UNIT- 4 INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE MANAGEMENT

SYSTEMS:

DATABASE

The database is a collection of inter-related data which is used to retrieve, insert and delete the
data efficiently.
For example: The college Database organizes the data about the admin, staff, students and
faculty etc.

DBMS
o Database management system is a software which is used to manage the database. For
example: MySQL, Oracle, etc are a very popular commercial database which is used in
different applications.
o DBMS provides an interface to perform various operations like database creation, storing
data in it, updating data, creating a table in the database and a lot more.
o It provides protection and security to the database. In the case of multiple users, it also
maintains data consistency.

DBMS allows users the following tasks:

o Data Definition: It is used for creation, modification, and removal of definition that defines
the organization of data in the database.
o Data Updation: It is used for the insertion, modification, and deletion of the actual data in
the database.
o Data Retrieval: It is used to retrieve the data from the database which can be used by
applications for various purposes.
o User Administration: It is used for registering and monitoring users, maintain data
integrity, enforcing data security, dealing with concurrency control, monitoring
performance and recovering information corrupted by unexpected failure.

Advantages of DBMS
o Controls database redundancy: It can control data redundancy because it stores all the
data in one single database file and that recorded data is placed in the database.
o Data sharing: In DBMS, the authorized users of an organization can share the data among
multiple users.

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o Easily Maintenance: It can be easily maintainable due to the centralized nature of the
database system.
o Reduce time: It reduces development time and maintenance need.
o Backup: It provides backup and recovery subsystems which create automatic backup of
data from hardware and software failures and restores the data if required.
o multiple user interface: It provides different types of user interfaces like graphical user
interfaces, application program interfaces.

Disadvantages of DBMS
o Cost of Hardware and Software: It requires a high speed of data processor and large
memory size to run DBMS software.
o Size: It occupies a large space of disks and large memory to run them efficiently.
o Complexity: Database system creates additional complexity and requirements.
o Higher impact of failure: Failure is highly impacted the database because in most of the
organization, all the data stored in a single database and if the database is damaged due to
electric failure or database corruption then the data may be lost forever.

WHY DATABASE -FILE SYSTEM VS DBMS

File System Approach
File based systems were an early attempt to computerize the manual system. It is also called a
traditional based approach in which a decentralized approach was taken where each
department stored and controlled its own data with the help of a data processing specialist.
The main role of a data processing specialist was to create the necessary computer file
structures, and also manage the data within structures and design some application programs
that create reports based on file data.

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In the above figure:

Consider an example of a student's file system. The student file will contain information
regarding the student (i.e. roll no, student name, course etc.). Similarly, we have a subject file
that contains information about the subject and the result file which contains the information
regarding the result.
Some fields are duplicated in more than one file, which leads to data redundancy. So to
overcome this problem, we need to create a centralized system, i.e. DBMS approach.

DBMS:
A database approach is a well-organized collection of data that are related in a meaningful way
which can be accessed by different users but stored only once in a system. The various
operations performed by the DBMS system are: Insertion, deletion, selection, sorting etc.

In the above figure,

In the above figure, duplication of data is reduced due to centralization of data.

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DATABASE APPLICATIONS
Nowadays, any business that has small or large amounts of data needs a database to store and
manage the information. The database is an easy, reliable, secure, and efficient way to maintain
business information. There are many applications where databases are used.

1. Universities:
Universities have so much data which can be stored in the database, such as student
information, teacher information, non-teaching staff information, course information,
section information, grade report information, and many more. University information is
kept safe and secure in the database.

Anyone who needs information about the student, teacher, or course can easily retrieve it
from the database. Everything needs to be maintained because even after ten years,
information may be required, and the information may be useful, so maintaining complete
information is the primary responsibility of any university or educational institution.

2. Banking:

It is one of the major applications of databases. Banks have a huge amount of data as
millions of people have accounts that need to be maintained properly. The database keeps
the record of each user in a systematic manner. Banking databases store a lot of information
about account holders. It stores customer details, asset details, banking transactions,
balance sheets, credit card and debit card details, loans, fixed deposits, and much more.
Everything is maintained with the help of a database.

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3. Railway Reservation System:

It is an inevitable area of application of databases. They store information such as passenger

name, mobile number, booking status, reservation details, train schedule, employee
information, account details, seating arrangement, route & alternate route details, etc. All the
information needs to be maintained, so railways use a database management system for
their efficient storage and retrieval purpose.

4. Social Media Sites:

Nowadays, everyone has a smartphone and accounts on various social media sites like
Facebook, LinkedIn, Pinterest, Twitter, Instagram, etc. People can chat with their friends and
family and make new friends from all over the world. Social media has millions of accounts,
which means they have a huge amount of data that needs to be stored and maintained. Social
media sites use databases to store information about users, images, videos, chats, etc.

