Chapter 9
GAS POWER CYCLES
McGraw-Hill | 1
Objectives
• Evaluate the performance of gas power cycles for which the
working fluid remains a gas throughout the entire cycle.
• Develop simplifying assumptions applicable to gas power cycles.
• Review the operation of reciprocating engines.
• Analyze both closed and open gas power cycles.
• Solve problems based on the Otto, Diesel, Stirling, and Ericsson
cycles.
• Solve problems based on the Brayton cycle; the Brayton cycle
with regeneration; and the Brayton cycle with intercooling,
reheating, and regeneration.
• Analyze jet-propulsion cycles.
• Perform second-law analysis of gas power cycles.
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BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THE
ANALYSIS OF POWER CYCLES
Most power-producing devices
operate on cycles.
Ideal cycle: A cycle that resembles
the actual cycle closely but is made
up totally of internally reversible
processes is called an.
Reversible cycles such as Carnot
cycle have the highest thermal
efficiency of all heat engines
operating between the same
temperature levels. Unlike ideal
cycles, they are totally reversible, and
unsuitable as a realistic model.
Thermal efficiency of heat engines
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The ideal cycles are internally reversible, but, unlike the Carnot cycle, they
are not necessarily externally reversible.
The thermal efficiency of an ideal cycle, in general, is less than that of a
totally reversible cycle operating between the same temperature limits.
However, it is still considerably higher than the thermal efficiency of an
actual cycle because of the idealizations utilized.
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The idealizations and simplifications in the
analysis of power cycles:
1. The cycle does not involve any friction.
Therefore, the working fluid does not
experience any pressure drop as it flows in
pipes or devices such as heat exchangers.
2. All expansion and compression processes
take place in a quasi-equilibrium manner.
3. The pipes connecting the various
components of a system are well insulated,
and heat transfer through them is negligible.
On a T-s diagram, the ratio of the area
enclosed by the cyclic curve to the area
under the heat-addition process curve
represents the thermal efficiency of the
cycle.
Any modification that increases the ratio
of these two areas will also increase the
thermal efficiency of the cycle.
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THE CARNOT CYCLE AND ITS
VALUE IN ENGINEERING
The Carnot cycle is composed of four totally
reversible processes:
1-2 isothermal heat addition
2-3 isentropic expansion
3-4 isothermal heat rejection
4-1 isentropic compression
A steady-flow Carnot engine.
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For both ideal and actual cycles:
Thermal efficiency increases with an
increase in the average temperature at
which heat is supplied to the system or
with a decrease in the average
temperature at which heat is rejected
from the system.
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Derivation of the Efficiency of the
Carnot Cycle
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AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS
Air-standard cycle: A cycle for which
the air-standard assumptions are
applicable.
Air-standard assumptions:
1. The working fluid is air, which
continuously circulates in a closed
loop and always behaves as an ideal
gas.
2. All the processes that make up the
cycle are internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced
by a heat-addition process from an
external source.
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a
heat-rejection process that restores
the working fluid to its initial state.
Cold-air-standard assumptions: When the working fluid is considered
to be air with constant specific heats at room temperature (25°C). 10
AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES
Compression Spark-ignition (SI) engines
ratio Compression-ignition (CI) engines
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Mean effective pressure
The mean effective pressure can be
used as a parameter to compare the
performances of reciprocating
engines of equal size.
The engine with a larger value of MEP
delivers more net work per cycle and
thus performs better.
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OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES
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Four-stroke cycle
1 cycle = 4 stroke = 2 revolution
Two-stroke cycle
1 cycle = 2 stroke = 1 revolution
The two-stroke engines are
generally less efficient than their
four-stroke counterparts but they
are relatively simple and
inexpensive, and they have high
power-to-weight and power-to-
volume ratios.
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Process 0-1: Air enters the cylinder through
the open intake valve at atmospheric
pressure P0 as the piston moves from TDC to
BDC.
Process 1-2: The intake valve is closed at
state 1 and air is compressed isentropically to
state 2. Piston moves from BDC to TDC.
