UNIT- 3 OPERATING SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS:

OPERATING SYSTEMS:
INTRODUCTION
An operating system is a program which manages all the computer hardware.
It provides the base for application program and acts as an intermediary between a user
and the computer hardware.
The operating system has two objectives such as:
Firstly, an operating system controls the computer’s hardware.
The second objective is to provide an interactive interface to the user and interpret
commands so that it can communicate with the hardware.
The operating system is very important part of almost every computer system.

 The prime objective of operating system is to manage & control the various hardware
resources of a computer system.
 These hardware resources include processer, memory, and disk space and so on.
 The output result was display in monitor.
 In addition to communicating with the hardware the operating system provides on
error handling procedure and display an error notification.
 If a device not functioning properly, the operating system cannot be communicate
with the device.

Providing an Interface

The operating system organizes application so that users can easily access, use and store
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 UNIT- 3 OPERATING SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS:

them.
• It provides a stable and consistent way for applications to deal with the hardware without
the user having known details of the hardware.
• If the program is not functioning properly, application and displays the appropriate error
message
• Computer system components are divided into 5 parts Computer hardware operating
system utilities Application programs End user

DEFINITION OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM,

An operating system also known as OS is a software program that enables the computer
hardware to communicate and operate with the computer software. Operating systems
perform basic tasks:
 Recognizing input from the keyboard
 Sending output to Monitor
 keeping track of files and directories
 Controlling peripheral such as disk drives and printers.

FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM

1. Memory Management
It is the management of the main or primary memory. Whatever
program is executed, it has to be present in the main memory. Main
memory is a quick storage area that may be accessed directly by the
CPU. When the program is completed, the memory region is released
and can be used by other programs. Therefore, there can be more than

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 UNIT- 3 OPERATING SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS:

one program present at a time. Hence, it is required to manage the

memory.

The operating system:

 Allocates and deallocates the memory.

 Keeps a record of which part of primary memory is used by
whom and how much.
 Distributes the memory while multiprocessing.
 In multiprogramming, the operating system selects which
processes acquire memory when and how much memory they
get.
2. Processor Management/Scheduling
Every software that runs on a computer, whether in the background or
in the frontend, is a process. Processor management is an execution unit
in which a program operates. The operating system determines the
status of the processor and processes, selects a job and its processor,
allocates the processor to the process, and de-allocates the processor
after the process is completed.

When more than one process runs on the system the OS decides how
and when a process will use the CPU. Hence, the name is also CPU
Scheduling. The OS:

 Allocates and deallocates processor to the processes.

 Keeps record of CPU status.
Certain algorithms used for CPU scheduling are as follows:

 First Come First Serve (FCFS)

 Shortest Job First (SJF)
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 Round-Robin Scheduling
 Priority-based scheduling etc.
Purpose of CPU scheduling

The purpose of CPU scheduling is as follows:

 Proper utilization of CPU. Since the proper utilization of the

CPU is necessary. Therefore, the OS makes sure that the CPU
should be as busy as possible.
 Since every device should get a chance to use the processor.
Hence, the OS makes sure that the devices get fair processor
time.
 Increasing the efficiency of the system.

3. Device Management
An operating system regulates device connection using drivers. The
processes may require devices for their use. This management is done
by the OS. The OS:

 Allocates and deallocates devices to different processes.

 Keeps records of the devices.
 Decides which process can use which device for how much
time.
4. File Management
The operating system manages resource allocation and de-allocation. It
specifies which process receives the file and for how long. It also keeps
track of information, location, uses, status, and so on. These groupings
of resources are referred to as file systems. The files on a system are
stored in different directories. The OS:

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 Keeps records of the status and locations of files.

 Allocates and deallocates resources.
 Decides who gets the resources.
5. Storage Management
Storage management is a procedure that allows users to maximize the
utilization of storage devices while also protecting data integrity on
whatever media on which it lives. Network virtualization, replication,
mirroring, security, compression, deduplication, traffic analysis, process
automation, storage provisioning, and memory management are some
of the features that may be included. The operating system is in charge
of storing and accessing files. The creation of files, the creation of
directories, the reading and writing of data from files and directories, as
well as the copying of the contents of files and directories from one
location to another are all included in storage management.

The OS uses storage management for:

 Improving the performance of the data storage resources.