5. Library Management System:

There are hundreds and thousands of books in the library, so it is not easy to maintain the
records of the books in a register or diary, so a database management system is used which
maintains the information of the library efficiently. The library database stores information
like book name, issue date, author name, book availability, book issuer name, book return
details, etc.

6. E-commerce Websites:

E-commerce websites are one of the prominent applications of the database. Websites such
as Flipkart, Myntra, Amazon, Nykaa, Snapdeal, Shopify, and many more, are online shopping
websites where people buy items online. These websites have so much data. These websites
use databases to securely store and maintain customer details, product details, dealer details,
purchase details, bank & card details, transactions details, invoice details, etc. You can analyze
the sales and maintain the inventory with the help of a database.

7. Medical:

There is a lot of important data collection in the medical field, so it is necessary to use the
database to store data related to the medical field, such as patient details, medicine details,
practitioner details, surgeon details, appointment details, doctor schedule, patient discharge
details, payment detail, invoices, and other medical records. The database management

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system is a boon for the medical field because it helps doctors to monitor their patients and
provide better care.

8. Accounting and Finance:

When there is big data regarding accounting and finance, there is a need to maintain a large
amount of data, which is done with the help of a database. The database stores data such as
accounting details, bank details, purchases of stocks, invoice details, sales records, asset
details, etc. Accounting and finance database helps in maintaining and analyzing historical
data.

9. Industries:

The database management system is the main priority of industries because they need to
store huge amounts of data. The industry database stores customer details, sales records,
product lists, transactions, etc. All the information is kept secure and maintained by the
database.

10. Airline Reservation System:

It is one of the applications of database management systems that contain data such as
passenger name, passenger check-in, passenger departure, flight schedule, number of flights,
distance from source to destination, reservation information, pilot details, accounting detail,
route detail, etc. The database provides maintenance and security to airline data.

DATABASE USERS

Users may be divided into

 Those who actually use and control the database content, and those who design, develop
and maintain database applications (called “Actors on the Scene”), and
 Those who design and develop the DBMS software and related tools, and the computer
systems operators (called “Workers Behind the Scene”).

 Actors on the scene

 Database administrators: Responsible for authorizing access to the database, for
coordinating and monitoring its use, acquiring software and hardware resources,
controlling its use and monitoring efficiency of operations.

 Database Designers: Responsible to define the content, the structure, the

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constraints, and functions or transactions against the database. They must

communicate with the end-users and understand their needs.

 End-users: They use the data for queries, reports and some of them update the
database content. End-users can be categorized into:

 Casual: access database occasionally when needed

 Naïve or Parametric: they make up a large section of the end-user
population.
o They use previously well-defined functions in the form of “canned
transactions” against the database.
o Examples are bank-tellers or reservation clerks who do this
activity for an entire shift of operations.
 Sophisticated:
 These include business analysts, scientists, engineers, others thoroughly
familiar with the system capabilities.
 Many use tools in the form of software packages that work closely with the
stored database.
 Stand-alone:
 Mostly maintain personal databases using ready-to-use packaged
applications.
 An example is a tax program user that creates its own internal database.
 Another example is a user that maintains an address book.

 Workers behind the Scene

DBMS system designers and implementers design and implement the DBMS
modules and interfaces as a software package. A DBMS is a very com-plex software system that
consists of many components, or modules, including modules for implementing the catalog,
query language processing, interface processing, accessing and buffering data, controlling
concurrency, and handling data recovery and security. The DBMS must interface with other
system software such as the operating system and compilers for various programming
languages.

Tool developers design and implement tools—the software packages that facilitate database
modeling and design, database system design, and improved performance. Tools are optional
packages that are often purchased separately. They include packages for database design,
performance monitoring, natural language or graphical interfaces, prototyping, simulation, and
test data generation. In many cases, independent software vendors develop and market these
tools.
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Operators and maintenance personnel (system administration personnel) are responsible

for the actual running and maintenance of the hardware and software environment for the
database system.
Although these categories of workers behind the scene are instrumental in making the
database system available to end users, they typically do not use the database contents for
their own purposes.

INTRODUCTION TO SQL
SQL was developed in the 1970s by IBM Computer Scientists and became a standard of the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986, and the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1987.

o SQL (Structured Query Language) is a standard database language to operate databases; it

includes Database Creation, Database Deletion, Fetching Data Rows, Modifying & Deleting Data
rows, etc. SQL allows users to query the database in a number of ways, using English-like
statements. Structure query language is not case sensitive. Generally, keywords of SQL are
written in uppercase.

Advantages of SQL
There are the following advantages of SQL:
High speed
Using the SQL queries, the user can quickly and efficiently retrieve a large amount of records
from a database.

No coding needed
In the standard SQL, it is very easy to manage the database system. It doesn't require a
substantial amount of code to manage the database system.

Well defined standards

Long established are used by the SQL databases that are being used by ISO and ANSI.

Portability
SQL can be used in laptop, PCs, server and even some mobile phones.

