Memory and Models

of Memory
A Detailed Presentation on Memory, its Processes,
and Models
 What is Memory?

Memory is the cognitive process of encoding (receiving), storing

(holding), and retrieving (recalling) information. It is essential for
learning, making decisions, and daily functioning.

The Three Stages of Memory

•Retention: Keeping the information in the mind.
•Reproduction: Recalling or bringing back the stored information.
•Recognition: Identifying information that has been encountered
before
 Introduction to Memory

• - Memory means the revival in the form of ideas or mental

images of things and events which we have experienced
before.
• Memory is the process of encoding, storing, and
retrieving information.
• - Helps in learning, decision-making, and daily activities.
• - Example: Remembering a phone number or recalling
past experiences.
 Models of Memory

• Two Major Models:

• 1. Stage Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)
• 2. Levels of Processing Model (Craik & Lockhart,
1972)
 Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Stage Model

• - Memory consists of three stages:

• 1. Sensory Memory
• 2. Short-Term Memory (STM)
• 3. Long-Term Memory (LTM)
• - Information moves through these stages
sequentially.
 Sensory Memory

• - Large capacity but very short duration (<1 second).

• - Stores exact sensory input.
• - Transfers selected information to STM.
• - Example: Seeing a flash of lightning but forgetting
its exact shape.
 Short-Term Memory (STM)

• - Holds information for 15-30 seconds.

• - Limited capacity: 7 ± 2 items (George Miller, 1956).
• - Encoded acoustically (by sound).
• - Requires maintenance rehearsal for retention.
• - Example: Remembering a phone number before
dialing.
 Long-Term Memory (LTM)

• - Unlimited capacity, stores information permanently.

• - Encoded semantically (based on meaning).
• - Requires elaborative rehearsal for retention.
• - Example: Remembering childhood memories or
learned skills.
 The Stage Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)
This model suggests that information moves through three distinct "stores"
sequentially.

Feature Sensory Memory (STM) (LTM)

Duration Less than 1 second 15–30 seconds Permanent

Large (exact 7 ± 2 items (Miller’s

Capacity Unlimited
replica) Law)

Sensory Semantic
Encoding Acoustic (sound)
(visual/auditory) (meaning)

Maintenance Elaborative
Requirement Selective Attention
Rehearsal Rehearsal
 George Miller’s Magic Number
(1956)
• - STM can hold 7 ± 2 chunks of information.
• - Example: Remembering a list of numbers (5-9
items).
 Chunking Strategy

• - Increases STM capacity by grouping information.

• - Example: Instead of remembering 100110011010,
chunk it into 1001-1001-1010.
 Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Information
Processing Model
• - Information moves from sensory memory → STM
→ LTM.
• - Rehearsal and meaningful association help
retention.
• - Example: Studying for exams using repetition and
real-life applications.
 Levels of Processing Model
(Craik & Lockhart, 1972)

This model ignores "stores" and focuses on how we process

information. The deeper you think about something, the better you
remember it.
[Link] (Shallow): Focuses on physical appearance (e.g., Is
the word in capital letters?).
[Link] (Phonetic): Focuses on sound (e.g., Does the word
rhyme with 'cat'?).
[Link] (Semantic): Focuses on meaning and personal connection
(e.g., How does this concept apply to my life?)
 Examples of Levels of Processing

• 1. Structural Processing – Recognizing a word in

uppercase.
• 2. Intermediate Processing – Rhyming words (e.g.,
'cat' and 'hat').
• 3. Deep Processing – Connecting a new concept to
personal experiences.
COMPARATIVE TABLE BASED ON CRAIK AND LOCKHART'S LEVELS OF PROCESSING
MODEL:
This Table Summarizes How Depth Of Processing Affects Memory Retention. The Deeper The
Processing, The Better The Recall

Processing Level Description Example

• Focuses on the physical Recognizing whether a word
appearance of is written in uppercase or
Structural Level information. Involves lowercase (e.g., “TABLE” vs.
(Shallow Processing) minimal cognitive effort. “table”).
• Physical Features, or
Structural Feature
Intermediate Level • Focuses on the sound of
Identifying whether two words
(Phonetic the information rather
rhyme (e.g., “hat” and “cat”).
Processing) than its meaning.
Deep Level • Focuses on the meaning Connecting a new concept to
(Semantic of the information, personal experiences or
Processing) leading to better forming meaningful
retention and recall. associations (e.g., linking the
word "elephant" to a memory
of seeing one at a zoo).
Memory Classification Flowchart
 Sensory Memory

- Large capacity but short duration (less than a second)