Process 2-3: Heat is transferred at constant
volume.
Process 3-4: Air is expanded isentropically.
Process 4-1: Heat is rejected at constant
volume.
Process 1-0: Air is expelled through the open
exhaust valve.
Work interactions during intake and exhaust
cancel each other, and thus inclusions of the
intake and exhaust processes has no effect
on the net work output from the cycle.
However, when calculating power output from
the cycle during an ideal Otto cycle analysis,
we must consider the fact that the ideal Otto
cycle has four strokes just like actual four-
stroke spark-ignition engine.
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In SI engines, the
compression ratio is
limited by autoignition
or engine knock.
Engine knock: The temperature
of the air–fuel mixture rises
above the autoignition
temperature of the fuel during the
combustion process, causing an
early and rapid burn of the fuel at
some point or points ahead of the
flame front, followed by almost
instantaneous inflammation of
the end gas.
Engine knock hurts performance
and can cause engine damage
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DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES
In diesel engines, only air is
compressed during the
compression stroke, eliminating the
possibility of autoignition.
Diesel engines can be designed to
operate at much higher
compression ratios than SI engines,
typically between 12 and 24.
In CI engines (also known as diesel
engines), the air is compressed to a
temperature that is above the
autoignition temperature of the fuel,
and combustion starts on contact as
the fuel is injected into this hot air.
The spark plug is replaced by a fuel
injector in diesel engines.
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1-2 isentropic compression
2-3 constant-volume heat addition
3-4 isentropic expansion
4-1 constant-volume heat rejection.
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Cutoff
ratio
for the same
compression ratio
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Dual cycle: A more realistic ideal In modern high-speed compression
cycle model for modern, high-speed ignition engines, fuel is injected into
compression ignition engine. the combustion chamber much
sooner compared to the early diesel
engines.
Fuel starts to ignite late in the
compression stroke, and
consequently part of the combustion
occurs almost at constant volume.
Fuel injection continues until the
piston reaches the top dead center,
and combustion of the fuel keeps the
pressure high well into the expansion
stroke.
Thus, the entire combustion process
can better be modeled as the
combination of constant-volume and
constant-pressure processes.
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STIRLING AND ERICSSON CYCLES
Stirling cycle
1-2 T = constant expansion (heat
addition from the external source)
2-3 v = constant regeneration
(internal heat transfer from the
working fluid to the regenerator)
3-4 T = constant compression
(heat rejection to the external
sink)
4-1 v = constant regeneration
(internal heat transfer from the
regenerator back to the working
fluid)
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Both the Stirling and Ericsson
cycles are totally reversible, as
is the Carnot cycle, and thus:
The Stirling and Ericsson
cycles give a message:
Regeneration can increase
efficiency.
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The Ericsson cycle is very much like the Stirling cycle, except that the
two constant-volume processes are replaced by two constant-
pressure processes.
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BRAYTON CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
GAS-TURBINE ENGINES
The combustion process is replaced by a constant-pressure heat-addition
process from an external source, and the exhaust process is replaced by a
constant-pressure heat-rejection process to the ambient air.
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection
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Pressure
ratio
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The two major application
areas of gas-turbine engines
are aircraft propulsion and
electric power generation.
The highest temperature in the
cycle is limited by the
maximum temperature that the
turbine blades can withstand.
This also limits the pressure
ratios that can be used in the
cycle.
The air in gas turbines supplies
the necessary oxidant for the
combustion of the fuel, and it
serves as a coolant to keep the
temperature of various
components within safe limits.
An air–fuel ratio of 50 or above
is not uncommon. 34
Development of Gas Turbines
1. Increasing the turbine inlet (or firing) temperatures
2. Increasing the efficiencies of turbomachinery
components (turbines, compressors):
3. Adding modifications to the basic cycle (intercooling,
regeneration or recuperation, and reheating).