Interactive language

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SQL is a domain language used to communicate with the database. It is also used to receive
answers to the complex questions in seconds.

Multiple data view

Using the SQL language, the users can make different views of the database structure.

CLASSIFICATION OF SQL-DDL, DML, DCL

o SQL commands are instructions. It is used to communicate with the database. It is
also used to perform specific tasks, functions, and queries of data.
o SQL can perform various tasks like create a table, add data to tables, drop the
table, modify the table, set permission for users.

1. Data Definition Language (DDL)

o DDL changes the structure of the table like creating a table, deleting a table, altering a
table, etc.
o All the command of DDL are auto-committed that means it permanently save all the
changes in the database.

Here are some commands that come under DDL:

o CREATE
o ALTER
o DROP
o TRUNCATE

a. CREATE It is used to create a new table in the database.

Syntax: CREATE TABLE TABLE_NAME (COLUMN_NAME DATATYPES[,....]);

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Example:
CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE(Name VARCHAR2(20), Email VARCHAR2(100), DOB DATE);

b. DROP: It is used to delete both the structure and record stored in the table.

Syntax: DROP TABLE table_name;

Example: DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;

c. ALTER: It is used to alter the structure of the database. This change could be either to
modify the characteristics of an existing attribute or probably to add a new attribute.

Syntax:

To add a new column in the table

ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name COLUMN-definition;

To modify existing column in the table:

ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY(column_definitions....);

EXAMPLE

ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS ADD(ADDRESS VARCHAR2(20));

ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS MODIFY (NAME VARCHAR2(20));

d. TRUNCATE: It is used to delete all the rows from the table and free the space containing
the table.

Syntax: TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

Example: TRUNCATE TABLE EMPLOYEE;

2. Data Manipulation Language

o DML commands are used to modify the database. It is responsible for all form of changes in
the database.

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o The command of DML is not auto-committed that means it can't permanently save all the
changes in the database. They can be rollback.

Here are some commands that come under DML:

oINSERT
o UPDATE
o DELETE
a. INSERT: The INSERT statement is a SQL query. It is used to insert data into the row of a
table.
Syntax:
1. INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME
2. (col1, col2, col3,.... col N)
3. VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);

Or

INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);
Example: INSERT INTO example (Author, Subject) VALUES ("Vaibhav", "DBMS");

b. UPDATE: This command is used to update or modify the value of a column in the table.
Syntax:
UPDATE table_name SET [column_name1= value1,...column_nameN = valueN] [WHERE CO
NDITION]
Example:

UPDATE students
SET User_Name = 'Vaibhav'
WHERE Student_Id = '3'

c. DELETE: It is used to remove one or more row from a table.

Syntax: DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition];
Example:

DELETE FROM example

WHERE Author="Vaibhav";

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3. Data Control Language

DCL commands are used to grant and take back authority from any database user.

Here are some commands that come under DCL:

o Grant
o Revoke
a. Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a database.
Example: GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE TO SOME_USER, ANOTHER_USER;

b. Revoke: It is used to take back permissions from the user.

Example: REVOKE SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE FROM USER1, USER2;

INTERNET BASICS: INTRODUCTION

Internet is a global network that connects billions of computers across the world with each
other and to the World Wide Web. It uses standard internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to connect
billions of computer users worldwide. It is set up by using cables such as optical fibers and
other wireless and networking technologies. At present, internet is the fastest mean of sending
or exchanging information and data between computers across the world. It is believed that
the internet was developed by "Defense Advanced Projects Agency" (DARPA) department of
the United States. And, it was first connected in 1969.

DEFINITION
The Internet is the world's largest collection of information, containing everything from text,
images, and video to databases, software, and scientific research.

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The Internet carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such as the
interlinked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail, telephony,
and file sharing.

FEATURES OF INTERNET
There are 8 important characteristics and features of the internet, which are given
below.

 Accessibility
 Flexibility
 Easy to Use
 Security
 Low Cost
 Share Anything
 Connectivity
 Things are Online
1. Accessibility
Internet accessibility refers to the ability of individuals to access and use the Internet.
This includes the ability to use the Internet for communication, education, employment,
and other activities.

There are a variety of factors that can impact an individual's ability to access and use the
Internet, including economic, social, and technological factors. In simple words, in this
present time, anyone accesses the internet easily.

2. Flexibility
Flexibility on the internet is a big advantage. It makes it possible to work from home or
anywhere. No need to commute anywhere. Flexibility brings work-life balance.

The Internet is a technology, in which the help of you can work from anywhere at any time.
You can do a lot with the Internet that you do anywhere else, now you can do it from your
home too. You can be your own boss. You can run your own business.

The Internet is a place where you are free to do anything you want. It’s your own world. No
boss, no time limits, no restrictions, no work, no office, no commute. It’s your freedom.

