MODULE 3 — EXAM ANSWER KEY

Rainwater Harvesting & Groundwater Recharge

Q.5 a) Explain the procedure to determine the size and capacity of storage tanks
for rainwater harvesting. [10 Marks]
[10 Marks — Write all steps with formula]

Procedure to Determine Size and Capacity of Storage Tank

The storage tank is the most important component of a rainwater harvesting system. Its size must be
calculated carefully to meet water demands.

Step 1: Determine Catchment Area

• Catchment area is the roof area from which rainwater is collected.
• Measure length and width of the roof.
Catchment Area (A) = Length × Width (in m²)

Step 2: Determine Annual Rainfall

• Obtain average annual rainfall data from meteorological department (in mm).
• Convert mm to meters: divide by 1000.
1 mm rainfall on 1 m² surface = 1 litre of water

Step 3: Apply Runoff Coefficient

• Not all rain becomes runoff — some is lost to evaporation and absorption.
• Runoff coefficient (C) depends on surface: Roof = 0.8–0.9, Concrete = 0.85, Lawn = 0.2

Step 4: Calculate Total Annual Rainwater Harvested

Volume (m³) = Catchment Area × Rainfall (m) × Runoff Coefficient
Volume (litres) = Volume (m³) × 1000

Step 5: Determine Water Demand

• Calculate daily water requirement of the household/building.
• Decide the storage period (e.g., 1 month, 3 months).
Tank Capacity = Daily Demand (litres) × Number of Days

Step 6: Verify Adequacy

• Compare annual harvested volume vs. tank capacity.
• If annual harvest > tank capacity — tank is adequate.
• Add 10–15% extra capacity as buffer for overflow and losses.

Step 7: Overflow and Filtration Allowance

• Include first flush diverter capacity — diverts first 10–15% dirty water.
• Pre-filtration (mesh filter) and post-filtration (sand/UV filter) must be sized accordingly.

Example:
Roof Area = 300 m², Annual Rainfall = 600 mm = 0.6 m, C = 0.9
Volume = 300 × 0.6 × 0.9 = 162 m³ = 1,62,000 litres/year
For 3 months @ 500 L/day: Tank = 500 × 90 = 45,000 litres
Q.5 b) Discuss the factors affecting groundwater recharge. [10 Marks]
[10 Marks — Write all 9 factors with explanation]
Groundwater recharge is the process by which water moves from the surface into the groundwater system.
The following factors affect its rate and extent:

1. Precipitation
• Amount, intensity, and frequency of rainfall directly affect recharge. Higher consistent rainfall →
greater recharge. Prolonged dry periods reduce recharge rates.

2. Soil Type and Permeability

• Sandy soils have high permeability — allow water to pass through easily. Clayey or compacted soils
impede infiltration, reducing recharge.

3. Land Use and Vegetation Cover

• Dense forests/vegetation improve infiltration and reduce surface runoff → higher recharge.
Urbanization and deforestation reduce permeability and increase runoff → lower recharge.

4. Topography
• Steep slopes cause rapid runoff — less time for infiltration. Flat terrain allows more water to infiltrate
slowly into the ground.

5. Human Activities
• Over-extraction of groundwater, mining, agriculture, and construction reduce recharge rates.
Over-extraction creates a negative balance in groundwater system.

6. Climate
• Warmer climates increase evaporation → less water available for recharge. Colder climates produce
snowmelt in spring which contributes significantly to recharge.

7. Geology and Rock Types

• Fractured or porous rocks (limestone, sandstone) allow free movement of water into aquifers → more
recharge. Impermeable rocks block recharge.

8. Water Table Depth

• If the water table is very deep, recharge takes longer. Shallower water tables are recharged more
easily.

9. Surface Water Availability

• Rivers, lakes, and ponds near an area allow surface water to seep into ground, replenishing aquifers.
Note: These factors interact in complex ways. Local conditions determine overall effectiveness of groundwater
recharge.