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Deviation of Actual
Gas-Turbine Cycles
from Idealized Ones
Reasons: Irreversibilities in
turbine and compressors,
pressure drops, heat losses
Isentropic efficiencies of the
compressor and turbine
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THE BRAYTON CYCLE WITH
REGENERATION
In gas-turbine engines, the temperature of the
exhaust gas leaving the turbine is often considerably
higher than the temperature of the air leaving the
compressor.
The high-pressure air leaving the compressor can be
heated by the hot exhaust gases in a counter-flow
heat exchanger (a regenerator or a recuperator).
The thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle increases
as a result of regeneration since less fuel is used for
the same work output.
A gas-turbine engine
with regenerator.
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Effectiveness
of regenerator
Effectiveness under cold-
air standard assumptions
Efficiency under cold-air standard
assumptions
The thermal efficiency depends on the ratio of the minimum to maximum
temperatures as well as the pressure ratio.
Regeneration is most effective at lower pressure ratios and low minimum-
to-maximum temperature ratios.
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THE BRAYTON CYCLE WITH
INTERCOOLING, REHEATING,
AND REGENERATION
For minimizing work input to compressor and
maximizing work output from turbine:
T-s diagram of an ideal gas-
turbine cycle with intercooling,
reheating, and regeneration.
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Multistage compression with
intercooling: The work required to
compress a gas between two
specified pressures can be
decreased by carrying out the
compression process in stages
and cooling the gas in between.
This keeps the specific volume as
low as possible.
Multistage expansion with
reheating keeps the specific
volume of the working fluid as high
as possible during an expansion
process, thus maximizing work
output.
Intercooling and reheating
always decreases the thermal
efficiency unless they are
accompanied by regeneration.
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IDEAL JET-PROPULSION CYCLES
Gas-turbine engines are widely used to power aircraft because they are
light and compact and have a high power-to-weight ratio.
Aircraft gas turbines operate on an open cycle called a jet-propulsion
cycle.
The ideal jet-propulsion cycle differs from the simple ideal Brayton
cycle in that the gases are not expanded to the ambient pressure in the
turbine. Instead, they are expanded to a pressure such that the power
produced by the turbine is just sufficient to drive the compressor and
the auxiliary equipment.
The net work output of a jet-propulsion cycle is zero. The gases that
exit the turbine at a relatively high pressure are subsequently
accelerated in a nozzle to provide the thrust to propel the aircraft.
Aircraft are propelled by accelerating a fluid in the opposite direction to
motion. This is accomplished by either slightly accelerating a large
mass of fluid (propeller-driven engine) or greatly accelerating a small
mass of fluid (jet or turbojet engine) or both (turboprop engine).
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Thrust (propulsive force)
Propulsive power
Propulsive efficiency
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Modifications to Turbojet Engines
The first airplanes built were all propeller-driven, with propellers
powered by engines essentially identical to automobile engines.
Both propeller-driven engines and jet-propulsion-driven engines
have their own strengths and limitations, and several attempts have
been made to combine the desirable characteristics of both in one
engine.
Two such modifications are the propjet engine and the turbofan
engine.
The most widely used engine in aircraft propulsion is the turbofan
(or fanjet) engine wherein a large fan driven by the turbine forces a
considerable amount of air through a duct (cowl) surrounding the
engine.
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FIGURE 9–54
A modern jet engine used to power Boeing
777 aircraft. This is a Pratt & Whitney
PW4084 turbofan capable of producing
375 kN of thrust. It is 4.87 m long, has a
2.84 m diameter fan, and it weighs 6800
kg. 51
Various engine types:
Turbofan, Propjet, Ramjet, Sacramjet, Rocket
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Summary
• Basic considerations in the analysis of power cycles
• The Carnot cycle and its value in engineering
• Air-standard sssumptions
• An overview of reciprocating engines
• Otto cycle: The ideal cycle for spark-ignition engines
• Diesel cycle: The ideal cycle for compression-ignition engines
• Stirling and Ericsson cycles
• Brayton cycle: The ideal cycle for gas-turbine engines
• The Brayton cycle with regeneration
• The Brayton cycle with intercooling, reheating, and
regeneration
• Ideal jet-propulsion cycles
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