 It optimizes the use of various storage devices.
 Assists businesses in storing more data on existing hardware,
speeding up the data retrieval process, preventing data loss,
meeting data retention regulations, and lowering IT costs

CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

1. Batch Operating System
This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly.
There is an operator which takes similar jobs having the same requirement
and groups them into batches. It is the responsibility of the operator to sort
jobs with similar needs.
Advantages of Batch Operating System

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It is very difficult to guess or know the time required for any
job to complete. Processors of the batch systems know how
long the job would be when it is in the queue.
 Multiple users can share the batch systems.
 The idle time for the batch system is very less.
 It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems.
Disadvantages of Batch Operating System
 The computer operators should be well known with batch
systems.
 Batch systems are hard to debug.
 It is sometimes costly.
 The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job
fails.
Examples of Batch Operating Systems: Payroll Systems, Bank
Statements, etc.

2. Multi-Programming Operating System

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Multiprogramming Operating Systems can be simply illustrated as

more than one program is present in the main memory and any one
of them can be kept in execution. This is basically used for better
execution of resources.
Advantages of Multi-Programming Operating System
 Multi Programming increases the Throughput of the System.
 It helps in reducing the response time.
Disadvantages of Multi-Programming Operating System
 There is not any facility for user interaction of system
resources with the system.

3. Multi-Processing Operating System

Multi-Processing Operating System is a type of Operating System in
which more than one CPU is used for the execution of resources. It
betters the throughput of the System.

Advantages of Multi-Processing Operating System

 It increases the throughput of the system.
 As it has several processors, so, if one processor fails, we can
proceed with another processor.
Disadvantages of Multi-Processing Operating System

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 Due to the multiple CPU, it can be more complex and

somehow difficult to understand.

4. Multi-Tasking Operating System

Multitasking Operating System is simply a multiprogramming
Operating System with having facility of a Round-Robin Scheduling
Algorithm. It can run multiple programs simultaneously.

Advantages of Multi-Tasking Operating System

 Multiple Programs can be executed simultaneously in Multi-
Tasking Operating System.
 It comes with proper memory management.
Disadvantages of Multi-Tasking Operating System
 The system gets heated in case of heavy programs multiple
times.

5. Time-Sharing Operating Systems

Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work
smoothly. Each user gets the time of the CPU as they use a single
system. These systems are also known as Multitasking Systems. The
task can be from a single user or different users also. The time that
each task gets to execute is called quantum. After this time interval is
over OS switches over to the next task.

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Advantages of Time-Sharing OS
 Each task gets an equal opportunity.
 Fewer chances of duplication of software.
 CPU idle time can be reduced.
Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS
 Reliability problem.
 One must have to take care of the security and integrity of
user programs and data.
 Data communication problem.

6. Distributed Operating System

These types of operating system is a recent advancement in the world
of computer technology and are being widely accepted all over the
world and, that too, at a great pace. Various autonomous
interconnected computers communicate with each other using a
shared communication network. Independent systems possess their
own memory unit and CPU. These are referred to as loosely coupled
systems or distributed systems . These systems’ processors differ in
size and function. The major benefit of working with these types of
the operating system is that it is always possible that one user can
access the files or software which are not actually present on his
system but some other system connected within this network i.e.,
remote access is enabled within the devices connected in that
network.

Advantages of Distributed Operating System

 Failure of one will not affect the other network
communication, as all systems are independent of each other.
 Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast
and durable.
 Load on host computer reduces.
Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System
 Failure of the main network will stop the entire
communication.
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 To establish distributed systems the language is used not

well-defined yet.
 These types of systems are not readily available as they are
very expensive. Not only that the underlying software is
highly complex and not understood well yet.

7. Network Operating System

These systems run on a server and provide the capability to manage
data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking
functions. These types of operating systems allow shared access to
files, printers, security, applications, and other networking functions
over a small private network. One more important aspect of Network
Operating Systems is that all the users are well aware of the
underlying configuration, of all other users within the network, their
individual connections, etc. and that’s why these computers are
popularly known as tightly coupled systems .

Advantages of Network Operating System

 Highly stable centralized servers.
 Security concerns are handled through servers.
 New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily
integrated into the system.
Disadvantages of Network Operating System
 Servers are costly.
 User has to depend on a central location for most operations.
 Maintenance and updates are required regularly.
Examples of Network Operating Systems are Microsoft Windows
Server 2003, Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X,
Novell NetWare, BSD, etc.