Q.6 a) A community building with roof area 300 m² receives average annual rainfall
of 600 mm. Runoff coefficient = 0.9. Calculate the total annual rainwater harvested.
[10 Marks]
[10 Marks — Show all steps clearly]

Given Data:
• Roof Area (Catchment Area) = 300 m²
• Average Annual Rainfall = 600 mm = 0.6 m (divide by 1000)
• Runoff Coefficient (C) = 0.9

Formula:
Total Rainwater Harvested = Catchment Area × Rainfall (m) × Runoff Coefficient
Solution:
= 300 m² × 0.6 m × 0.9
= 300 × 0.6 × 0.9
= 162 m³
= 162 × 1000 = 1,62,000 litres

Result:
The total annual rainwater harvested from the community building = 162 m³ = 1,62,000 litres per year.

Q.6 b) Explain the traditional techniques for water harvesting. [10 Marks]
[10 Marks — Cover importance, techniques, benefits]
Traditional water harvesting techniques are age-old methods developed by various cultures to collect and
store water using locally available materials. They are being revived globally to address modern water
scarcity.

1. Importance of Traditional Water Harvesting

• Sustainability: Low-cost, low-tech, minimal maintenance.
• Climate Adaptation: Well adapted to local climates; resilient against droughts/floods.
• Community Empowerment: Built on community participation; promotes social cohesion.

2. Key Traditional Techniques

a) Step Wells (Baolis — India):
• Deep wells with steps leading down to the water table.
• Used in regions with high temperature and irregular rainfall.
• Provided steady water for drinking, irrigation, and daily use.
b) Rainwater Harvesting Pits (Cisterns):
• Underground or surface structures collecting rainwater from roofs.
• Common in African regions like the Sahel — still in use today.
c) Water Channels (Qanat/Zing):
• Underground channels developed in ancient Persia.
• Tap into aquifers and transport water over long distances.
• Reduce evaporation loss in hot, arid climates.
d) Terracing and Contour Farming:
• Terraces built into hillsides in the Andes and Southeast Asia.
• Slow water flow, increase infiltration, improve soil moisture for crops.
e) Percolation Tanks (India):
• Small, localized reservoirs that capture rainwater.
• Allow water to percolate into the ground, replenishing groundwater reserves.
f) Rooftop Harvesting (Gulams — Middle East):
• Rainwater collected from rooftops in arid regions.
• Stored in large cisterns for household use.

3. Benefits of Reviving Traditional Techniques

• Cost-Effective: Cheaper to build and maintain than modern infrastructure.
• Eco-Friendly: Use natural processes and locally sourced materials.
• Improved Water Availability: Ensure reliable supply in regions with erratic rainfall.
 • Conserve Groundwater: Methods like percolation tanks recharge groundwater aquifers.

4. Challenges
• Loss of Knowledge: Not passed down due to urbanization and modernization.
• Climate Change: May not cope with increasingly unpredictable weather.
• Integration Issues: Combining traditional and modern systems requires careful planning.

5. Revival Strategies
• Education and Awareness: Workshops, demonstrations, government support.
• Government Policies: Subsidies and incentives for adoption.
• Community-Led Initiatives: Local involvement in design and maintenance.
• Research and Documentation: Recording techniques for future adaptation.

Q.5 a) Write the factors affecting groundwater recharge, explain each in detail. [8
Marks]
[8 Marks — 8 factors, one each for 1 mark]
(Refer to Q.5b answer above — cover all 9 factors. For 8 marks, cover any 8 factors with clear explanation
of each.)
Key factors: Precipitation, Soil Type, Land Use, Topography, Human Activities, Climate, Geology, Water Table Depth,
Surface Water Availability.

Q.5 b) Write in detail the revival of traditional techniques for water harvesting with
neat sketch. [12 Marks]
[12 Marks — Include sketch + detailed explanation]
(Refer to Q.6b answer above for full traditional techniques content. For 12 marks, include a neat labeled
sketch of a Step Well / Percolation Tank.)

