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A Level Biology CIE
5. The Mitotic Cell Cycle
CONTENTS
5.1 Replication & Division of Nuclei & Cells
5.1.1 Chromosome Structure
5.1.2 Mitosis
5.1.3 The Cell Cycle
5.1.4 The Role of Telomeres
5.1.5 The Role of Stem Cells
5.1.6 How Tumours Form
5.2 Chromosome Behaviour in Mitosis
5.2.1 The Stages of Mitosis
5.2.2 Observing Mitosis
Page 1 of 22
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5.1 Replication & Division of Nuclei & Cells YOUR NOTES
5.1.1 Chromosome Structure
Chromosome Structure
Chromosomes are made of one very long, condensed DNA molecule associated with
proteins (in eukaryotic cells)
The main proteins present are the large positively charged globular proteins called
histones, their role is to organise and condense the DNA tightly so that it fits into the
nucleus
The other proteins are enzymes used in copying and repairing the DNA
The tightly coiled combination of DNA and proteins is called chromatin – this is what
chromatids, and therefore chromosomes, are made of
DNA is coiled around histone proteins to make chromatin
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During interphase (S phase) the DNA replicates to create two identical strands of DNA YOUR NOTES
called chromatids, joined together by a narrow region called the centromere
The two chromatids that make up the double structure of a chromosome are known as
‘sister chromatids’
It is important that the sister chromatids are identical (contain the same genes) because
this is key to cell division, as one chromatid goes into one daughter cell and one goes into
the other daughter cell during mitosis, ensuring the daughter cells are genetically identical
Each chromatid is made up of one very long, condensed DNA molecule, which is made up
of a series of genes
The ends of the chromatids in chromosomes are ‘sealed’ with protective structures called
telomeres
Simplified diagram of the structure of a chromosome
Page 3 of 22
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Diagram illustrating the structure of a chromosome before and after the S phase
Exam Tip
It is important to distinguish when the terms chromatid, sister chromatids and
chromosomes are used.
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5.1.2 Mitosis YOUR NOTES
The Importance of Mitosis
Mitosis is the process of nuclear division by which two genetically identical daughter nuclei
are produced that are also genetically identical to the parent nucleus
The process of mitosis is of great biological significance and is fundamental to many
biological processes:
Growth of multicellular organisms
The two daughter cells produced are genetically identical to one another (clones) and have
the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell
This enables unicellular zygotes (as the zygote divides by mitosis) to grow into
multicellular organisms
Growth may occur across the whole body of the organism or be confined to certain
regions, such as in the meristems (growing points) of plants
Replacement of cells & repair of tissues
Damaged tissues can be repaired by mitosis followed by cell division
As cells are constantly dying they need to be continually replaced by genetically identical
cells
In humans, for example, cell replacement occurs particularly rapidly in the skin and the lining
of the gut
Some animals can regenerate body parts, for example, zebrafish can regenerate fins and
axolotls regenerate legs and their tail amongst other parts
Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction is the production of new individuals of a species by a single parent
organism – the offspring are genetically identical to the parent
For unicellular organisms such as Amoeba, cell division results in the reproduction of a
genetically identical offspring
For multicellular organisms (as seen with many plant species) new individuals grow from
the parent organism (by cell division) and then detach (‘bud off’) from the parent in different
ways. Some examples of these are budding in Hydra and yeast and runners from
strawberries
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5.1.3 The Cell Cycle YOUR NOTES
The Cell Cycle
Mitosis is part of a precisely controlled process known as the cell cycle
The cell cycle is the regulated sequence of events that occurs between one cell division
and the next
The cell cycle has three phases:
interphase
nuclear division (mitosis)
cell division (cytokinesis)
The length of the cell cycle is very variable depending on environmental conditions, the cell
type and the organism
