Module 3 – PROBLEM SOLVING &

REASONING
GE 112
Mathematics in the Modern World

Faculty, Math & Stat Department

College of Arts & Sciences
University of Southeastern Philippines
 Outlline
This module contains the following:

1. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

2. Polya’s 4-step in Problem Solving
3. Problem Solving Strategies
4. Mathematical Problems Involving Patterns
5. Recreational Problem Using Mathematics
6. The Mathematics of Finance
7. Module Exercises
8. References

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 Inductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning is the process of reaching
a general conclusion by examining specific
examples.

Example 1. Use inductive reasoning to predict

the next number in each of the following:

a. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ?
b. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ?
c. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, ?

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 Inductive Reasoning
A conclusion reached based on inductive reasoning
is called conjecture. A conjecture may or may not
be correct.

Example 2[1]. Consider the following procedure. Pick

a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the
product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Original Number 1 2 5 10

Number Produced
4 8 20 40

Conjecture?

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 Counter-examples
A statement is a true statement provided that it is true
in all cases. If you can find one case for which a
statement is not true, called a counter-example,
then the statement is a false statement.

Example 3[1]. Verify that each of the following

statements is false statement by finding a counter-
example for all numbers 𝑥.
a. |𝑥| > 0
b. 𝑥 2 > 𝑥
c. 𝑥2 = 𝑥

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 Deductive Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning is the process of reaching
a conclusion by applying general assumptions,
procedures, or principles.

Example 4[1]. Use deductive reasoning to show

that the following procedure produces a number
that is four times the original number.

Procedure. Pick a number. Multiply the number

by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2,
and subtract 3.

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 Deductive Reasoning
Solution. Let n represent the original number.

Multiply the number by 8 : 8n

Add 6 to the product : 8n + 6
Divide the sum by 2 : 4n + 3
Subtract by 3 : 4n

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 Inductive vs. Deductive
Example 5[1]. Determine types of Reasoning

a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums

every other year. Last year the tree did not produce
plums, so this year the tree will produce plums.

b. All home improvements cost more than the

[Link] contractor estimated that my home
improvement cost Php100k. Thus my home improvement
will cost more than P100k.

c. I know I will win a jackpot on this slot machine in the

next 10 tries, because it has not paid out any money
during the last 45 tries.

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 Logic Puzzle
Example 6[1]. Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria,
Sarah and Brian, has a different occupation (editor,
banker, chef or dentist). From the following clues,
determine the occupation of each neighbor.

1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but

before the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is
not the editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same
time.
4. The banker lives next door to Brian.

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 Solve the Logic Puzzle
In the table below, write 𝑋𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3, 4 is “ruled
out by clue i).

Clue 1: Maria gets home from work after the

banker but before the dentist.

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean
Maria 𝑿𝟏 𝑿𝟏
Sarah
Brian

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 Solve the Logic Puzzle
Clue 1: Maria gets home from work after the
banker but before the dentist.

Clue 2: Sarah, who is the last to get home from

work, is not the editor.

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean
Maria 𝑋1 𝑋1
Sarah 𝑿𝟐 𝑿𝟐
Brian

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 Solve the Logic Puzzle

Clue 3: The dentist and Sarah leave for work at

the same time.

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean 𝑿𝟑
Maria 𝑋1 𝑿𝟑 𝑋1
Sarah 𝑋2 𝑋2 ∕ 𝑿𝟑

Brian 𝑿𝟑

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 Solve the Logic Puzzle

Clue 3: The dentist and Sarah leave for work at

the same time.

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean 𝑿𝟑
𝑿𝟑
Maria ∕ 𝑋1 𝑿𝟑 𝑋1
Sarah 𝑋2 𝑋2 ∕ 𝑿𝟑

Brian 𝑿𝟑 𝑿𝟑

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 Solve the Logic Puzzle

Clue 4: The banker lives next door to Brian.

