AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS

Complete Notes for Exam Preparation

Topics Covered:
1. Principle of On-Off Control
2. Principle of Phase Control
3. Single-Phase Bidirectional Controller
4. Three-Phase Full-Wave Controller
5. Three-Phase Bidirectional Delta-Connected Controllers
6. Single-Phase Transformer Connection Chargers
7. AC Voltage Controller with PWM Control

These notes explain every topic from scratch using simple language, with circuit diagrams and
waveform graphs. Perfect for students who are starting this topic fresh before exams.
0. Introduction: What is an AC Voltage Controller?
An AC Voltage Controller is a power electronics circuit that controls the amount of AC power delivered
to a load, without changing the frequency. It sits between the AC supply and the load, and by using
thyristors (SCRs) or TRIACs, it can increase or decrease the effective (RMS) voltage at the output.
Think of it like a smart dimmer switch — it adjusts how much power reaches a bulb or motor.

Common applications:

• Light dimming circuits in auditoriums and homes

• Speed control of AC fans and motors
• Industrial heating and temperature control
• Soft starters for large induction motors
• Voltage regulators in laboratories
■ Note: The KEY DEVICE used is a THYRISTOR (SCR) or TRIAC — it acts as a controllable switch in
the AC circuit.

1. Principle of On-Off Control

This is the simplest method. Here, the thyristor is turned ON for a fixed number of complete AC cycles
and then turned OFF for another fixed number of cycles. We don't interrupt a cycle in the middle —
always complete cycles are used.

How it works:
Let n = number of ON cycles and m = number of OFF cycles. The thyristor conducts for n cycles, then
blocks for m cycles, and this repeats continuously.

Duty Cycle (δ) = n / (n + m)

Output RMS Voltage: Vo(rms) = Vs(rms) × √(n / (n+m)) = Vs × √δ

Since the thyristor always switches at zero-crossing of voltage (when voltage = 0), there is no sharp
switching transient and harmonics at sub-multiples of supply frequency appear (called
sub-harmonics), but within the ON period the output is a pure sine wave.
 Fig 1.1: On-Off Control Waveforms — n=2 ON cycles, m=2 OFF cycles

Key Points to Remember:

• Switching always happens at zero crossing — no voltage spikes.
• Output voltage is controlled by changing the ratio n/(n+m).
• Simple, cheap, and low noise — but gives stepwise control, not smooth.
• Suitable for slow thermal loads (heaters, ovens) where smooth variation is not needed.
• Not suitable for motors (causes torque pulsations due to on-off power delivery).
■ Note: Sub-harmonics = harmonics at frequencies BELOW the supply frequency. These are unique to
On-Off control and can interfere with sensitive equipment.
2. Principle of Phase Control
Phase control is the most widely used method. Here, instead of switching whole cycles, the thyristor is
triggered (turned ON) at a specific angle within each half-cycle called the firing angle α (alpha). The
thyristor conducts from α to π (in each half-cycle), and blocks for the rest.

Understanding Firing Angle (α):

In a 50 Hz supply, one full cycle = 360°. Each half-cycle = 180°. If α = 0°, thyristor turns ON right at the
start → maximum voltage to load. If α = 90°, it waits half the half-cycle before turning ON → reduced
voltage. If α = 180°, thyristor never properly fires → zero voltage to load.

Output RMS Voltage: Vo = Vs × √[ (1/π) × (π - α + sin(2α)/2) ]

For resistive load: Vo = (Vm/√2) × √[ 1/π × (π - α + sin(2α)/2) ]

As α increases from 0° to 180°, the output voltage smoothly decreases from full supply voltage to zero.
This gives a continuous, smooth control of output voltage — unlike the stepwise control of On-Off
method.

