Cell — The Building Unit of Life | Class 9 NCERT Biology
CELL
The Building Unit of Life
Class 9 • NCERT Biology • Complete Chapter Notes
Quick facts
1665 2 13+ 37 trillion
Year cell discovered Types of cells Cell organelles Cells in human body
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Cell — The Building Unit of Life | Class 9 NCERT Biology
1. Discovery of the Cell
Robert Hooke (1665)
• Instrument: Used a self-designed compound microscope.
• Specimen: Thin slice of cork (dead bark of oak tree).
• Observation: Saw small box-like compartments and named them 'cells' (Latin: cellula = small room).
• Publication: Micrographia (1665) — contains first description of cells.
• Important note: He observed dead cell walls, not living cells.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1670s)
• Instrument: Single-lens microscope (~270x magnification).
• Achievement: First to observe living cells — bacteria, blood cells, sperm, protozoa.
• Called them: Animalcules.
• Title: Father of Microbiology.
Other key contributors
• Robert Brown (1831): Discovered the nucleus in orchid root cells.
• Felix Dujardin (1835): Described the living substance inside cells as 'sarcode'.
• Purkinje (1839): Coined the term 'protoplasm' for the living substance inside cells.
Memory trick: Hooke → Cork → Compartments → Called 'cells' | Leeuwenhoek → Living cells →
Bacteria
2. Cell Theory
Schleiden & Schwann (1838–39)
• Matthias Schleiden (1838): German botanist — all plants are made of cells.
• Theodor Schwann (1839): German zoologist — all animals are made of cells.
• Together they proposed the cell theory.
Rudolf Virchow (1855) — completion
• Latin statement: Omnis cellula e cellula — every cell arises from a pre-existing cell.
• This corrected the earlier wrong idea of spontaneous cell formation.
Three Postulates of Cell Theory
• Postulate 1: All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
• Postulate 2: The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life.
• Postulate 3: All cells arise from pre-existing cells (by cell division).
Exception: Viruses are acellular (not made of cells) — they exist on the border of living and non-living.
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Cell — The Building Unit of Life | Class 9 NCERT Biology
3. Types of Cells
Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic — Comparison Table
Feature Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
Meaning of name Pro = before, karyon = nucleus Eu = true, karyon = nucleus
Nucleus No membrane-bound nucleus; naked True membrane-bound nucleus
DNA in nucleoid region present
DNA Circular, naked (no histones) Linear, associated with histone
proteins
Organelles No membrane-bound organelles All membrane-bound organelles
present
Size Smaller: 1–10 µm Larger: 10–100 µm
Ribosomes 70S (50S + 30S subunits) 80S in cytoplasm (60S + 40S); 70S in
plastids & mitochondria
Cell wall Present (peptidoglycan in bacteria) Present in plants (cellulose), fungi
(chitin); absent in animals
Cell division Binary fission Mitosis / Meiosis
Examples Bacteria, Cyanobacteria (blue-green Plants, animals, fungi, protozoa
algae), Mycoplasma
Smallest cell: Mycoplasma (PPLO) ~0.1 µm | Largest cell: Ostrich egg (~15 cm) | Longest cell:
Nerve cell (up to 1 m in humans)
Unicellular vs Multicellular
• Unicellular: Single cell performs all life functions. Examples: Amoeba, Paramecium, Chlamydomonas,
bacteria.
• Multicellular: Many cells with division of labour. Examples: plants, animals, fungi.
• Cell size does NOT depend on organism size — an elephant's cell is similar in size to a mouse's cell.
4. Plant Cell vs Animal Cell
Feature Plant cell Animal cell
Cell wall Present (cellulose) Absent
Plastids Present (chloroplast, chromoplast, Absent
leucoplast)
Large central vacuole Present — may occupy up to 90% of Absent or very small
volume
Centrioles Absent (except lower plants) Present
Lysosomes Rare Present — important for digestion
Shape Fixed, rigid due to cell wall Variable, flexible
Glycocalyx Absent Present (cell recognition)
Starch storage Amyloplasts in cytoplasm Glycogen granules in cytoplasm
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Cell — The Building Unit of Life | Class 9 NCERT Biology
5. Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)
Fluid Mosaic Model
• Proposed by: Singer and Nicolson (1972).