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean 𝑋3 ∕ 𝑿𝟒
𝑋3
Maria ∕ 𝑋1 𝑋3 𝑋1
Sarah 𝑋2 𝑋2 ∕ 𝑋3

Brian 𝑋3 𝑿𝟒 𝑋3 ∕

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 Logic Puzzle (Exercise)
Brianna, Ryan, Tyler and Ashley were recently
elected as the new class officers (president, vice
president, secretary and treasurer) of the freshmen
class. From the following clues, determine which
position each holds:

1. Ashley is younger than the president but older

than the treasurer;
2. Brianna and the secretary are both the same age,
and they are the youngest members of the group;
3. Tyler and the secretary are next-door neighbors.

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 Solve the Logic Puzzle
1. Ashley is younger than the president but older than
the treasurer;
2. Brianna and the secretary are both the same age,
and they are the youngest members of the group;
3. Tyler and the secretary are next-door neighbors

President V-President Secretary Treasurer

Brianna 𝑿𝟐 𝑿𝟐 𝑿𝟐 /

Ryan 𝑿𝟑 𝑿𝟐 / 𝑿𝟐
Tyler / 𝑿𝟐 𝑿𝟑 𝑿𝟐

Ashley 𝑿𝟏 / 𝑿𝟐 𝑿𝟏

1 Topic 1 Page 16
 KenKen Puzzles (Rules)
For a 3 by 3 puzzle, fill in each box (square) of the grid with one of the
numbers 1, 2, or 3.

For a 4 by 4 puzzle, fill in each box of the grid with one of the numbers 1, 2, 3
or 4.

For a n by n puzzle, fill in each box of the grid with one of the numbers 1, 2,
3, …, n.

Grids range in size from a 3 by 3 up to a 9 by 9.

• Do not repeat a numbers in any row or column
• The numbers in each heavily outlines set of squares, called cages, must
combine (in some order) to produce the target number in the top left
corner of the cage using the mathematical operation indicated.
• Cages with just one square should be filled in with the target number.
• A number can be repeated within a cage as long as it is not in the same
row or column.

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 KenKen Puzzles (Rules)
Basic Puzzle Solution Strategies

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 KenKen Puzzles (Rules)
Basic Puzzle Solution Strategies

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 KenKen Puzzles (Rules)
Basic Puzzle Solution Strategies

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 KenKen Puzzles (Rules)
Basic Puzzle Solution Strategies

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 Example of Ken-Ken Puzzle

2 3 1

3 1 2

1 2 3

22
1 Topic 1
 Example of Ken-Ken Puzzle

2 1 3 4

3 2 4 1

1 4 2 3

4 3 1 2

23
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 More Examples

24
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 More Examples

25
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 Problem Solving Strategy

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 Polya’s Steps in Problem Solving

I. Understand the Problem II. Devise a Plan

IV. Review the Solution III. Carry Out the Plan

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 I. Understand the Problem

• Can you restate the problem in your own

words?
• Can you determine what is known about these
types of problems?
• Is there missing information that, if known,
would allow you to solve the problem?
• Is there extraneous information that is not
needed to solve the problem?
• What is the goal?

1 Topic 1 Page 28
 II. Devise a Plan
• Make a list of the known information
• Make a list of the information that is needed
• Draw a diagram
• Make an organized list that shows all the
possibilities
• Make a table or a chart
• Work backwards
• Try to solve a similar but simpler problem
• Look for a pattern
• Write an equation.
• Perform experiment
• Guess at a solution and then check your result

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 III. Carry Out the Plan
• Work carefully
• Keep an accurate and neat record of all your
attempts
• Realize that some of your initial plans will not
work and that you may have to devise another
plan or modify your existing plan

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 IV. Review the Solution
Once you have found a solution, check the
solution.
• Ensure that the solution is consistent with the
facts of the problem.
• Interpret the solution in the context of the
problem.
• Ask yourself whether there are generalizations
of the solution that could apply to other
problems.

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 Polya’s 4-step in P-S Strategy
Example 7.

A. If five times the number plus thrice the number

is 104. What is the number? Use Polya’s 4-step
strategy in solving this problem.

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 Polya’s 4-step in P-S Strategy
Example 7.

B. The sum of three consecutive integers is 72.

What are the numbers?