3. Easy to Use

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The Internet is much more accessible and easier to use than other mediums – it’s fast, easy,
accessible, convenient, and cheap! The information you get is much more comprehensive
and up-to-date than what you get through newspapers, the radio and television.

You won’t have to drive to the library to look for a particular book or magazine to know
what is going on in the world. Today even small children are using the internet.
The internet is therefore a very powerful medium of knowledge. You can be connected to
people from all over the world while sitting in your home! It’s also possible to get up-to-
date information about businesses, governments, and many other organizations, as well as
other individuals.

4. Security
Security is the paramount issue of the Internet. Without security, no one will trust a
particular Internet-based service.
No one will use Internet banking, no one will trust any email that claims to be from your
bank/credit card provider. So, it's as important to make the Internet secure as it is to make
it usable.

For example, the security of credit card details should be of top priority for every business.
The credit card number should not be sent over the network (or the internet) in clear text,
it should be encrypted. It should be easy to use and not complex.

5. Low Cost
Cost is an important factor when thinking about using the Internet. The Internet is an open-
source technology, which means its base is open to public view and anyone can take
advantage of it to develop their own software.

Due to the development of open-source technology, the Internet has been able to have huge
savings in comparison to other forms of technology.

It also enables users to access open-source software for free. This makes it possible for
businesses to dramatically reduce their operating costs and to give consumers much
greater value from their products.

6. Share Anything
The Internet has so many features that it is impossible to list them all. You can share
anything, anywhere. What kind of subject are you specifically interested in?

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You can go to read the news, talk to your friends, and do many other things. The Internet is
a network of computers that communicate with each other.

Using the Internet, you can send and receive emails, share pictures, watch videos, meet
people, keep in touch with your friends, get the weather forecast, play games, chat with
people, send money, receive payments, and more.

The Internet is not just for social networking. It has many other applications of internet.

7. Connectivity
Connectivity is one of the main features of the Internet, allowing people to connect with
each other in many ways. It provides an interface for electronic communication through
various networks, including the net and mobile phone networks.
Two-way connectivity, bidirectional communication, is the most common form of
connectivity, especially for Internet services.

8. Things are Online

The Internet is a constantly growing network connecting computers throughout the
world. The Internet is a great medium to shop for anything.

With the help of internet you can easily do many things such as - sending and receiving
emails, sharing photos and videos, watching videos, meeting people, keep in touch with
your friends & family members.

You can check weather forecasts and play games and chat with people, send money and
receive payments and much more things.

Today many digital and physical items and services are available online, and many items
or services can get at very cheapest prices through the Internet.

Internet shopping is hassle-free and efficient. You can research a lot of products, compare
prices, and check out customer reviews, all at your convenience.

INTERNET APPLICATION
Here are the top 10 applications of Internet are:

1. Communication
2. Web Browsing
3. Online Shopping
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4. Real-Time Update
5. Social Media
6. Job Search
7. Education
8. Travel
9. Stock Market Update
10. Video Conferencing
1. Communication
Communication refers to exchanging ideas and thoughts between or among people
to create understanding. The communication process involves the elements of
source, encoding, channel, receiver, decoding, and feedback. In organizations, both
formal and informal communications simultaneously take place. Formal
communications refer to official communications in orders, notes, circulars, agenda,
minutes, etc. Apart from formal communications, informal grapevine
communications also exist. Informal communications are usually in the form of
rumors, whispers, etc. They are unofficial, unrecorded, and spread very fast.

2. Web Browsing
Web Browsing is one of the applications of the internet. A web browser is a
program that helps the user to interact with all the data in the WWW (World Wide
Web). There are many web browsers present in today's world. Some of them are as
follows:
 Google Chrome
 Firefox
 Safari
 Internet Explorer
 Opera
 Microsoft Edge
 Netscape

3. Online Shopping
The era of the internet took shopping into a new market concept, where many
virtual shops are available 24x7. The shops provide all the necessary details of a
product on their website, so the user can choose as per their needs.

4. Real-Time Update
The internet makes things easier. One can quickly get an update on the things
happening in real-time in any part of the world. For example, sports, politics,

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business, finance, etc. The internet is very useful in many decisions based on real-
time updates.

5. Social Media
The youth of this generation spend the maximum of their free time on social media,
all thanks to the internet. Social media is a place where the user can communicate
with anyone, like friends, family, classmates, etc. User can promote their businesses
on social media as well. You can also post your thoughts, pictures and videos with
your friends on social media.

6. Job Search
The internet has brought a revolution in the field of Jobs. The candidate can search
for their dream job, apply and get it very easily. Even companies nowadays post
their need on the internet and hire candidates as per their skills based on the job
role. There are many platforms which are primarily doing this. Some of them are
listed below.
 LinkedIn
 [Link]
 [Link]
 Indeed
 Glassdoor
 Upwork

7. Education
The Internet has a vital role in the education field. It became an effective tool in both
teaching and learning. Teachers can upload their notes or learning videos on the
websites with the help of the internet. It made the learning process more diverse
and joyful.