8. Real-Time Operating System

These types of OSs serve real-time systems. The time interval
required to process and respond to inputs is very small. This time
interval is called response time.

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Real-time systems are used when there are time requirements that
are very strict like missile systems, air traffic control systems, robots,
etc.
Types of Real-Time Operating Systems
 Hard Real-Time Systems:
Hard Real-Time OSs are meant for applications where time
constraints are very strict and even the shortest possible
delay is not acceptable. These systems are built for saving life
like automatic parachutes or airbags which are required to be
readily available in case of an accident. Virtual memory is
rarely found in these systems.
 Soft Real-Time Systems:
These OSs are for applications where time-constraint is less
strict.

Advantages of RTOS
 Maximum Consumption: Maximum utilization of devices
and systems, thus more output from all the resources.
 Task Shifting: The time assigned for shifting tasks in these
systems is very less. For example, in older systems, it takes
about 10 microseconds in shifting from one task to another,
and in the latest systems, it takes 3 microseconds.
 Focus on Application: Focus on running applications and
less importance on applications that are in the queue.
 Real-time operating system in the embedded
system: Since the size of programs is small, RTOS can also
be used in embedded systems like in transport and others.

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Error Free: These types of systems are error-free.

Memory Allocation: Memory allocation is best managed in
these types of systems.
Disadvantages of RTOS
 Limited Tasks: Very few tasks run at the same time and
their concentration is very less on a few applications to avoid
errors.
 Use heavy system resources: Sometimes the system
resources are not so good and they are expensive as well.
 Complex Algorithms: The algorithms are very complex and
difficult for the designer to write on.
 Device driver and interrupt signals: It needs specific
device drivers and interrupts signal to respond earliest to
interrupts.
 Thread Priority: It is not good to set thread priority as these
systems are very less prone to switching tasks.
Examples of Real-Time Operating Systems are Scientific
experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control systems,
weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.

SYSTEM PROGRAMS
In the context of an operating system, system programs are nothing but a special software
which give us facility to manage and control the computer’s hardware and resources. As we
have mentioned earlier these programs are more closely with the operating system so it
executes the operation fast and helpful in performing essential operation which can’t be
handled by application software.

1. File Management: At the core of computing lies the management of files—

repositories of specific information residing in a computer’s memory. File
management encompasses essential processes like file creation,
modification, and deletion, forming the bedrock of system organization.
2. Command Line Interface (CLI): The Command Line Interface (CLI) serves
as an indispensable tool for users. Offering a text-based interface, it
empowers users 00-=to interact directly with the operating system. CLIs
facilitate command execution, file manipulation, system configuration, and
more, all through a user-friendly text-based environment.
3. Device Drivers: Device drivers act as intermediaries between the operating
system and hardware devices. Their mission is to foster effective
communication between these entities, ensuring seamless cooperation. By
bridging the gap in language between hardware and the OS, device drivers
guarantee efficient operation without interruptions.

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4. Status Information: Users often seek critical system information, including

date, time, available memory, and disk space. System programs step in to
provide this information, ranging from basic details to
comprehensive performance metrics and debugging data, all conveniently
displayed on output devices or in graphical user interfaces.
5. File Modification: When it comes to altering file contents, specialized
programs and commands are essential. These tools enable users to edit,
transform, and perform various file-related operations efficiently, ensuring a
seamless workflow.
6. Programming-Language Support: System programs extend
comprehensive support for common programming languages. With
integrated compilers, assemblers, debuggers, and interpreters, users can
harness the power of various programming languages without constraints.
7. Program Loading and Execution: Once a program is ready, it must be
loaded into memory for execution. This critical stage is facilitated by loaders,
a vital component of the operating system. Loaders, including relocatable
loaders, linkage editors, and overlay loaders, ensure the seamless
preparation and execution of programs and libraries.
8. Communications: System programs are instrumental in establishing
connections among processes, users, and computer systems. They empower
diverse forms of communication, including messaging, emailing, web
browsing, remote login, and file transfers between users.

APPLICATION PROGRAMS

Application software is a software program than can perform a specific task.