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 Polya’s 4-step in P-S Strategy
Example 8. Mr. Juan de la Cruz wants to study at
the University of Southeastern Philippines
(USeP) Obrero Campus. He needs to take the
USeP Admission Test. During the application for
examination, he is required to write his first,
second and third priority courses. Assuming that
there are 36 courses offered in USeP Obrero
Campus and choices will not be repeated, how
many possible choices will Mr. dela Cruz can
have?

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 Problem Solving with Pattern
A sequence is an ordered list of numbers
𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 , …
where
𝑎1 - represent the first term of a sequence
𝑎2 - represent the second term of a sequence
⋮
𝑎𝑛 - represent the nth term of a sequence

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 Problem Solving with Pattern
Example 9. What will be the next terms of the
following sequence

a. 2, 4, 6, 8, ?
b. 1, 4, 9, 16, ?
c. 1, 2, 4, 7, ?
d. 3, 3, 3, 3, ?
e. 1, 8, 27, 64, ?

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 The Fibonacci Sequence
Leonardo de Pisa (Fibonacci) wrote the
Fibonacci’s Rabbit Problem

At the beginning of a month, you are given a pair of

newborn rabbits. After a month the rabbit have produced
no offspring; however, every month thereafter, the pair of
rabbits produces another pair of rabbits. The offspring
produce in exactly the same manner. If none of the
rabbits dies, how many pair of rabbits will there be at the
start of each succeeding month?

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 Fibonacci’s Rabbit Problem

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 Fibonacci Properties
Example 9. The Fibonacci sequence has many unusual
properties. Experiment to decide which of the following
properties are valid. Note that 𝐹𝑛 represents the nth
Fibonacci number.

a. 3𝐹𝑛 − 𝐹𝑛−2 = 𝐹𝑛+2 for 𝑛 ≥ 3

b. 𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑛+3 = 𝐹𝑛+1 𝐹 𝑛+2
c. 𝐹3𝑛 is an even number.
d. 5𝐹𝑛 − 2𝐹𝑛−2 = 𝐹𝑛+3 for 𝑛 ≥ 3.

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 Fibonacci Properties
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8
34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987
F9 F10 F11 F12 F13 F14 F15 F16

a. 3𝐹𝑛 − 𝐹𝑛−2 = 𝐹𝑛+2 for 𝑛 ≥ 3

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 Fibonacci Properties
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8
34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987
F9 F10 F11 F12 F13 F14 F15 F16

c. 𝐹3𝑛 is an even number.

1 Topic 1 Page 41
 Binet’s Formula for Fibonacci
Example 10. The following formula is known as the
Binet’s formula for the nth Fibonacci number.

𝑛 𝑛
1 1+ 5 1− 5
𝐹𝑛 = −
5 2 2

The advantage of this formula over the recursive formula

𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛−2 is that you can determine the nth
Fibonacci number without finding the two preceding
Fibonacci numbers.
Use the Binet’s formula and a calculate
or to find the 20th, 30th, 40th and 50th Fibonacci numbers.

1 Topic 1 Page 42
 Binet’s Formula for Fibonacci
𝑛 𝑛
1 1+ 5 1− 5
𝐹𝑛 = −
5 2 2

i) 𝐹20 ?

1 Topic 1 Page 43
 Binet’s Formula for Fibonacci
𝑛 𝑛
1 1+ 5 1− 5
𝐹𝑛 = −
5 2 2

i) 𝐹30 ?

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 Polygonal Numbers
Ancient mathematicians were interested in the
geometric shapes associated with numbers. For
instance, they noticed that triangles can be
constructed using 1, 3, 6, 10 or 15 dots, see
Figure below. The numbers 1, 3, 6,10, 15, … are
triangular numbers. The Greeks called the
numbers 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, … the square numbers
and the numbers 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, … the
pentagonal numbers.