Diagram: Traditional Step Well (Baoli)

Traditional Step Well (Baoli) — Cross Section

Ground Level
Steps Railing / Parapet

Side Wall

WATER

Diagram: Percolation Tank

 Percolation Tank — Cross Section
Rainfall / Runoff

Ground Level v v v

Earthen Bund
Stored Water

Percolation into ground (Groundwater Recharge)

v v v v

Q.6 a) Explain in detail the steps involved in the preparation of technical drawing
and designing of rainwater harvesting structure. [12 Marks]
[12 Marks — Cover all 8 steps]
A technical drawing of a rainwater harvesting (RWH) structure must ensure efficiency, functionality, and
sustainability. The following steps are involved:

Step 1: Site Analysis

• Topography and Slope: Assess the slope to determine natural water flow direction.
• Roof Area: Identify areas of the roof for collection — larger roof = more harvest.
• Soil Type: Test permeability to decide underground or surface storage options.

Step 2: Design of the Collection System

• Roof Design: Sloped roofs are ideal for directing water. Keep roof free of debris.
• Gutters and Downspouts: Size and place gutters to handle peak storm rainfall. Downspouts should
lead to storage tank.
• First Flush System: Install first flush diverter to discard initial dirty water before storage.

Step 3: Storage System Design

• Tank Size: Based on roof area × rainfall × runoff coefficient.
• Material: Concrete, plastic, or metal — chosen based on durability, cost, and environment.
• Tank Location: Accessible for maintenance; close to downspout.
• Overflow System: Divert excess water safely when tank is full.

Step 4: Filtration and Purification

• Pre-Filtration: Mesh filters at downspout top prevent large debris.
• Post-Filtration: Sand filter or activated carbon filter removes smaller particles.
• Purification: UV treatment or chlorination if used for drinking.

Step 5: Pump and Distribution System

• Pump Design: Size pump according to household demand and tank height.
• Plumbing Layout: Plan piping without leaks; include pressure regulators or drip irrigation.

Step 6: Water Use and Maintenance

• Usage Plan: Determine intended use — drinking, toilet flushing, irrigation.
• Maintenance Access: Include hatches for filter cleaning and tank inspection.
• Monitoring: Install water level gauges to track storage and prevent overflow.
Step 7: Regulations and Standards
• Local Regulations: Check municipal codes for water quality and tank installation.
• Design Standards: Follow national/international standards for RWH plumbing and construction.

Step 8: Technical Drawing Components

• Plan View: Top view showing roof layout, gutter positions, tank location, and pipes.
• Section View: Vertical cross-section showing roof, gutters, filters, and tank.
• Isometric View: 3D view for understanding spatial arrangement of all components.
• Details: Tank foundations, pipe sizes, material specs, fittings, and structural support for elevated
tanks.

Diagram: Rainwater Harvesting

Rainfall System — Schematic

ROOF

Gutter

Downpipe

1st Flush
Diverter
Mesh F Overflow
Filter pipe

STORAGE
TANK
Rainwater HarvestingToSystem
Use
— Schematic Layout

Q.6 b) Drainage area = 12 hectares. Surface types and coefficients given. Time of
concentration = 30 min. Calculate the quantity of runoff rainwater. [8 Marks]
[8 Marks — Rational Method]

Given Data:
• Total Drainage (Catchment) Area = 12 hectares = 12 × 10,000 = 1,20,000 m²
• Time of concentration = 30 minutes
% of Total Area Type of Surface Runoff Coefficient (C)

20% Hard Pavement 0.85

20% Roof Surface 0.80

15% Unpaved Street 0.20

30% Garden and Lawn 0.20

15% Forest 0.15

Step 1: Calculate Weighted Runoff Coefficient (C_avg)

C_avg = Σ(Area fraction × C) for each surface type
• Hard Pavement: 0.20 × 0.85 = 0.170
• Roof Surface: 0.20 × 0.80 = 0.160
 • Unpaved Street: 0.15 × 0.20 = 0.030
• Garden/Lawn: 0.30 × 0.20 = 0.060
• Forest: 0.15 × 0.15 = 0.0225
C_avg = 0.170 + 0.160 + 0.030 + 0.060 + 0.0225 = 0.4425 ≈ 0.44

Step 2: Rainfall Intensity

Using Rational Method. For time of concentration = 30 min, assume a typical rainfall intensity value. A
standard value commonly used in problems:
Assume Intensity (i) = 50 mm/hr (if not given, use standard value)
Note: In exam if rainfall intensity is not given, mention Rational Method and state assumption clearly.