Fig 2.1: Phase Control Waveforms — Firing angle α = 60°

Types of Phase-Controlled AC Controllers:

Type SCRs Used Control Application

Single-phase half-wave 1 SCR Only +ve half Simple DC loads

Single-phase full-wave 2 SCRs (anti-parallel) Both halves AC loads, heaters

Three-phase half-wave 3 SCRs 3-phase partial Industrial

Three-phase full-wave 6 SCRs Full 3-phase Heavy industrial

■ Note: Phase control creates harmonics (odd + even) in the output. Higher the α, more the harmonic
distortion. A filter may be needed for sensitive loads.
3. Single-Phase Bidirectional AC Voltage Controller
A bidirectional controller can control both positive and negative half-cycles of the AC supply. This is
achieved using either a TRIAC (a single device that conducts in both directions) or two SCRs
connected anti-parallel (one for each half-cycle).

Circuit Description:
The controller is connected in series between the AC source and the load. When SCR■ is fired (at
angle α in positive half), current flows through load in positive direction. When SCR■ is fired (at angle
π+α in negative half), current flows in negative direction. The load sees a complete (though delayed) AC
waveform.

Fig 3.1: Single-Phase Bidirectional AC Controller — Two anti-parallel SCRs

Working Principle:
• Positive half-cycle: SCR■ is triggered at firing angle α. Current flows: Source → SCR■ → Load
→ back to source.
• Negative half-cycle: SCR■ is triggered at angle (π + α). Current flows in reverse through load.
• Natural commutation: Each SCR automatically turns OFF when current falls to zero at the end of
the half-cycle — no forced turn-off needed!
• The firing angle α can be set anywhere from 0° to 180° to control the output voltage smoothly.
RMS Output Voltage: Vo = Vs × √[ 1 - α/π + sin(2α)/(2π) ]

TRIAC vs. Two Anti-parallel SCRs:

Feature TRIAC Two Anti-parallel SCRs

Cost Lower (single device) Higher (two devices)

Current rating Lower Higher possible

Gate circuit Single gate Two separate gates

Used for Low power (<40A) High power applications

■ Note: This circuit is the MOST COMMON AC controller — used in light dimmers, fan regulators, and
small heater controls.
4. Three-Phase Full-Wave AC Voltage Controller
When we need to control power in a three-phase system (industrial motors, large heaters), we use a
three-phase AC voltage controller. The full-wave (bidirectional) version uses 6 SCRs — two
anti-parallel SCRs per phase, giving control over both directions of current in all three phases.

Circuit Configuration:
Three pairs of anti-parallel SCRs (T1-T4, T3-T6, T5-T2) are connected in series with each phase line.
The three-phase load (star or delta connected) is connected at the output. SCRs are numbered 1 to 6
and fired in sequence with 60° spacing.

Fig 4.1: Three-Phase Full-Wave AC Voltage Controller — 6 SCR configuration

Firing Sequence:
The SCRs are fired in the sequence T1 → T2 → T3 → T4 → T5 → T6, each separated by 60°. For a
given firing angle α:

• 0° < α < 60°: Three SCRs conduct at any time. Output is relatively smooth.
• 60° < α < 90°: Two SCRs conduct at any time. Output starts to have gaps.
• 90° < α < 150°: Two or one SCR conducts. Output significantly reduced.
• α > 150°: No conduction possible — output = 0.
Maximum firing angle for 3-phase full-wave: α_max = 150°

Output RMS Voltage (0 < α < 60°): Vo = Vs × √[ 1 + (3√3/2π)×cos(2α)

]^(1/2)

■ Note: In a three-phase system, the phases interact with each other. If one SCR is fired, it affects the
current path in other phases too. This makes 3-phase analysis more complex than single-phase.

Advantages of 3-Phase Full-Wave Controller:

• Controls large amounts of power (industrial scale).
• Bidirectional current flow → works for AC loads fully.
• Better harmonic profile than half-wave type.
• Used in electric furnaces, large motor drives, and industrial heating.
5. Three-Phase Bidirectional Delta-Connected Controllers
In this configuration, each phase of the load is connected in a delta (∆) pattern, and each branch of the
delta has a pair of anti-parallel SCRs in series with its load. This is different from the previous
(star-connected or line-connected) type.

Why Delta Connection?