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 Polygonal Numbers

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 Polygonal Numbers
Example 11. Extend the figure above by
constructing drawings of the sixth, seventh, eight,
ninth and tenth triangular numbers, square
numbers and pentagonal numbers. How many
dots are needed? Can you guess the formula?
6th 7th 8th 9th 10th

Triangular
Numbers
Square
Numbers
Pentagonal
Numbers

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 Polygonal Numbers
Triangular Numbers

1 3 6 10 15

6th 7th 8th 9th 10th

Triangular
21 28 36 45 55
Numbers

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 Polygonal Numbers
Square Numbers

1 4 9 16 25

6th 7th 8th 9th 10th

Square
36 49 64 81 100
Numbers

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 Polygonal Numbers
Pentagonal Numbers

1 5 12 22 35

6th 7th 8th 9th 10th

Pentagonal
51 70 92 117 145
Numbers

1 Topic 1 Page 50
 Polygonal Numbers Formula
An nth-term formula for the triangular numbers is
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑛 =
2

The square numbers have the nth-term formula

𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛 = 𝑛2

The nth-term formula for the pentagonal numbers

𝑛(3𝑛−1)
𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑛 = .
2

1 Topic 1 Page 51
 Simple Interest
When you deposit money in a bank—for
example, in a savings account—you are
permitting the bank to use your money. The bank
may lend the deposited money to customers to
buy cars or make renovations on their homes.
The bank pays you for the privilege of using your
money. The amount paid to you is called
interest. If you are the one borrowing money
from a bank, the amount you pay for the privilege
of using that money is also called interest.

Mathematics of Finance Page 52

 Simple Interest

The amount deposited in a bank or borrowed

from a bank is called the principal. The
amount of interest paid is usually given as a
percent of the principal. The percent used to
determine the amount of interest is called the
interest rate.

Mathematics of Finance Page 53

 Simple Interest
▼ Simple Interest Formula

The simple interest formula is

𝑰 = 𝑷𝒓𝒕

where 𝑰 is the interest, 𝑷 is the principal, 𝒓 is

the interest rate, and 𝒕 is the time period.

Note: The time 𝒕 is expressed in the same

period as the rate.
Mathematics of Finance Page 54
 Simple Interest
Example 1. Calculate the simple interest earned in 1
year on a deposit of $1000 if the interest rate is 5%.
Solution

Use the simple interest formula. Substitute the following

values into the formula:

𝑃 = 1000, 𝑟 = 5% = 0.05, and 𝑡 = 1.

𝐼 = 𝑃𝑟𝑡
𝐼 = 1000(0.05)(1)
𝐼 = 50
The simple interest earned is $50.

Mathematics of Finance Page 55

 Simple Interest
Example 2. Calculate the simple interest due on a 4-
month loan of $1500 if the interest rate is 5.25%.

Solution
4
P = 1500, r = 5.25% = 0.0525, and t = 12
I = Prt
4
I = 1500(0.0525)
12
I = 26.25
The simple interest due is $26.25.

Mathematics of Finance Page 56

 Simple Interest
Example 3. Calculate the simple interest due on a 5-
month loan of $700 if the interest rate is 1.25% per
month.

Solution

P = 700, r = 1.25% = 0.0125 and t = 5.

I = Prt
I = 700(0.0125)(5)
I = 43.75
The simple interest due is $43.75.

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 Simple Interest
Two Methods for Converting Time from Days to
Years:

Note: The ordinary method is used by most

businesses
Mathematics of Finance Page 58
 Simple Interest
Example 4. Calculate the simple interest due(using
ordinary method) on a 120-day loan of $7000 if the
annual interest rate is 5.25%.

Solution
120
P = 7000, r = 5.25% = 0.0525, and t = 360 .
I = Prt
120
I = 7000(.0525)
360
I = 122.50
The simple interest due is $122.50

Mathematics of Finance Page 59

 Simple Interest

Future Value – the sum of the principal and the

interest on an investment
Mature Value – the sum of the principal and the
interest on a loan
Mathematics of Finance Page 60
 Simple Interest
Example 5. Calculate the maturity value of a simple
interest, 8-month loan of $8000 if the interest rate is
9.75%.

Solution

Step 1: Find the interest.

8
P = 8000, r = 9.75% = 0.0975, and t = 12
I = Prt
8
I = 8000(0.0975) 12
I = 520
Mathematics of Finance Page 61
 Simple Interest
Step 2: Find the maturity value.