Step 3: Apply Rational Formula

Q = C × i × A / 360 (when A in hectares, i in mm/hr, Q in m³/s)
Q = 0.44 × 50 × 12 / 360
Q = 264 / 360
Q = 0.733 m³/s

Result:
Quantity of Runoff Rainwater = 0.733 m³/s (approximately 733 litres/second)
If intensity value is specified in original question, substitute accordingly in the Rational formula.

Q.05 a) Explain the effect of soil type and permeability on groundwater recharge
rates. [6 Marks]
[6 Marks — Concise but complete]

Effect of Soil Type on Groundwater Recharge

• The texture and structure of soil determine how easily rainwater infiltrates into the ground.
• Sandy Soils: High porosity and permeability. Water passes through quickly → high recharge rate.
• Clayey Soils: Low permeability. Pores are small and get clogged → impedes infiltration → low
recharge.
• Silty Soils: Medium permeability — moderate recharge.
• Rocky / Compacted Ground: Negligible infiltration → most water becomes surface runoff.

Effect of Permeability
• Permeability is the ability of soil/rock to transmit water through it.
• High permeability (e.g., gravel, coarse sand): Water drains rapidly into aquifer.
• Low permeability (e.g., clay, granite): Water is blocked from reaching the water table.
• Fractured rocks (limestone, sandstone): Even hard rocks with fractures allow significant recharge.

Conclusion
Higher permeability of soil → greater groundwater recharge rate. Urbanization replaces permeable soil
with impermeable concrete, drastically reducing recharge.

Q.05 b) How can traditional knowledge be integrated with modern technology for
sustainable water management? [6 Marks]
[6 Marks — Practical, point-wise]

Integration of Traditional Knowledge with Modern Technology

1. Traditional Techniques Enhanced by Modern Materials:
 • Traditional step wells revived using modern water-tight concrete and anti-seepage coatings.
• Percolation tanks strengthened with geosynthetic liners to prevent seepage losses.
2. GIS and Remote Sensing with Traditional Watershed Knowledge:
• Traditional knowledge of catchment areas combined with GIS mapping to identify optimal recharge
zones.
• Satellite data helps scale traditional water conservation practices across large regions.
3. IoT and Smart Monitoring:
• Smart sensors installed in traditional cisterns and tanks monitor water level, quality in real time.
• Automated alerts prevent overflow and contamination in traditional storage structures.
4. Modern Filtration in Traditional Structures:
• Traditional rooftop harvesting systems upgraded with UV filters and activated carbon purifiers.
• Ensures harvested water meets modern drinking water quality standards.
5. Policy and Community Integration:
• Government incentives combine traditional methods (johads, baolis) with modern plumbing grids.
• Community-based organizations use digital platforms to train locals in both traditional and modern
methods.
6. Case Studies:
• India — Rajasthan: Revival of johads (traditional ponds) using modern earthwork technology raised
groundwater levels.
• Morocco: Khettaras (underground channels) combined with modern pumping stations.

Q.05 c) Community building: Roof Area = 300 m², Annual Rainfall = 600 mm,
Runoff Coefficient = 0.9. Calculate total annual rainwater harvested. [8 Marks]
[8 Marks — Same as Q.6a above, full marks solution]
(Full solution identical to Q.6a above. Rewrite as below for exam:)

Given:
• Catchment Area = 300 m²
• Annual Rainfall = 600 mm = 0.6 m
• Runoff Coefficient (C) = 0.9

Formula:
Total Rainwater Harvested = A × R × C

Calculation:
= 300 × 0.6 × 0.9 = 162 m³
= 162 × 1000 = 1,62,000 litres

Result:
Total annual rainwater harvested = 162 m³ = 1,62,000 litres/year

Q.06 a) Explain the procedure to determine the size and capacity of storage tanks
for rainwater harvesting. [5 Marks]
[5 Marks — Concise version of tank sizing]
(Condensed version of Q.5a answer — cover Steps 1 to 5 briefly.)
• Step 1: Calculate catchment area (roof area in m²).
• Step 2: Note average annual rainfall (convert mm to m).
 • Step 3: Apply runoff coefficient to get effective volume.
V = A × R × C (in m³)
• Step 4: Calculate water demand — Daily use × Storage days.
Tank Capacity = Daily Demand × No. of Days
• Step 5: Tank capacity = higher of (demand-based) or (harvest-based) volume. Add 10–15% buffer.