In delta connection, each load branch is connected directly across a line-to-line voltage. This means
each branch sees the full line voltage, which is √3 times the phase voltage. Delta connection is
preferred when load branches need high voltage or when we want independent control of each branch's
power.

Fig 5.1: Three-Phase Bidirectional Delta-Connected AC Voltage Controller

Working:
• Each branch (AB, BC, CA) of the delta has 2 anti-parallel SCRs → bidirectional current in each
branch.
• Each pair of SCRs is triggered independently with a firing angle α.
• The controller for each branch behaves just like a single-phase bidirectional controller.
• All three branches can be controlled independently or simultaneously.
Line voltage: V_L = √3 × V_phase

Per-branch output (same as single-phase): Vo = VL × √[ 1 - α/π +

sin(2α)/(2π) ]

Comparison: Delta vs Star (Line) Connected Controllers:

Feature Delta Connected Star (Line) Connected

Voltage across SCR Line-to-line (higher) Line-to-neutral (lower)

SCR voltage rating Higher needed Lower needed

Independent branch control Yes Limited

Unbalanced load handling Good Complex

 Common use Heating elements Motor drives

■ Note: Delta-connected controllers are particularly useful when the load is inherently delta-connected
(like 3-phase heating coils) and you want direct control without a neutral wire.
6. Single-Phase Transformer Connection Chargers
This is a different approach to AC voltage control. Instead of directly controlling the thyristor firing angle,
a transformer with multiple taps on the secondary side is used. Thyristors are used as electronic tap
selectors — they switch between different taps to give different output voltage levels.

Basic Idea:
Imagine a transformer whose secondary winding has 3 tapping points — giving say 50V, 100V, and
200V. By firing different SCRs, we can select which tap connects to the load. Only ONE SCR conducts
at any time.

Fig 6.1: Single-Phase Transformer with Thyristor Tap-Changer

How it is Different from Phase Control:

• Phase control changes voltage by delaying the switching angle within a cycle.
• Transformer tap-changer changes voltage by selecting a different winding tap.
• Tap-changer gives fixed voltage steps, not continuous control.
• The output is a clean, undistorted sine wave at each tap level — no harmonics!
• This is why it's sometimes called a 'charger' — used in battery charger circuits that need clean AC
voltage at different levels.

Advantages:
• Very low harmonic distortion (nearly perfect sine wave output).
• Simple gate circuit — just need to fire one SCR at a time.
• Voltage steps are precise and repeatable.
• Good for applications needing clean power: UPS systems, laboratory power supplies, EV
chargers.

Disadvantages:
• Bulky — requires a transformer with multiple taps.
• Only discrete voltage steps, not continuous control.
• More expensive than direct phase control for small loads.
• Each tap needs its own SCR — more SCRs needed for more steps.
■ Note: This method is used in modern EV chargers and UPS systems where sinusoidal output quality is
critical. The transformer provides isolation from the mains supply as a bonus.
7. AC Voltage Controller with PWM Control
PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) is the most advanced and modern method of AC voltage control.
Instead of triggering the thyristor once per half-cycle (as in phase control), in PWM the thyristor is
switched ON and OFF many times within each half-cycle using a high-frequency carrier signal. The
width of each ON-pulse varies sinusoidally.

Core Concept:
A reference sine wave (at 50 Hz, same as supply) is compared with a high-frequency triangular
carrier wave (say 2 kHz or 5 kHz). Whenever the sine is above the triangle, the gate pulse is generated
→ thyristor conducts. The result: the thyristor switches many times per cycle, with pulse widths that
follow the sine shape.

Fig 7.1: PWM Control — Reference sine vs carrier triangle, PWM pulses, and load voltage

Key Terms:

Term Meaning

Modulation Index (m) Ratio of reference amplitude to carrier amplitude. Controls output voltage level.

Carrier Frequency (fc) Frequency of the triangle wave. Higher fc = smoother output but more switching loss

Switching Frequency How often the thyristor turns ON/OFF per second. Same as fc.