This task performed can be business related or personal. This software is
accessed by the user and its sole purpose is to serve the user requirements.

Application software are installed by the user. User can use different application
software based on their need. One can install a number of application software
in their system. We can run multiple application software at the same time.

Games like candy crush, web browsers, messengers like Whatsapp, social media
apps ae all examples of application software. Users directly interact with this
software to perform their task.

Types of Application Software

Here is a list of different types of application software we get to see −

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 Freeware − As the name suggests, this application software is available

for free. Adobe reader, Yahoo messenger, LibreOffice etc., are some of the
freeware software
 Open source − The source code of these software is available for all thus
one can change it and add new features to it. Apache web server, GIMP,
etc., are examples of open source software
 Shareware − This software is available for free for a limited period of
time (trail) and then one has to pay for their services. Winzip, Adobe
acrobat, skype etc., are some of the shareware software
 Custom software − Software that is special developed for a user or
organization. E-commerce solution, Fintech solution, etc., are some of the
custom software
 Packaged software − Software consisting a group of similar programs.
MS Office is the best example for this. It consists of Word, Excel,
PowerPoint, Outlook, etc.

UTILITIES
The Utility Software is system software that helps to maintain the
proper and smooth functioning of a Computer System. It assists the
Operating System to manage, organize, maintain, and optimize the
functioning of the computer system.

Utility Software performs certain tasks like virus detection, installation,

and uninstallation, data backup, deletion of unwanted files, etc. Some
examples are antivirus software, file management tools, compression
tools, disk management tools, etc.

Types of Utility Software

1. Antivirus
A virus is a malicious software that enters the system along with a host
program. Moreover, it multiplies with time and makes several copies
which in turn slows down and corrupts the system.
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An antivirus is a utility software that helps to keep the computer virus-free.

Moreover, it notifies when any malicious file is detected and removes such files.
In addition, it scans any new device attached to the computer and discards any
virus if there. Moreover, it also scans the system from time to time for any
threats and disposes of them. Examples of antivirus are McAfee Antivirus,
Quickheal Antivirus, Windows Defender, etc.
2. File Management System
These utility software are used to manage files of the computer system.
Since files are an important part of the system as all the data is stored in
the files. Therefore, this utility software help to browse, search,
arrange, find information, and quickly preview the files of the
system.

Windows Explorer is a default file management tool present in the

system. Some other examples of file management tools are Google
Desktop, Double Commander, Directory Opus, etc.

3. Compression Tools
An important part of a computer is storage space, it is very important to
maintain this storage. Therefore, we use certain utility software to
compress big files and decrease their size, these are compression
[Link] format of the files changes while compressing and we cannot
access or edit them directly. In addition, we can easily decompress the
file and get the original file back. Examples of compression tools are
WinZip, WinRAR, WinAce, PeaZip, 7-Zip, etc.

4. Disk Management Tools

These utility software are used to manage data on disks. Moreover, they
perform functions like partitioning devices, manage drives,
[Link] of disk management tools are MiniTool Partition Wizard,
Paragon Partition Manager, etc.

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5. Disk Cleanup Tool

This utility software helps to free up the disk space. In addition, the files
which are no longer in use are removed from the disk. Examples are
Razer Cortex, Piriform CCleaner, etc.

6. Disk Defragmenter
This utility software helps to reduce the fragmentation and hence,
reduces the access speed. Defragmenting refers to rearranging files and
storing them in contiguous memory locations. Moreover, saves time in
reading from files and writing files to disk. Examples of disk
defragmenters are Perfect disk, Deflaggler, etc.

7. Backup Utility
This utility software helps to back up the files, folders, databases, or
complete disks. Moreover, backup refers to duplicating the disk
information so that the data can be restored if any data loss happens.

Advantages of Utility Software

The advantages are as follows:

1. Enhances performance.
2. Manages space.
3. Manages files and data.
4. Helps to customize interface and desktop.
5. Helps to remove useless files.
6. Keep the system safe and secure.
7. Helps to recover files after a loss.

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In conclusion, we can say that it makes the working of a computer

system efficient.

THE UNIX OPERATING SYSTEM

UNIX operating system
UNIX is a powerful Operating System initially developed by Ken Thompson,
Dennis Ritchie at AT&T Bell laboratories in 1970. It is prevalent among
scientific, engineering, and academic institutions due to its most
appreciative features like multitasking, flexibility, and many more. In UNIX,
the file system is a hierarchical structure of files and directories where users
can store and retrieve information using the files.