8. Travel
Users can easily search for their favourite tourist places worldwide and plan their
trips. One can book holiday trips, cabs, hotels, flight tickets, clubs, etc., with the help
of the Internet. Some websites that provide these facilities are as follows:
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]

9. Stock Market Update

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A stock market update refers to the latest information and news related to the
financial markets, particularly the stock market. The stock market is where
individuals buy and sell publicly traded company shares. Stock market updates
include vital data and statistics, like the current prices of major stocks, individual
stock prices, trading volumes, market capitalization, and price movements.

10. Video Conferencing

Video conferencing means using computers to provide a video link between two or
more people. It allows users in different locations to hold face-to-face meetings. You
can also see them instead of just talking to someone on the telephone. Video
conferencing is a widely accepted mode of communication among businesses,
houses, and other organizations.

SERVICES OF INTERNET
To access/exchange a large amount of data such as software, audio clips, video clips,
text files, other documents, etc., we need internet services. You must use an Internet
service to connect to the Internet. Data can be sent from Internet servers to your
machine via Internet service. Some of the commonly used internet services are :
 Communication Services
 Information Retrieval Services
 File Transfer
 World Wide Web Services
 Web Services
 Directory Services
 Automatic Network Address Configuration
 Network Management Services
 Time Services
 Usenet
 NewsGroup
 Ecommerce

1. Communication Services: To exchange data/information among individuals or

organizations, we need communication services. Following are some of the common
communication services:

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 IRC(Internet Relay Chat): Subscribers can communicate in real-time by connecting

numerous computers in public spaces called channels.
 VoIP: It stands for Voice over Internet Protocol, which describes how to make and
receive phone calls over the internet. A larger number of people believe VoIP is a viable
alternative to traditional landlines. VoIP is a technique that helps us make voice calls
via the Internet rather than over a traditional (or analog) phone line.
 If you have an internet connection you can easily call anyone without using a local
phone service because VoIP solutions are based on open standards, they can be used
on any computer. More than just setting up calls is what VoIP service providers do.
Outgoing and incoming calls are routed through existing telephone networks by them.
 List Server (LISTSERV): Delivers a group of email recipients’ content-specific
emails.
 E-Mail: Used to send electronic mail via the internet. It is a paperless method for
sending text, images, documents, videos, etc from one person to another via the
internet.
 User Network (USENET): It hosts newsgroups and message boards on certain
topics, and it is mostly run by volunteers.
 Telnet: It’s used to connect to a remote computer that’s connected to the internet.
 Video Conferencing: Video conferencing systems allow two or more people who
are generally in different locations to connect live and visually. It allows numerous
people to connect and collaborate face to face over large distances. Tools available
for this purpose are Zoom, FreeConference, Google Hangouts, Skype, etc.

2. Information Retrieval Services: It is the procedure for gaining access to

information/data stored on the Internet. Net surfing or browsing is the process of
discovering and obtaining information from the Internet. When your computer is
linked to the Internet, you may begin retrieving data. To get data, we need a piece
of software called a Web browser. A print or computer-based information retrieval
system searches for and locates data in a file, database, or other collection of data.
Some sites are:
 [Link]: Free tutorials, millions of articles, live, online, and
classroom courses, frequent coding competitions, industry expert webinars,
internships, and job possibilities are all available. A computer-based system for
searching and locating data in a file, database, or another source.
 [Link]: It includes advice for students, parents, and educators on
how to be more creative.

3. File Transfer: The exchange of data files across computer systems is referred to
as file transfer. Using the network or internet connection to transfer or shift a file
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from one computer to another is known as file transfer. To share, transfer, or send
a file or logical data item across several users and/or machines, both locally and
remotely, we use file transfer. Data files include – documents, multimedia,
pictures, text, and PDFs and they can be shared by uploading or downloading
them. To retrieve information from the internet, there are various services
available such as:
 Gopher: A file retrieval application based on hierarchical, distributed menus
that is simple to use.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): To share, transfer, or send a file or logical data
item across several users and/or machines, both locally and remotely.
 Archie: A file and directory information retrieval system that may be linked to
FTP

4. Web services: Web services are software that uses defined messaging protocols
and are made accessible for usage by a client or other web-based programs through
an application service provider’s web server. Web services allow information to be
exchanged across web-based applications. Using Utility Computing, web services can
be provided.

[Link] Services: A directory service is a set of software that keeps track of

information about your company, customers, or both. Network resource names are
mapped to network addresses by directory services. A directory service provides users
and administrators with full transparent access to printers, servers, and other network
devices. The directory services are :
 DNS (Domain Number System): This server provides DNS. The mappings of
computer hostnames and other types of domain names to IP addresses are stored
on a DNS server.
 LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol): It is a set of open protocols
that are used for obtaining network access to stored data centrally. It is a cross-
platform authentication protocol for directory services and also allows users to
interact with other directory services servers.