- Registers information from senses as an exact replica
- Example: The brief image retained after looking at a bright
light
 Short-Term Memory (Working
Memory)
• - Holds information for about 30 seconds
• - Requires attention and rehearsal to retain
• - Example: Remembering a phone number just long
enough to dial it
 Long-Term Memory

• - Vast capacity and permanent storage

• - Encodes information semantically (meaning-based)
• - Example: Remembering childhood experiences
 Explicit vs. Implicit Memory

• - Explicit Memory: Conscious recall (facts, events)

• - Implicit Memory: Unconscious retention (skills,
habits)
• - Example: Knowing historical dates (explicit) vs.
riding a bicycle (implicit)
 Declarative Memory: Episodic &
Semantic
• - Episodic Memory: Personal experiences (Example:
Your last birthday)
• - Semantic Memory: General knowledge (Example:
Capital of France is Paris)
 Procedural Memory

• - Memory for skills and tasks

• - Example: Driving a car, tying shoelaces
• - Does not require conscious recall
 Flashbulb Memory

A flashbulb memory is a highly detailed and vivid memory of an event that

was surprising, emotional, or significant—as if the brain took a snapshot of
that moment.
Examples:
• 9/11 Attack: If you witnessed the news, you might still remember where
you were, who you were with, and what you felt at that moment.
First Job Interview: The nervousness, the questions, the setting—
everything might still be crystal clear in your mind.
• Pakistan Winning the 1992 World Cup: Those who watched it might
still recall the final moments, the celebration, and the emotions.
In simple words: Flashbulb memory is like a permanent mental photograph
of an emotionally powerful event!
 Autobiographical Memory

Autobiographical memory consists of personal memories and

experiences from one’s own life—the stories we tell about ourselves.
Examples:
• First Day at School: You might remember your new backpack,
uniform, and the nervous excitement of that day.
• Learning to Ride a Bicycle: Falling down, struggling with balance,
and the joy of finally getting it right.
• Family Vacation: If you went on a special trip as a child, you may still
recall the journey, the fun, and the little moments.
In simple words: Autobiographical memory is made up of our personal
life stories, whether joyful or painful.
 Types of Long-Term Memory

Long-term memory is divided based on what kind of information is being

stored.
•Explicit (Declarative) Memory: Conscious recall of facts and events.
•Episodic: Personal experiences (e.g., your last birthday).
•Semantic: General knowledge (e.g., knowing that Paris is the capital
of France).
•Implicit (Non-Declarative) Memory: Unconscious memory of skills.
•Procedural: "How-to" memories like riding a bike or typing.
•Flashbulb Memory: A vivid, "snapshot" memory of a highly emotional
or significant event (e.g., witnessing a major historical event)
Methods of Measuring Memory

• Memory is measured using different methods to

assess how information is stored and retrieved. These
methods help researchers understand what we
remember, how we recall it, and how deeply it is
stored in our memory.
 Free Recall & Recognition
In free recall, a person is given a list of words to memorize and is then asked
to recall them in any order.
In recognition, a person is shown a list of words and must identify which
ones were learned earlier.
Example:
A teacher shows students a list of 10 words for 30 seconds. Later, students are
asked to recall as many words as possible (free recall) or identify the correct
words from a longer list (recognition).
What it measures:
Free recall helps measure sensory memory—how many words were
registered and received selective attention.
Recognition assesses long-term memory—how well words were stored and
retrieved.
 Sentence Verification Task
In this method, participants are given sentences and asked to determine
whether they are true or false.
Researchers measure how quickly they respond, which helps assess how
deeply the information is stored in memory.
Example:
A researcher presents the sentence:
A dog is an animal.
Since this is a common fact, people quickly respond "True."
However, if shown:
A penguin is a bird."
People may take slightly longer, as penguins do not fly, making them less
prototypical birds.
What it measures: Fast responses suggest that the information is deeply
stored in semantic memory (knowledge-based memory). Slow responses
indicate weaker or less accessible memory traces.
 Priming
Priming measures memory that cannot be reported verbally (such as
unconscious or procedural memory).
Participants are first shown a list of words and then given partial words to
complete.
Example:
A participant first sees words like “Tiger, Table, Tunnel”. Later, they are
shown incomplete words like T _ _ L E and are more likely to fill in
“TABLE” because they were primed earlier.
What it measures:
Unconscious memory (Implicit Memory)—how past experiences
influence present behavior without conscious awareness.
Procedural memory—skills and habits, like riding a bicycle, which we
perform without actively thinking about them.
 Conclusion

• - Memory has multiple stages (Sensory, STM, LTM).

• - Deeper processing improves retention.
• - Chunking and rehearsal aid memory efficiency.
• - Understanding models of memory helps improve
learning techniques.