MODULE 3

ADAPTATION OF ANATOMICAL PRINCIPLES FOR BIOENGINEERING DESIGN

Brain as a CPU system. Eye as a Camera system. Heart as a pump system. Lungs as
purification system. Kidney as a filtration system

Architecture of brain
Forebrain – Largest part of the brain, forebrain is responsible for voluntary actions
The forebrain parts include:
Cerebrum, Hypothalamus,Thalamus, Pitutary gland
Function: Thinking, processing, judgement, memory, intelligence. The forebrain also
controls, body temperature, emotions, hunger and sleep.
Midbrain: Smallest and central part of the brain
The midbrain consists of:
Tectum, Tegmentum
Functions: Controls reflex actions related to vision and hearing. Helps in eye movement
and coordination

Hindbrain: The lower part of the brain, controls major involuntary functions of the body
The hindbrain is composed of:
Cerebellum , Medulla oblongata, Pons
Functions: regulates many vital processes, which are important for survival such as
respiration, cardiovascular reflexes, motor activities, coordination.
Brain as a CPU System
Both the brain and CPU receive and process inputs, store information, and perform
calculations to produce outputs.
Feature Brain CPU
Nature Biological organ Electronic component
Basic units Neurons Transistors
Working method Electrochemical signals Electrical signals
Processing style Parallel processing Mostly sequential
Speed Slower signal speed Extremely fast
Learning ability Can learn, adapt Cannot learn on its own
Creativity & emotions Present Absent
Repair & growth Self-healing Cannot repair itself

Electroencephalography (EEG)
EEG is a test that records the electrical activity of the brain.
 The brain has nerve cells (neurons) that produce small electrical signals.
 In an EEG, small sensors called electrodes are placed on the scalp.
 These electrodes pick up the brain’s signals.
  The signals are shown as waves called brainwaves.

Working of EEG Flow

Electrodes → Amplifier → Filters → ADC → Computer → Display

EEG Signals and Types of Brain Activity

Delta waves (0.5–4 Hz): Deep sleep (very slow waves)
Theta waves (4–8 Hz): Drowsy, dreaming, meditation
Alpha waves (8–12 Hz): Relaxed, calm mind (not thinking much)
Beta waves (12–30 Hz): Active thinking, focus, problem-solving
Gamma waves (30–100 Hz): High-level thinking, memory, attention

Uses of EEG:
 To detect epilepsy
 To study sleep problems
 To find brain tumours
 To check brain damage after head injury

Eye as a Camera System

Human Eye Part Function Camera Function
Equivalent
Cornea and Focus light onto the retina Lens Focuses light onto the
Lens image sensor
Iris and Pupil Controls size of pupil to Aperture Regulates amount of light
regulate light entry entering the camera
Retina: Capture light and convert it Image Captures the image
into electrical signals. sensor
Rods and Cones Detect light (low-light & Pixels Capture light intensity
color vision) and color
Optic Nerve Carries visual signals to the Cables Transmit signals to
brain processing unit
Eye lids Protect the eye lens cap Protects the camera lens

Architecture of Rod and Cone Cells

Rod and cone cells are photoreceptor cells located in the retina of the eye. They play a crucial
role in the process of 'vision by converting light into electrical signals.
Rod Cells Cone Cells
Location in retina Found around periphery Found around centre
Over all function Vision in poor light Vision in bright light
Visual acuity Low resolution High resolution
Colour sensitivity All Wavelength Certain wavelengths (red,
green, blue)
Type of vision Black and white Colour
Visual Pigment Rhodopsin Iodopsin
Heart as a Pump System
The heart pumps blood in a coordinated and cyclical manner through a series of contractions
and relaxations.

Human heart and its function as pumping system are described below:
1. The heart has four chambers two upper chambers called atrium and two lower chambers
called ventricles.
2. Deoxygenated blood from the body's tissues enters the heart through viens from the upper
and lower.
3. When the right atrium contracts, it pushes the deoxygenated blood through a valve called
the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle.
4. The right ventricle contracts, pumping the deoxygenated blood through another valve
called the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery.
5. The pulmonary artery carries the deoxygenated blood to the lungs. In the lungs the blood
picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide, a waste product.
6. Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the heart through four pulmonary veins and flows
into the left atrium
7. When the left atrium contracts, it pushes the oxygenated blood through a valve called the
bicuspid valve into the left ventricle.
8. The left ventricle, which is the strongest chamber of the heart, contracts and pumps the
oxygenated blood through another valve called the aortic valve into the aorta.
9. The aorta is the largest artery in the body and carries the oxygenated blood to all the organs
and tissues, supplying them with oxygen and nutrients.
Working of ECG and its applications
ECG records the electrical activity of the heart using electrodes, amplifies and processes it,
and displays it as PQRST waves.