[Link] Network Address Configuration: Automatic Network Addressing

assigns a unique IP address to every system in a network. A DHCP Server is a
network server that is used to assign IP addresses, gateways, and other network
information to client devices. It uses Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol as a
common protocol to reply to broadcast inquiries from clients.

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[Link] Management Services: Network management services are another

essential internet service that is beneficial to network administrators. Network
management services aid in the prevention, analysis, diagnosis, and resolution of
connection problems. The two commands related to this are:
 ping: The ping command is a Command Prompt command that is used to see if a
source can communicate with a specific destination & get all the possible paths
between them.
 traceroute: To find the path between two connections, use the traceroute
command.

[Link] Services: Using facilities included in the operating system, you may set
your computer clock via the Internet. Some services are :
 Network Time Protocol (NTP): It is a widely used internet time service that
allows you to accurately synchronize and adjust your computer clock.
 The Simple Network Time Protocol (SNTP): It is a time-keeping protocol
that is used to synchronize network hardware. When a full implementation of
NTP is not required, then this simplified form of NTP is typically utilized.

9. Usenet: The ‘User’s Network’ is also known as Usenet. It is a network of online

discussion groups. It’s one of the first networks where users may upload files to
news servers and others can view them.

[Link] Group: It is a lively Online Discussion Forum that is easily accessible via
Usenet. Each newsgroup contains conversations on a certain topic, as indicated by
the newsgroup name. Users can use newsreader software to browse and follow
the newsgroup as well as comment on the posts. A newsgroup is a debate about a
certain topic made up of notes posted to a central Internet site and distributed
over Usenet, a global network of news discussion groups. It uses Network News
Transfer Protocol (NNTP).

LOGICAL AND PHYSICAL ADDRESSES

We can connect two nodes in a network to communicate with each other with the help of addressing.
The physical address is also known as the MAC (Media Access Control) address or link
address. It is the address of a node which is defined by its LAN or WAN. It is used by the data
link layer and is the lowest level of addresses. MAC address is the unique address of a device.
The size of a physical address is 48 bits (6 bytes). Below is the format of representing a
physical address:
XX : XX : XX : YY : YY : YY, where 1 octant = 8 bits.
Example: 16 : 1A : BB : 6F : 90 : E5

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The first 24 bits of a MAC address XX : XX: XX is decided by OUI (Organizationally
Unique Identifier). It represents the identity of the manufacturer. The next 24 bits of a MAC
address YY : YY : YY represents the unique identity of the device. It is assigned by the
manufacturer. They represent NIC (Network Interface Card).
Below is a diagram representing the working mechanism of a physical address:

In the above diagram, we can see that there are two networks – Network 1 and Network 2. A1 is the
sender and there are two receivers – D1 and D2. In case of physical address, receiver D1 receives the data
but receiver D2 is unable to receive data. This is because receiver D2 does not belong to the same network
as the sender A1 belongs to. Physical address can only be passed in the same network and not in different
networks. The purpose of using Physical address is to identify devices in the same network.

Advantages
 Physical address can uniquely identify devices and deliver data packets accurately.
 We can restrict access to any network by allowing only those devices which have the authorized
MAC addresses to connect. Thus, it can also be used for network security.
Disadvantages
 MAC addresses can be easily spoofed. Thus, the devices can easily gain
unauthorized access to a network.
 As physical addresses cannot traverse through the routers therefore they can only be
used in local networks and not between different networks.

Logical Address
Logical address also referred to as IP (Internet Protocol) address is an universal addressing system.
It is used in the Network layer. This address facilitates universal communication that are not

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dependent on the underlying physical networks. There are two types of IP addresses – IPv4 and
IPv6.

The size of IPv4 is 32 bits. For example ,

192 : 180 : 210 where, 1 octant = 8 bits.

The size of IPv6 is 128 bits. For example ,

C18 : 1B32 : C450 : 62A5 : 34DC : AE24 : 15BC : 6A5D where , 1 octant = 16 bits.
Below is a diagram representing the working mechanism of Logical address:

In the above diagram , we can see that there are two networks – Network 1 and Network 2. A1
is the sender and there are two receivers – D1 and D2. In case of logical address, receiver D1
as well as D2 receives the data. This is because logical address can be passed in different
networks. The purpose of using logical address is to send the data across networks.
Advantages
 Logical address can be used in different networks because they can traverse through
routers.
 They can handle a number devices and networks. Even if the number of devices and
network increases, the logical address is able to handle all them very easily. Thus,
they are highly scalable.
Disadvantages
 Internet Protocol is vulnerable to attacks such as hacking, phishing etc. and there
can be data loss.
 It lacks privacy. The data which is moving through the packets can be intercepted,
traced and monitored by unauthorized entities.

INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDERS

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ISP stands for Internet Service Provider. It is a company that provides access to the internet
and similar services such as Website designing and virtual hosting. For example, when you
connect to the Internet, the connection between your Internet-enabled device and the internet
is executed through a specific transmission technology that involves the transfer of
information packets through an Internet Protocol route.

Data is transmitted through different technologies, including cable modem, dial-up, DSL, high
speed interconnects. Accordingly, based on the method of data transmission, the Internet
access provided by ISPs can be divided into many types, some of which are as follows:

Dial-up Internet access: It is the oldest technology to provide Internet access by modem to
modem connection using telephone lines. In this method, the user's computer is connected to
a modem with a telephone line. This method has become outdated today due to slow
connection speed. However, in remote areas, this method can be used where the broadband
network is not available.

DSL: DSL, which stands for 'digital subscriber line' is an advanced version of the dial-up
Internet access method. It uses high frequency to execute a connection over the telephone
network and allows the internet and the phone connection to run on the same telephone line.
This method offers an Asymmetric Digital Subscriber (ADSL), where the upload speed is less
than the download speed, and a Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL), which offers equal
upload and download speeds. Out of these two, ADSL is more popular among users and is
popularly known as DSL.

Wireless Broadband (WiBB): It is a modern broadband technology for Internet access. It

allows high-speed wireless internet within a large area. To use this technology, you are

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required to place a dish on the top of your house and point it to the transmitter of your
Wireless Internet Service Provider (WISP).

Wi-Fi Internet: It is the short form for "wireless fidelity," which is a wireless networking
technology that provides wireless high-speed Internet connections using radio waves. To use
the internet, you are required to be within the range of wi-fi network. It is commonly used in
public places such as hotels, airports, restaurants to provide internet access to customers.

ISDN: It is a short form of Integrated Services Digital Network. It is a telephone system

network which integrates a high-quality digital transmission of voice and data over the same
standard phone line. It offers a fast upstream and downstream Internet connection speed and
allows both voice calls and data transfer.

Ethernet: It is a wired LAN (Local Area Network) where computers are connected within a
primary physical space. It enables devices to communicate with each other via a protocol (a set
of rules or common network language). It may provide different speeds such as 10 Mbps, 100
Mbps and 10 Gbps.

DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM

o DNS stands for Domain Name System.
o DNS is a directory service that provides a mapping between the name of a host on the
network and its numerical address.
o Each node in a tree has a domain name, and a full domain name is a sequence of
symbols specified by dots.
o DNS is a service that translates the domain name into IP addresses. This allows the users
of networks to utilize user-friendly names when looking for other hosts instead of
remembering the IP addresses.

What is the Need of DNS?

Every host is identified by the IP address but remembering numbers is very difficult for
people also the IP addresses are not static therefore a mapping is required to change the
domain name to the IP address. So DNS is used to convert the domain name of the websites to
their numerical IP address.
Types of Domain
There are various kinds of domain:
1. Generic domains: .com(commercial), .edu(educational), .mil(military),
.org(nonprofit organization), .net(similar to commercial) all these are generic
domains.

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2. Country domain: .in (India) .us .uk
3. Inverse domain: if we want to know what is the domain name of the website. Ip to
domain name mapping. So DNS can provide both the mapping for example to find
the IP addresses of [Link] then we have to type
WEB BASICS:

INTRODUCTION TO WEB

The Web is an Internet-based distributed information system. Anyone with a computer

connected to the Internet can easily retrieve information by giving a Web address or by simply
clicking a mouse button.

The Web is a great way to disseminate information and making it available 24/7. Information
can also be collected from Web users and customers through online forms. Maintainers and
administrators can control and update Web content from anywhere on the Web. All these
make the Web a powerful tool for mass communication, e-business and e-commerce.
Compared with TV, radio, news papers, and magazines, putting the word out on the Web is
relatively simple and inexpensive.

But a website is much more than such one-way communication media. It can be a virtual office
or store that is always open and supported by workers from anywhere. Web service
companies offer free Web space and tools to generate simple personal or even business Web
pages.

As a communication medium, the Web consists of these major components

• Networks—The local-area and wide-area networks connecting computers world-wide
forming the Internet.
• Clients—Web browsers that enable end-users to access the Web.
• Servers—Constantly running programs that serve up information to the Web.
• Documents—Web pages, mostly coded in HTML, that supply information on the Web.
• Protocols—The Hyper Text Transfer Protocol HTTP that Web clients and servers use to talk
to one another and the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol) on which HTTP depends .

WEB BROWSERS,

What is a Web Browser?

The web browser is an application software to explore www (World Wide Web). It
provides an interface between the server and the client and it requests to the server for

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web documents and services. It works as a compiler to render HTML which is used to
design a webpage. Whenever we search for anything on the internet, the browser loads a
web page written in HTML, including text, links, images, and other items such as style
sheets and JavaScript functions. Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, Mozilla Firefox, and
Safari are examples of web browsers.