Features of UNIX Operating System:

Multitasking: A UNIX operating system is a multitasking operating system

that allows you to initiate more than one task from the same terminal so that

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one task is performed as a foreground and the other task as a background

process.

Multi-user: UNIX operating system supports more than one user to access
computer resources like main memory, hard disk, tape drives, etc. Multiple
users can log on to the system from different terminals and run different jobs
that share the resources of a command terminal. It deals with the principle of
time-sharing. Time-sharing is done by a scheduler that divides the CPU time
into several segments also called a time slice, and each segment is assigned
to each user on a scheduled basis. This time slice is tiny. When this time is
expired, it passes control to the following user on the system. Each user
executes their set of instructions within their time slice.

Portability: This feature makes the UNIX work on different machines and
platforms with the easy transfer of code to any computer system. Since a
significant portion of UNIX is written in C language, and only a tiny portion is
coded in assembly language for specific hardware.

File Security and Protection: Being a multi-user system, UNIX makes

special consideration for file and system security. UNIX has different levels of
security using assigning username and password to individual users ensuring
the authentication, at the level providing file access permission viz. read,
write and execute and lastly file encryption to change the file into an
unreadable format.

Command Structure: UNIX commands are easy to understand and simple

to use. Example: "cp", mv etc. While working in the UNIX environment, the
UNIX commands are case-sensitive and are entered in lower case.

Communication: In UNIX, communication is an excellent feature that

enables the user to communicate worldwide. It supports various
communication facilities provided using the write command, mail command,
talk command, etc.

Open Source: UNIX operating system is open source it means it is freely

available to all and is a community-based development project.

Accounting: UNIX keeps an account of jobs created by the user. This

feature enhances the system performance in terms of CPU monitoring and
disk space checking. It allows you to keep an account of disk space used by
each user, and the disk space can be limited by each other. You can assign
every user a different disk quota. The root user can perform these
accounting tasks using various commands such as quota, df, du, etc.

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BASIC COMMANDS (CAL, DATE, BC, ECHO, WHO, LS, PWD, CD, MKDIR,
RMDIR)

cal
This command will print a calendar for a specified month and/or year.

Ex: cal (Prints calendar of current month)

cal 2023(Prints calendar of all month of specified year)
cal 6 2023 (Prints calendar of specified month of the year)

date
The date command displays the current day, date, time, and year.

Ex: date

bc
The bc command is unix calculator tool, that performs mathematical
calculations
Ex: echo “12+5” |bc

echo
The echo command in Linux is a built-in command that allows users to
display lines of text or strings that are passed as arguments. It is
commonly used in shell scripts and batch files to output status text to the
screen or a file.
Ex: echo “12+5”
echo “hello”

who
The who command is used to display information about users who are
currently logged in to the system. It shows username, terminal, login time
Ex: who

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ls
This command will list the files stored in a directory. To see a brief, multi-column list of
the files in the current directory, enter:

Ex: ls

To also see "dot" files (configuration files that begin with a period, such as .login),
enter:

ls -a

To see the file permissions, owners, and sizes of all files, enter:

ls -la

If the listing is long and scrolls off your screen before you can read it, combine ls with
the less utility, for example:

ls -la | less

pwd
This command reports the current directory path. Enter the command by itself:

Ex:pwd
cd
This command changes your current directory location. By default, your Unix login
session begins in your home directory.

To switch to a subdirectory (of the current directory) named myfiles, enter:

cd myfiles

To switch to a directory named /home/dvader/empire_docs, enter:

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cd /home/dvader/empire_docs

To move to the parent directory of the current directory, enter:

cd ..

To move to the root directory, enter:

cd /

To return to your home directory, enter:

cd

mkdir
This command will make a new subdirectory.

To create a subdirectory named mystuff in the current directory, enter:

mkdir mystuff

To create a subdirectory named morestuff in the existing directory named /tmp, enter:

mkdir /tmp/morestuff

Note:
To make a subdirectory in a particular directory, you must have permission to write to that
directory.

rmdir Command
The rmdir command is used to delete a directory.

