Load
or light load conditions due to high line capacitance (C ↑) and inductance (L).

2.4 Long Transmission Line

• Length Range: Above 160 Km.
• Voltage & Current Relations:
As Voltage (↑), since Power P = VI cosφ, Current decreases (I ↓ = P / (V * cosφ ↑)). This allows a smaller conductor
size (↓).

Power System Handwritten Notes Master Copy Page 3

3. Skin Effect & Conductor Types

3.1 Skin Effect Phenomenon

The tendency of alternating electric current flow mostly through the outer layer (skin) of the conductor rather than its
core is called Skin Effect. This occurs due to an increase in the conductor's internal inductive or capacitive effect on the
line caused by changes in frequency.

X_L = 2 * π * f * L (↑)

Concentric Circles representing inner high inductance L(↑) & Outer Layer path of Skin Effect

3.2 Precautions & Remedy for Skin Effect

1. The effective resistance (R) of the conductor should be increased (↑).
2. The effective cross-sectional area of the conductor must be increased by increasing the radius (↑).

Inductance relation: L ↓ = 2 * 10^(-7) * ln(D / r' ↑)

3.3 ACSR & Bundle Conductors

• ACSR: Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced. It is a composite stranded conductor. The inner strands are Steel
(for high mechanical strength) and outer strands are Aluminium (for current flow).
• Stranding Reason: ⇒ Stranding of conductor is done **To provide flexibility to the conductor**.
• Bundle Conductor: Consists of two or more sub-conductors separated by spacers (e.g., 30cm gap). Keeping the
gap uniform ensures that the **Inductance remains uniform**.

3.4 Overview of Conductor Materials

Materials available: Copper (Cu), Aluminium (Al), Silver (Ag), Gold (Au), ACSR, Bundle conductor, AAAC (All
Aluminium Alloy Conductor), Cd-Cu (Cadmium Copper), and Hard drawn copper.

Cost Constraint: Copper, Cadmium-Copper, Silver, and Gold are not used in transmission and distribution
due to their extremely high cost (↑), despite being excellent conductors with high current capacity (I ↑) and low
resistance (R ↓ = ρ * l / A ↑).

Power System Handwritten Notes Master Copy Page 4

 3.5 Sag & Span Mechanical Parameters

Tower [|] -------- Sag -------- [|] Tower

<------------------ Span ------------------>

Conductors must have a **Low Specific Gravity (S)** (ਘੱਟ ਹੋਣੀ ਚਾਹੀਦੀ ਹੈ).

ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਲਾਈਨ ਮਤਲਬ

ਜੇਕਿਰ Conductor ਦਾ Specific Gravity (S) ਘੱਟ ਹੋਵੇਗਾ, ਤਾਂ Span ਨੂੰ ਵਧਾਇਆ (↑) ਜਾ ਸਕਿਦਾ ਹੈ ਅਤੇ Sag ਘੱਟ (↓) ਹੋ ਜਾਂਦਾ ਹੈ, ਜੋ ਕਿ ਲਾਈਨ ਲਈ
ਬਹੁਤ ਵਧੀਆ ਹੈ। (Span ↑, Sag ↓)

Power System Handwritten Notes Master Copy Page 5

4. Line Constants, Transposition & Insulators

4.1 The Four Line Constants

A transmission line has four fundamental constants: Resistance (R), Inductance (L), Conductance (G), and
Capacitance (C).

1. Resistance: Causes I^2R (↑) loss increase in the line.

2. Conductance: Represents leakage loss over towers. It is **Negligible** (ਨਗਣਯ ਹੁੰਦਾ ਹੈ).
3. Capacitance: Increases charging current (↑) and total line losses.
4. Inductance: Produces energy drop due to the magnetic field.

4.2 Transposition of Lines

When conductors have unequal/unsymmetrical spacing (e.g., gaps of 5cm, 8cm, 12cm forming a triangle), the
inductance becomes unsymmetrical. To make the **Inductance uniform throughout the line**, we do Transpositioning.
It is performed periodically inside a Switching Substation by swapping phase positions (R-Y-B positions interchange).

4.3 Hollow Conductors vs Bundle Conductors

• Hollow Conductor: Increases the effective diameter/radius (↑) of the conductor, which directly **reduces corona
effect (↓)**.
• Bundle Conductor Advantages: 1) Reduce Corona ↓, 2) Reduce Inductance ↓, 3) Increase Capacitance ↑, 4)
Reduce Voltage Gradient/Stress ↓, 5) Reduce interference/hindrance to nearby communication lines ↓.

4.4 Grid Line Support Components

Main components listed: 1) Insulator, 2) Conductor, 3) Lightning Arrester, 4) C.T. / P.T., 5) Circuit Breaker, 6) Isolator, 7)
Bus-bar, 8) Switch, 9) Relays, 10) Power Transformer, 11) Earthing Rod, 12) Fuse, 13) Battery House, 14) Cross Arm.

Power System Handwritten Notes Master Copy Page 6

5. Insulator Properties, FOS & Power Factor

5.1 Insulator Properties & Types

Insulators support transmission lines and isolate conductors from towers. They must possess: 1) High Dielectric
Strength (↑), 2) Non-hygroscopic nature (does not absorb moisture), 3) High Permeability/Permittivity (μ_0 or ε_0).

Types: 1) Pin type, 2) Shackle type, 3) Strain type, 4) Suspension Type, 5) Stay / Egg type (Tension Type).

5.2 Factor of Safety (FOS)

FOS = Puncture Voltage / Flashover Voltage

For safe and good operational conditions, **FOS must be always greater than Unity** (Unity ਤੋਂ ਵੱਧ ਹੋਣਾ ਚਾਹੀਦਾ ਹੈ). To
avoid catastrophic failures, **Flashover must occur before Puncture Voltage** happens.

5.3 Power Factor Definition

The cosine of the angle between voltage and current is called Power Factor (cosφ):

cosφ = R / Z = Active Power / Apparent Power

Total Active Power formula: P = V * I * cosφ

Power System Handwritten Notes Master Copy Page 7