CHAPTER 3: FIRST-ORDER DYNAMIC SYSTEMS
3.1 The General First-Order Model
A first-order system is described by a linear ordinary differential equation:
3.1.1 Physical Meaning of the Time Constant (τ)
The time constant characterizes the speed of response of the system:
Small → fast response (system reaches a new steady state quickly).
Large → slow response (system responds sluggishly).
For a step input, the time constant is the time required for the output to reach
63.2% of its total change.
3.1.2 Physical Meaning of the Gain (K)
The gain characterizes the sensitivity of the output to changes in the input:
Change in steady −state input
K=
Change in steady −state output
Large K → a small input change causes a large output change (sensitive process).
Small K → a large input change causes a small output change (insensitive process).
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3.2 Step Response of a First-Order System
A step input is a sudden change from one constant value to another:
3.2.1 Derivation of the Step Response
Therefore
3.2.2 Characteristics of the Step Response
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Key observations:
The response is smooth and non-oscillatory.
It approaches the new steady state asymptotically.
After 5τ the system is essentially at steady state.
The initial slope is:
Example 3.1
Find: The time constant, gain, and response to a step increase of 0.2 m³/s in inflow.
Solution
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Time (s) H(t) (m) Actual level (m) Interpretation
t=0 0 1.000 Initially, the level is at its steady-state value of 1 m
−1
t=8 0.8(1−e ) = 0.506 1.506 After one time constant (8 s), the level has risen
by 0.506 m, which is 63.2% of the total change
of 0.8 m.
t = 16 0.8(1−e−2) = 0.692 1.692 After two time constants (16 s), the level has
risen by 0.692 m, or 86.5% of the total change.
t = 24 0.8(1−e−3) = 0.760 1.760 After three time constants (24 s), the level has
reached 95% of its final change.
t = 32 0.8(1−e−4) = 0.786 1.786 After four time constants, the level is at 98.2% of
its final value.
t = 40 0.8(1−e−4) = 0.794 1.794 After five time constants, the level is at 99.3% of
its final value.
t →∞ 0.8 1.800 Eventually, the level reaches its new steady state
of 1.800 m.
Interpretation of Results:
The time constant of 8 seconds indicates that this tank responds moderately fast. If you increase
the inflow by 0.2 m3/s, the level will eventually rise by 0.8 m. However, this change does not
happen instantly. After 8 seconds, the level has risen by about half of the total change (0.506 m).
After 24 seconds (three time constants), the level is at 1.760 m, which is very close to the final
value of 1.800 m. In practice, an operator would wait about 40 seconds (five time constants) to
consider the level "settled" at its new value. The gain of 4 m/(m3/s) means that for every 1 m3/s
increase in inflow, the level will eventually rise by 4 m. In this case, with a smaller inflow
increase of 0.2 m3/s, the corresponding level rise is 0.8 m.
Example 3.2
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Find the time constant, gain, and response to a step increase of 5 kW in heater power.
Solution:
Time T(t) (°C) Actual Temp. Interpretation
(min) (°C)
t=0 0 50 Initially, the temperature is at its setpoint of 50°C.
t = 10 20(1−e−1) = 12.64 62.64 After one time constant (10 min), the temperature
has risen by 12.64°C, which is 63.2% of the total
change of 20°C.
t = 20 20(1−e−2) = 17.30 67.30 After two time constants (20 min), the
temperature has risen by 17.30°C, or 86.5% of
the total change.
t = 30 20(1−e−3) = 19.00 69.00 After three time constants (30 min), the
temperature has reached 95% of its final change.
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t = 40 20(1−e−4) = 19.64 69.64 After four time constants, the temperature is at
98.2% of its final value.
t = 50 20(1−e−4) = 19.86 69.86 After five time constants, the temperature is at
99.3% of its final value.
t →∞ 20 70.00 Eventually, the temperature reaches its new
steady state of 70.0°C.
Interpretation of Results:
The time constant of 10 minutes indicates that this heating tank responds relatively slowly. If you
increase the heater power by 5 kW, the temperature will eventually rise by 20°C. However, this
change takes time. After 10 minutes, the temperature has only increased by about 12.6°C. After
30 minutes (three time constants), the temperature is at 69.0°C, which is very close to the final
value of 70.0°C. In practice, an operator would wait about 50 minutes (five time constants) for
the temperature to settle.
The gain of 4°C/kW means that for every 1 kW increase in heater power, the temperature will
eventually rise by 4°C. With a 5 kW increase, the temperature rise is 20°C. This tells the
operator that the heater is quite effective; a modest increase in power produces a significant
temperature change.
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