A= P+I
A = 8000 + 520
A = 8520

The maturity value of the loan is $8520.

Mathematics of Finance Page 62

 Simple Interest
Example 6. Find the future value after 1 year of $680
in an account earning 6.4% simple interest.

Solution

P = 680, t = 1, r = 0.064.
A=P+I
A = P(1 + rt)
A = 680(1.064)
A = 723.52
The future value of the account after 1 year is $723.52.

Mathematics of Finance Page 63

 Compound Interest
Simple interest is generally used for loans of 1 year
or less. For loans of more than 1 year, the interest
paid on the money borrowed is called compound
interest.
Compound interest is interest calculated not only
on the original principal, but also on any interest that
has already been earned.
Compounding period is the frequency with which
the interest is compounded.

Mathematics of Finance Page 64

 Compound Interest
Example 1. You deposit $500 in an account earning
6% interest, compounded semiannually. How much is in
the account at the end of 1 year?

Solution. The interest is compounded every 6 months.

Calculate the amount in the account after the first 6
6
months, t = 12.
A = P(1 + rt)
6
A = 500 1 + 0.06 12
A = 515

Mathematics of Finance Page 65

 Compound Interest
Calculate the amount in the account after the second 6
months.

A = P(1 + rt)
6
A = 515 1 + 0.06
12
A = 530.45

The total amount in the account at the end of 1 year is

$530.45.

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 Compound Interest
In calculations that involve compound interest, the
sum of the principal and the interest that has been
added to it is called the compound amount.

Mathematics of Finance Page 67

 Compound Interest

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 Compound Interest
Example 2. Calculate the compound amount when $10,000
is deposited in an account earning 8% interest, compounded
semiannually, for 4 years.

Solution
P = 10,000, r = 8% = 0.08, n = 2, t = 4
𝑟 𝑛𝑡
A=P 1+ 𝑛
0.08 2(4)
A= 10,000 1 + 2
A= 10,000(1 + 0.04)8 = 10,000
(1.368569) = 13,685.69
The compound amount after 4 years is approximately
$13,685.69.
Mathematics of Finance Page 69
 Compound Interest
Example 3. How much interest is earned in 6 years on
$8000 deposited in an account paying 9% interest,
compounded monthly?

Solution

Calculate the compound amount.

P = 8000, r = 9%, n = 12, t = 6
𝑟 𝑛𝑡
A=P 1+
𝑛
0.09 12(6)
A = 8000 1 + 12

Mathematics of Finance Page 70

 Compound Interest
A = 8000(1.0075)72
A = 8000(1.7125527)
A = 13,700.42
Calculate the interest earned.
I= A-P
I = 13,700.42 - 8000
I = 5700.42
The amount of interest earned is approximately
$5700.42

Mathematics of Finance Page 71

 Compound Interest
Present Value

The present value of an investment is the original principal

invested, or the value of the investment before it earns any
interest. Therefore, it is the principal, P, in the compound
amount formula.

Present value is used to determine how much money must

be invested today in order for an investment to have a
specific value at a future date.

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 Compound Interest

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 Compound Interest
Example 4. How much money should be invested in an
account that earns 8% interest, compounded quarterly, in
order to have $30,000 in 5 years?

Solution
A = 30,000, r = 8%, n = 4, t = 5
𝐴
P= 𝑛𝑡
𝑟
1 + 𝑛
30,000 30,000 30,000
P= 0.08 4(5)
= (1.02)20
= 1.485947396
≈ 20,189.14
1+
4

$20,189.14 should be invested in the account in order to

have $30,000 in 5 years.
Mathematics of Finance Page 74
 Compound Interest
Example 5. A couple plans to save for their child’s
college education. What principal must be deposited by
the parents when their child is born in order to have
$40,000 when the child reaches the age of 18? Assume
the money earns 8% interest, compounded quarterly.

Mathematics of Finance Page 75

 References
Aufmann, R., Lockwood, J., Nation, R. and
Clegg, D. (2013). Mathematical Excursions
(3rd Edition). Brooks/Coole: Cengage
Learning

[Link]

[Link]

Mathematics of Finance Page 76