EX : rmdir <directory name>

COMMANDS TO WORK WITH FILE (CAT, CP, RM, MV, FILE, WC, HEAD,
TAIL)

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CAT
The cat command in Linux is used to concatenate, display, and create files
cat > <file name>
Ex:
guest-4vxicf@ubuntu:~$ cat > [Link]
first file
guest-4vxicf@ubuntu:~$ cat > [Link]
second file
guest-4vxicf@ubuntu:~$ cat [Link] [Link]
first file
second file

CP: The `cp` command is used to copy the contents of ` Source` to

`destination`.
guest-gtkxpf@ubuntu:~$ cat > [Link]
This is cp command
guest-gtkxpf@ubuntu:~$ cat > [Link]
I am open source software
guest-gtkxpf@ubuntu:~$ cat [Link]
This is cp command
guest-gtkxpf@ubuntu:~$ cat [Link]
I am open source software
guest-gtkxpf@ubuntu:~$ ls
[Link] [Link] Desktop Documents Downloads [Link]
Music Pictures Public Templates Videos
guest-gtkxpf@ubuntu:~$ cp [Link] [Link]
guest-gtkxpf@ubuntu:~$ cat [Link]
This is cp command

RM: The rm command removes the entries for a specified file, group of files, or certain
select files from a list within a directory.
guest-gtkxpf@ubuntu:~$ ls
[Link] [Link] Desktop Documents Downloads [Link] Music Pictures Public
Templates Videos
guest-gtkxpf@ubuntu:~$ rm [Link]
guest-gtkxpf@ubuntu:~$ ls
[Link] Desktop Documents Downloads [Link] Music Pictures Public
Templates Videos

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 UNIT- 3 OPERATING SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS:

MV:
guest-0vwdr3@ubuntu:~$ ls
[Link] Documents [Link] Pictures Templates
Desktop Downloads Music Public Videos
guest-0vwdr3@ubuntu:~$ mv [Link] [Link]
guest-0vwdr3@ubuntu:~$ ls
[Link] Documents [Link] Pictures Templates
Desktop Downloads Music Public Videos

Moving
veenamore11@ubuntu:~$ cat >[Link]
hi
veenamore11@ubuntu:~$ mv [Link] /home/veenamore11/downloads

FILE: file command is used to determine the file type. It does not care about the extension
used for file.

veenamore11@ubuntu:~$ ls
BCA [Link] Desktop documents Documents downloads Downloads [Link]
[Link] [Link] Music Pictures Public Templates untitled_1.odt Videos

veenamore11@ubuntu:~$ file BCA

BCA: directory

veenamore11@ubuntu:~$ file [Link]

[Link]: OpenDocument Spreadsheet

veenamore11@ubuntu:~$ file [Link]

[Link]: PNG image data, 383 x 131, 8-bit colormap, non-interlaced

veenamore11@ubuntu:~$ file [Link]

[Link]: JPEG image data, JFIF standard 1.01, aspect ratio, density 1x1, segment length
16, baseline, precision 8, 275x183, frames 3

WC: Linux wc command helps in counting the lines, words, and characters in a file. It
displays the number of lines, number of characters, and the number of words in a file.
veenamore11@ubuntu:~$ cat >>[Link]
This is an apple

23
[Link] College of Commerce(Autonomous), Vijayapur BCA Programme
 UNIT- 3 OPERATING SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS:

veenamore11@ubuntu:~$ wc [Link]
1 4 17 [Link]

(1 is line, 4 is word , 17 is byte size)

Open a terminal, navigate to the directory, and run "ls -l" to list files with their sizes displayed in bytes.

HEAD: Linux head command is used to display the first ten lines of one or more files
veenamore11@ubuntu:~$ cat >>[Link]
This
is
a
bca
class.
This
is
an
apple.
how
are
you.
i
study
bca
veenamore11@ubuntu:~$ head [Link]
This
is
a
bca
class.
This
is
an
apple.
how

TAIL: Linux tail command is used to display the last ten lines of one or more files.
veenamore11@ubuntu:~$ tail [Link]
This
is
an

24
[Link] College of Commerce(Autonomous), Vijayapur BCA Programme
 UNIT- 3 OPERATING SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS:

apple.
how
are
you.
i
study
bca

25
[Link] College of Commerce(Autonomous), Vijayapur BCA Programme