For example, onion root tip cells divide once every 20 hours (roughly) but human
intestine epithelial cells divide once every 10 hours (roughly)
The movement from one phase to another is triggered by chemical signals called cyclins
The cell cycle. S = synthesis (of DNA); G = gap; M = mitosis
Interphase
During Interphase the cell increases in mass and size and carries out its normal cellular
functions (eg. synthesising proteins and replicating its DNA ready for mitosis)
Interphase consists of three phases:
G1 phase
S phase
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G2 phase YOUR NOTES
It is at some point during the G1 phase a signal is received telling the cell to divide again
The DNA in the nucleus replicates (resulting in each chromosome consisting of two
identical sister chromatids)
This phase of the interphase stage of the cell cycle is called the S phase – S stands for
synthesis (of DNA)
The S phase is relatively short
The gap between the previous cell division and the S phase is called the G1 phase – G
stands for gap
Cells make the RNA, enzymes and other proteins required for growth during the G1
phase
Between the S phase and next cell division event the G2 phase occurs
During the G2 phase, the cell continues to grow and the new DNA that has been
synthesised is checked and any errors are usually repaired
Other preparations for cell division are made (eg. production of tubulin protein, which
is used to make microtubules for the mitotic spindle)
Interphase = G1 + S + G2
Nuclear division (mitosis)
Follows interphase
Referred to as the M phase – M stands for mitosis
Cell growth stops during the M phase
Cytokinesis
Follows M phase
Once the nucleus has divided into two genetically identical nuclei, the whole cell divides
and one nucleus moves into each cell to create two genetically identical daughter cells
In animal cells, cytokinesis involves constriction of the cytoplasm between the two nuclei
and in plant cells a new cell wall is formed
Exam Tip
Make sure you know the order of the phases of the cell cycle but also what
specifically occurs during the different phases. Don’t forget, interphase is itself
made up of three distinct stages (G1, S and G2) and you need to know what happens
during each of [Link] example, an exam question might ask you to identify the
stage of the cell cycle during which a cell would be producing the most mRNA
molecules and explain why. The correct answer would be the G1 phase, as this is
when protein synthesis is occurring and the production of mRNA occurs during
transcription (the first part of protein synthesis).
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5.1.4 The Role of Telomeres YOUR NOTES
The Significance of Telomeres
The ends of the chromatids in chromosomes are ‘sealed’ with protective structures called
telomeres
They are made of non-coding DNA (DNA that does not contain genes) that is made up of
short base sequences that are repeated many times (multiple repeat sequences)
In telomeres, one strand is rich in the base guanine (G) and the other strand is rich in the
complementary base cytosine (C)
The main function of telomeres is to ensure that the very ends of the DNA molecules are
included in DNA replication during mitosis (the copying enzyme responsible for DNA
replication is unable to run right to the very end of the DNA molecule and stops a little short
of the end)
If this end part of the DNA molecule contained an important gene, that piece of genetic
information would be lost during DNA replication
In each subsequent cell division, a little more genetic information would be lost
Telomeres therefore act as a ‘buffer’ region of non-essential DNA and ensure that no
important coding sections near the ends of the DNA molecules are left out of the
replication process
This ensures no genes are lost during cell division (the loss of vital genes can even result in
cell death) and allows for continued replication of a cell
To avoid the risk of losing genes most cells have an enzyme called telomerase that adds
additional bases at each end (the telomeres)
Some cells (generally specialised cells) do not have telomerase to ‘top up’ their telomeres
and therefore after a certain number of cell divisions the cell dies, this has been connected
with the ageing process
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A telomere with multiple repeat sequences
Exam Tip
Telomeres are similar to the coding regions of DNA molecules in that they are made
of the same nucleotides. However, the base sequences of telomeres are non-
coding – they do not code for proteins.