History of the Web Browsers

The first web browser World Wide Web was invented in the year of 1990 by Tim Berners-
Lee. Later, it becomes Nexus. In the year of 1993, a new browser Mosaic was invented by
Mark Andreessen and their team. It was the first browser to display text and images at a
time on the device screen. He also invents another browser Netscape in 1994. Next year
Microsoft launched a web browser Internet Explorer which was already installed in the
Windows operating system. After this many browsers were invented with various
features like Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, Safari, Opera, etc.

How does a Web Browser Work?

A web browser helps us find information anywhere on the internet. It is installed on the
client computer and requests information from the web server such a type of working
model is called a client-server model.

Client-server model

The browser receives information through HTTP protocol. In which transmission of

data is defined. When the browser received data from the server, it is rendered in
HTML to user-readable form and, information is displayed on the device screen.
Website Cookies

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When we visited any website over the internet our web browser stores information
about us in small files called cookies. Cookies are designed to remember stateful
information about our browsing history. Some more cookies are used to remember
about us like our interests, our browsing patterns, etc. Websites show us ads based on
our interests using cookies.
Some Popular Web Browsers
Here is a list of 7 popular web browsers:
1. Google Chrome:
Developed by Google, Chrome is one of the most widely-used web browsers in the world,
known for its speed and simplicity.
2. Mozilla Firefox:
Developed by the Mozilla Foundation, Firefox is an open-source browser that is known
for its privacy features and customization options.
3. Apple Safari:
Developed by Apple, Safari is the default browser on Mac and iOS devices and is known
for its speed and integration with other Apple products.
4. Microsoft Edge:
Developed by Microsoft, Edge is the default browser on Windows 10 and is known for its
integration with other Microsoft products and services.
5. Tor Browser:
Developed by The Tor Project, Tor Browser is a web browser that is designed for
anonymous web browsing and is based on Mozilla Firefox.
6. Opera:
Developed by Opera Software, Opera is a web browser that is known for its speed and
built-in VPN feature.
7. Brave:
Developed by Brave Software, Brave is a web browser that is focused on privacy and
security and blocks third-party ads and trackers by default.
These are some of the most popular web browsers, there are other browsers available
such as Vivaldi, Waterfox, and so on. The choice of a web browser depends on the user’s
preference and requirements.

HTTP/HTTPS,

HTTP
HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol. It is invented by Tim Berner. HyperText
is the type of text which is specially coded with the help of some standard coding
language called HyperText Markup Language (HTML). HTTP provides a standard

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between a web browser and a web server to establish communication. It is a set of

rules for transferring data from one computer to another. Data such as text, images,
and other multimedia files are shared on the World Wide Web. Whenever a web user
opens their web browser, the user indirectly uses HTTP. It is an application protocol
that is used for distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information systems.

Characteristics of HTTP
 HTTP is IP based communication protocol that is used to deliver data from server to
client or vice-versa.
 Any type of content can be exchanged as long as the server and client are compatible
with it.
 It is a request and response protocol based on client and server requirements.
HTTPS
HTTPS stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure. HTTP Secure (HTTPS), could be
a combination of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol with the SSL/TLS convention to
supply encrypted communication and secure distinguishing proof of an arranged web
server. HTTPS is more secure than HTTP because HTTPS is certified by the SSL(Secure
Socket Layer). Whatever website you are visiting on the internet, if its URL is HTTP, then
that website is not secure.

Characteristics of HTTPS

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 HTTPS encrypts all message substance, including the HTTP headers and the
request/response data. The verification perspective of HTTPS requires a trusted third
party to sign server-side digital certificates.
 HTTPS is presently utilized more frequently by web clients than the first non-secure
HTTP, fundamentally to ensure page genuineness on all sorts of websites, secure
accounts and to keep client communications.
In short, both of these are protocols using which the information of a particular
website is exchanged between the Web Server and Web Browser. But there are some
differences between these two. A concise difference between HTTP and HTTPS is that
HTTPS is much more secure compared to HTTP.

URL

URL is the abbreviation of Uniform Resource Locator. It is the resource address on the
internet. The URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is created by Tim Berners-Lee and the
Internet Engineering working group in 1994. URL is the character string (address) which is
used to access data from the internet. The URL is the type of URI (Uniform Resource
Identifier).

A URL contains the following information which is listed below:

 Protocol name
 A colon followed by double forward-slash (://)
 Hostname (domain name) or IP address
 A colon followed by port number (optional – unless specified otherwise, “:80” is
the default when using HTTP, and “:443” is the default when using HTTPS)
 Path of the file
Syntax of URL: protocol://hostname/filename
Protocol: A protocol is the standard set of rules that are used to allow electronic devices to
communicate with each other.
Hostname: It describes the name of the server on the network.
Filename: It describes the pathname to the file on the server.
The URL [Link] contains the information protocol: https,
hostname: [Link] and filename: php-function.

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