Q.06 b) How do traditional systems like stepwells, tanks, and johads help in water
conservation? [5 Marks]
[5 Marks — One paragraph per system]

1. Stepwells (Baolis)
• Deep structures with steps leading to the water table.
• Collect and store rainwater underground — prevent evaporation.
• Recharge groundwater by allowing percolation through the walls and base.
• Example: Chand Baori (Rajasthan) — still functional after 1000+ years.

2. Tanks (Traditional Ponds/Eris)

• Large shallow reservoirs that collect runoff from surrounding areas.
• Used extensively in Tamil Nadu — connected systems called 'tank cascades'.
• Allow percolation into ground, recharging wells and borewells in the area.
• Support local agriculture through controlled irrigation.

3. Johads
• Earthen check dams used in Rajasthan to collect and store rainwater.
• Slow down runoff, increase percolation, and recharge groundwater.
• Revived by Rajendra Singh (Waterman of India) — restored rivers and raised water table.
• Low-cost, community-maintained, eco-friendly water conservation structures.

Conclusion
All three systems conserve water by: (a) reducing surface runoff, (b) promoting groundwater recharge, and
(c) ensuring water availability during dry seasons. They represent sustainable, proven water management
models.

Design Problem: Roof = 150 m², Rainfall = 1000 mm, C = 0.8, Daily use = 500 L,
Store for 3 months. Find: (i) Annual volume (ii) Tank size (iii) Overflow & Filtration
system. [10 Marks]
[10 Marks — Show all 4 parts with formulas]

Part 1: Total Volume of Rainwater Harvested per Year

V = Roof Area × Rainfall × Runoff Coefficient
V = 150 m² × 1.0 m × 0.8
V = 120 m³ = 1,20,000 litres/year

Part 2: Size of Storage Tank (for 3 months)

Tank Capacity = Daily Demand × Number of Days
= 500 litres/day × 90 days
= 45,000 litres = 45 m³
Storage tank required: 45,000 litres capacity.
Part 3: Overflow System
• An overflow pipe is installed at the top of the tank.
• When tank is full, excess water is redirected to stormwater drain or recharge pit.
• Overflow pipe diameter sized to handle peak storm flow from the roof area.
• Overflow directed away from foundations to prevent waterlogging.

Part 4: Filtration System

The filtration system has three stages:
• Stage 1 — First Flush Diverter: Diverts first 10–15% of rainfall (contains dust, bird droppings) away
from tank. Volume diverted ≈ 1–2 mm of rainfall × roof area.
• Stage 2 — Mesh Filter (Pre-filtration): Installed at downspout inlet. Mesh size 0.5–1 mm. Removes
leaves, twigs, and large debris.
• Stage 3 — Sand/Gravel Filter (Post-filtration): Multi-layer filter (gravel → coarse sand → fine sand)
removes fine particles before water enters tank.
• Optional Stage 4 — UV Treatment or Activated Carbon: If used for drinking water, UV lamp or
activated carbon filter ensures potability.

Final Summary:
Parameter Value

Annual Rainwater Harvested 1,20,000 litres (120 m³)

Storage Tank Capacity 45,000 litres (for 3 months)

Overflow System Overflow pipe to stormwater drain

Pre-Filtration Mesh filter at downspout (0.5–1 mm)

Post-Filtration Sand/gravel filter at tank inlet

Optional Purification UV / Activated carbon (if for drinking)

Module 3 — All Questions Answered | BCV654A | Prepared from Course Notes