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5.1.5 The Role of Stem Cells YOUR NOTES
The Significance of Stem Cells
A stem cell is a cell that can divide (by mitosis) an unlimited number of times
Each new cell (produced when a stem cell divides) has the potential to remain a stem cell or
to develop into a specialised cell such as a blood cell or a muscle cell (by a process known
as differentiation)
This ability of stem cells to differentiate into more specialised cell types is known as
potency
There are three types of potency:
Totipotency – totipotent stem cells are stem cells that can differentiate into any cell
type found in an embryo, as well as extra-embryonic cells (the cells that make up
the placenta). The zygote formed when a sperm cell fertilises an egg cell is totipotent,
as are the embryonic cells up to the 16-cell stage of human embryo development
Pluripotency – pluripotent stem cells are embryonic stem cells that can differentiate
into any cell type found in an embryo but are not able to differentiate into extra-
embryonic cells (the cells that make up the placenta)
Multipotency – multipotent stem cells are adult stem cells that have lost some of the
potency associated with embryonic stem cells and are no longer pluripotent
Multipotent adult stem cells
As tissues, organs and organ systems develop, cells become more and more specialised
Having differentiated and specialised to fulfil particular roles, most adult cells gradually
lose the ability to divide until, eventually, they are no longer able to divide
However, small numbers of stem cells (known as adult stem cells) remain to produce new
cells for the essential processes of growth, cell replacement and tissue repair
Although these adult stem cells can divide (by mitosis) an unlimited number of times, they
are only able to produce a limited range of cell types – they are multipotent
For example, the stem cells found in bone marrow are multipotent adult stem cells – they
can only differentiate into blood cells (red blood cells, monocytes, neutrophils and
lymphocytes)
In adults, stem cells can be found throughout the body (eg. in the bone marrow, skin, gut,
heart and brain)
Research is being carried out on stem cell therapy, which is the introduction of adult stem
cells into damaged tissue to treat diseases (eg. leukemia) and injuries (eg. skin burns)
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Stem cells can be totipotent, pluripotent or multipotent
Exam Tip
Make sure you learn the three levels of potency of stem cells described above, and
what range of cell types these stem cells can differentiate [Link]’t forget, while
still classed as stem cells (as they can divide any number of times), only a limited
range of specialised cells can be formed from adult stem cells as they have already
partially differentiated. For example, stem cells in bone marrow can only produce
cells that differentiate into the different types of blood cells.
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5.1.6 How Tumours Form YOUR NOTES
How a Tumour Forms
Cancers demonstrate how important it is that cell division is precisely controlled, as
cancers arise due to uncontrolled mitosis
Cancerous cells divide repeatedly and uncontrollably, forming a tumour (an irregular mass
of cells)
Cancers start when changes occur in the genes that control cell division. A change in any
gene is known as a mutation. If the mutated gene is one that causes cancer it is referred to
as an oncogene
Mutations are common events and don’t lead to cancer most of the time
Most mutations either result in early cell death or result in the cell being destroyed by
the body’s immune system
As most cells can be easily replaced, these events usually have no harmful effect on
the body
The mutations that result in the generation of cancerous cells do not result in early cell
death or in the cell being destroyed by the body’s immune system
This means that the harmful mutation occurring in the original cell can be passed on to all
that cell’s descendants
A typical tumour contains around a thousand million cancerous cells by the time it is
detected
Carcinogens are any agents that may cause cancer (eg. UV light, tar in tobacco smoke and
X-rays). If the agent causes cancer it is described as carcinogenic
Some tumours (such as warts) do not spread from their original site – these are known as
benign tumours and do not cause cancer
Some tumours spread through the body, invading and destroying other tissues – these are
known as malignant tumours and cause cancer
Malignant tumours interfere with the normal functioning of the organ / tissue in which
they have started to grow (eg. they may block the intestines, lungs or blood vessels
Malignant tumour cells can break off the tumour and travel through the blood and /
or lymphatic system to form secondary growths in other parts of the body
The spreading of cancers in this way is known as metastasis
Metastasis is very dangerous as it can be very difficult to detect, locate and remove
secondary cancers
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Stages in the development of cancer
Exam Tip
Make sure you know examples of carcinogens. Also, you should know that some
viruses (known as oncoviruses) cause cancer and can therefore also be described
as carcinogens.