P Wave : Represents atrial depolarization (Electrical activity that causes the atria to contract)
Q Wave: Represents the beginning of ventricular depolarization (Initial downward deflection
before the main spike)
R Wave: Represents main ventricular depolarization (Largest upward spike; ventricles
contract strongly)
S Wave: Represents the end of ventricular depolarization (Downward deflection after R
wave)
T Wave: Represents ventricular repolarization (Ventricles relax and prepare for next cycle)

Uses of ECG
Diagnose heart diseases, monitor cardiac function, evaluate chest pain, detect electrolyte
imbalance

Architecture of Lungs as Purification System

The lung is an important organ in the human body. It is part of the respiratory system. It is
mainly involved in the process of breathing.

Trachea: The trachea is the main airway that leads from the larynx (voice box) to the lungs.
It is lined with cilia and mucus-secreting glands that help to filter out harmful substances and
trap them in the mucus.
Bronchi: Trachea divides into two main branches one leading to each lung called as bronchi.
Bronchioles: The bronchi further divide into narrow branches known as bronchioles.
Bronchioles contain smooth muscle which can contract or expand easily to regulate airflow.
Alveoli: The alveoli are tiny air sacs at the ends of the bronchioles. They provide a large
surface area for efficient oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange.
Diaphragm: The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle located below the lungs it contracts
and flattens during inhalation and hence increases the volume of the chest cavity.

Gas Exchange Mechanism of Lung

The gas exchange mechanism is inhaling oxygen-rich air and exhaling carbon dioxide rich
air.
Mechanism of gas exchange during inhaling and exhaling is as follows:
Air enters in to the nose and passes through nasal passages to trachea.
Air passes through bronchi, bronchioles and diffuses across the thin walls of the alveoli into
the surrounding blood capillaries.
The concentration of oxygen in the alveoli of the lungs is higher than in the blood. Hence,
oxygen diffuses into the bloodstream.
Carbon dioxide, a waste product generated binds to iron of haemoglobin molecules forming
carboxyhaemoglobin.
The concentration of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream is higher than alveoli. This difference
causes carbon dioxide to diffuse from the bloodstream into the alveoli, where it is exhaled.

Heart-Lung Machine
A heart-lung machine, also known as a cardiopulmonary bypass machine which is used
temporarily to perform the functions of the heart and lungs. It is used during complex cardiac
surgeries.
The main components of heart lung machine are:
Pump: Pump serves the role of heart. It pumps oxygenated blood through the body and
maintains blood flow to vital organs and tissues.
Oxygenator: This performs the function of the lungs. It adds oxygen to the blood outside the
body and removes waste gases like carbon dioxide from it.
Heat exchanger: It regulates the temperature of the blood and ensures temperature
appropriate temperature is maintained when returned to patient body.
Filters: They remove any air bubbles, clots, or other debris from the blood before it is
circulated back into the patient's body.
Kidney as a Filtration System
The main role of kidney is to filter out waste products from blood stream. Hence, it is
considered as a filtration system.

Renal artery: The renal artery is a blood vessel through which unfiltered blood is supplied to
the kidneys. Upon entering the kidney, the renal artery branches into smaller arteries, which
further divide to form a complex network of blood vessels throughout the nephron.
Nephron: Nephron is the functional filtering unit of the kidney. It is responsible for filtering
blood, reabsorbing essential substances, and producing urine. Each kidney contains millions
of nephrons.
Each nephron contains two main parts, one is the glomerulus which performs filtration, and
tubule. The tubule reabsorbs needed substances to blood and removes wastes.
Glomerulus: As blood flows into glomerulus with high pressure. Under high pressure,
smaller molecules, are forced out through small pores and pass into the tubule, they are
mainly responsible for filtration of blood. Along with waste, other essential small molecules
like electrolytes, and water are also moved into tubule.
Tubule: Tubule has highly coiled structure with a large surface area. As the filtrate moves
through the tubule, water and essential electrolytes, such as sodium, potassium, and calcium,
is re-absorbed back. This process is called selective re absorption.
Ureter: Urine is passed from the kidneys to the urinary bladder through two muscular tubes
called ureters. Each ureter connects one kidney to the urinary bladder.