Fundamental Component The 50 Hz component of the PWM output — this is what the load 'sees' effectively.

Output Fundamental Voltage: Vo1 = m × Vs (where 0 ≤ m ≤ 1)

Harmonic frequencies in PWM output: n×fc ± k×f (far from 50Hz → easily
filtered)

Why PWM is Better:

• Harmonics are pushed to high frequencies (near fc) → easy to filter with a small LC filter.
• Output voltage can be controlled continuously and precisely by changing m.
• No low-order harmonics (3rd, 5th, 7th) unlike phase control — major advantage!
• Fast dynamic response — load voltage can be changed in microseconds.
 • Suitable for sensitive loads like audio amplifiers, medical equipment, precision heaters.

Disadvantages of PWM:
• High switching frequency → more switching losses in the thyristor/IGBT.
• Generates EMI (electromagnetic interference) at high frequency — needs shielding.
• More complex control circuit needed (comparator, oscillator, gate driver).
• Not suitable for very high power with standard SCRs (SCRs are slow) — use IGBTs instead.
■ Note: In modern power electronics, PWM is preferred over phase control wherever high power quality
and low harmonic distortion is needed. Variable frequency drives (VFDs) for motors almost always use
PWM.
8. Quick Comparison of All Methods

Fig 8.1: Comparison Chart — Harmonic content, cost/complexity, and efficiency

Method Control Type Harmonics Circuit Complexity Best For

On-Off Control Discrete cycles Sub-harmonics Very Low Heaters, ovens

Phase Control Firing angle α Low-order (3rd,5th...) Low General purpose

Single-Ph BidirectionalPhase (both halves) Low-order Low-Medium Fans, dimmers

3-Ph Full-Wave Phase (3-phase) Low-order Medium Industrial motors

Delta Controller Phase per branch Low-order Medium-High 3-ph heaters

Transformer TapDiscrete voltage stepsNone (clean sine) Medium Chargers, UPS

PWM Control High-freq switching High-freq only High Precision, audio

9. Important Formulas & Exam Tips

Must-Know Formulas:
On-Off Control — Output RMS Voltage:

Vo = Vs × √(n/(n+m)) where n=ON cycles, m=OFF cycles

Phase Control — Output RMS (R load):

Vo = (Vm/√2) × √[ (1/π)(π−α + sin2α/2) ]

Bidirectional Single-Phase:

Vo = Vs × √[ 1 − α/π + sin(2α)/(2π) ]

At α=0 (full output):

Vo = Vs (maximum, same as supply)

At α=π (zero output):

 Vo = 0 (thyristor never fires)

3-phase max firing angle:

α_max = 150° for full-wave, 120° for half-wave

PWM Output Voltage:

Vo1 = m × Vs (m = modulation index, 0 ≤ m ≤ 1)

Top Exam Questions & Answers:

Q: What is the range of firing angle in a single-phase AC controller?
A: α can vary from 0° to 180°. At α=0°, output is maximum (full supply). At α=180°, output is zero.

Q: Why is On-Off control not suitable for motor loads?

A: Because the ON-OFF pattern of complete cycles causes pulsating torque, mechanical vibration,
and wear in motors. Phase control or PWM is preferred.

Q: What is the difference between phase control and PWM control?

A: Phase control fires the thyristor once per half-cycle at angle α, creating low-order harmonics. PWM
fires the thyristor many times per cycle using a high-freq carrier, pushing harmonics to high
frequencies where they are easy to filter.

Q: Why are anti-parallel SCRs used instead of a single SCR?

A: A single SCR only conducts in one direction. For AC control (both half-cycles), we need two
anti-parallel SCRs or a TRIAC.

Q: What is the advantage of transformer tap-changer over phase control?

A: Tap-changer produces a clean, undistorted sine wave at the output (no harmonics). Phase control
creates harmonic distortion. But tap-changer only gives discrete voltage steps.
 All the Best for Your Exam! ■
Remember: Understand the CONCEPT first, then learn the formula. Draw the waveform
for any problem — it will always guide you to the right answer.