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5.2 Chromosome Behaviour in Mitosis YOUR NOTES
5.2.1 The Stages of Mitosis
Mitosis: The Stages
Mitosis is the process of nuclear division by which two genetically identical daughter
nuclei are produced that are also genetically identical to the parent cell nucleus (they have
the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell)
Although mitosis is, in reality, one continuous process, it can be divided into four main
stages
These stages are:
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Most organisms contain many chromosomes in the nuclei of their cells (eg. humans have
46) but the diagrams below show mitosis of an animal cell with only four chromosomes, for
simplicity
The different colours of the chromosomes are just to show that half are from the female
parent and half from the male parent
Prophase
Chromosomes condense and are now visible when stained
The chromosomes consist of two identical chromatids called sister chromatids (each
containing one DNA molecule) that are joined together at the centromere
The two centrosomes (replicated in the G2 phase just before prophase) move towards
opposite poles (opposite ends of the nucleus)
Spindle fibres (protein microtubules) begin to emerge from the centrosomes (consists of
two centrioles in animal cells)
The nuclear envelope (nuclear membrane) breaks down into small vesicles
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Prophase
Metaphase
Centrosomes reach opposite poles
Spindle fibres (protein microtubules) continue to extend from centrosomes
Chromosomes line up at the equator of the spindle (also known as the metaphase plate)
so they are equidistant to the two centrosome poles
Spindle fibres (protein microtubules) reach the chromosomes and attach to the
centromeres
Each sister chromatid is attached to a spindle fibre originating from opposite poles
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Metaphase
Anaphase
The sister chromatids separate at the centromere (the centromere divides in two)
Spindle fibres (protein microtubules) begin to shorten
The separated sister chromatids (now called chromosomes) are pulled to opposite poles
by the spindle fibres (protein microtubules)
Anaphase
Telophase
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Chromosomes arrive at opposite poles and begin to decondense YOUR NOTES
Nuclear envelopes (nuclear membranes) begin to reform around each set of
chromosomes
The spindle fibres break down
Telophase
Exam Tip
Make sure you learn the four stages of mitosis and what is happening to the DNA
molecules (one chromatid contains one DNA molecule) at each stage – learn
‘PMAT’ (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase) to help you remember the
order of the stages!After interphase but before the parent cell undergoes mitosis,
the human parent cell nucleus actually contains 92 DNA molecules! This is because
during interphase (S phase), the 46 DNA molecules in the parent cell have replicated
to form sister chromatids. As human cells have a diploid number of 46 this
replication results in 92 molecules. This ensures the two daughter cells will be diploid
(have 46 chromosomes each) when mitosis [Link] to read the
questions carefully as only human diploid cells have 46 chromosomes so if the
question refers to another organism, its diploid number will be different.
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5.2.2 Observing Mitosis YOUR NOTES
Mitosis in Root Tips: Observing & Drawing
Growth in plants occurs in specific regions called meristems
The root tip meristem can be used to study mitosis
The root tip meristem can be found just behind the protective root cap
In the root tip meristem, there is a zone of cell division that contains cells undergoing
mitosis
Pre-prepared slides of root tips can be studied or temporary slides can be prepared using
the squash technique (root tips are stained and then gently squashed, spreading the cells
out into a thin sheet and allowing individual cells undergoing mitosis to be clearly seen)
Micrograph showing a stained root tip
Method
Garlic or onion (Allium cepa) root tips are most commonly used (the bulbs can be
encouraged to grow roots by suspending them over water for a week or two)
Remove the tips of the roots (about 1cm) and place in a suitable stain (eg. warm, acidified
acetic orcein, which stains chromosomes a deep purple)
The stained root tip is gently squashed on a glass slide using a blunt instrument (eg. the
handle of a mounting needle)
Cells undergoing mitosis (similar to those in the images below) can be seen and drawn
Annotations can then be added to these drawings to show the different stages of mitosis
Analysis
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Micrograph showing a cell undergoing prophase (P)
Micrograph showing cells undergoing metaphase (M) and anaphase (A)
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Micrograph showing cells undergoing metaphase (M) and anaphase (A)
Micrograph showing a cell undergoing anaphase (A)
Exam Tip
It is important to be able to recognise each mitotic stage from electron micrographs
and to be able to explain why that cell is in the stage you have selected.
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