• Structure: Phospholipid bilayer with proteins embedded in and on it.
• Phospholipid: Each molecule has a hydrophilic head (faces outward) and hydrophobic tail (faces
inward).
• Integral proteins: Embedded throughout the bilayer — act as transport channels.
• Peripheral proteins: Loosely attached to outer or inner surface.
• Fluid: Phospholipids can move laterally within the bilayer.
• Mosaic: Proteins are scattered like tiles across the membrane.
• Cholesterol: Present in animal cells — provides rigidity and stability.
Functions of Cell Membrane
• Selectively permeable — controls what enters and exits the cell.
• Maintains cell shape and integrity.
• Cell-to-cell recognition and communication (via glycoproteins).
• Involved in endocytosis and exocytosis.
Transport across Cell Membrane
Type Description Energy needed?
Diffusion Movement from high to low concentration No (passive)
Osmosis Movement of water across semi-permeable No (passive)
membrane from high water potential to low
Active transport Movement against concentration gradient Yes — ATP required
Endocytosis Cell engulfs substances (phagocytosis = solid; Yes
pinocytosis = liquid)
Exocytosis Cell expels substances via vesicle fusion with Yes
membrane
Osmosis — Key Concepts
• Hypotonic solution: Less solute outside → water enters cell → cell swells → turgid (plants) or
lysis/haemolysis (animals).
• Hypertonic solution: More solute outside → water leaves cell → cell shrinks → plasmolysis (plants) or
crenation (animals).
• Isotonic solution: Equal solute concentration → no net water movement → cell size unchanged.
• Turgor pressure: Pressure exerted by water against cell wall in a turgid plant cell — essential for plant
rigidity.
Plasmolysis: Shrinkage of cytoplasm away from cell wall in hypertonic solution — unique to plant cells
(because of cell wall).
6. Cell Wall
• Location: Outside the plasma membrane; present in plant cells, fungi, bacteria.
• Plant cell wall: Composed mainly of cellulose (a polysaccharide).
• Fungal cell wall: Composed of chitin.
• Bacterial cell wall: Composed of peptidoglycan (murein).
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Cell — The Building Unit of Life | Class 9 NCERT Biology
Layers of Plant Cell Wall
• Middle lamella: Outermost layer; made of pectin; glues adjacent cells together.
• Primary cell wall: Flexible; present in growing/dividing cells.
• Secondary cell wall: Rigid; contains lignin; present in mature cells; provides extra strength.
Functions
• Provides rigidity, structural support, and fixed shape.
• Protects against mechanical damage and osmotic lysis.
• Fully permeable — does NOT regulate what passes through (unlike cell membrane).
• Plasmodesmata: Small pores in cell wall connecting adjacent plant cells — allow communication and
transport.
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Cell — The Building Unit of Life | Class 9 NCERT Biology
7. Nucleus — The Control Centre
• Discovered by: Robert Brown (1831) in orchid cells.
• Usually the largest organelle in the cell.
• Absent in: Prokaryotes, mature RBCs (mammals), sieve tube cells of phloem, mature lens cells.
• Multinucleate cells: Muscle fibres (syncytium), fungal hyphae (coenocyte).
Structure of the Nucleus
• Nuclear envelope: Double membrane surrounding nucleus; outer membrane is continuous with
Endoplasmic Reticulum.
• Nuclear pores: Gaps in the nuclear envelope for selective exchange (mRNA exits; proteins enter).
• Nucleoplasm: Semi-fluid matrix inside the nucleus.
• Nucleolus: Dense spherical body; site of rRNA synthesis; 1 or more may be present; disappears
during cell division.
• Chromatin: Network of DNA + histone proteins; condenses into chromosomes during division.
Chromosomes
• Function: Carry genes — units of heredity made of DNA.
• Human cells: 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) — diploid (2n).
• Gametes: 23 chromosomes — haploid (n).
• Autosomes: 44 (22 pairs) — non-sex chromosomes.
• Sex chromosomes: 2 (XX = female; XY = male).
• Karyotype: Organised visual representation of all chromosomes of an organism.
Functions of Nucleus
• Controls all metabolic activities of the cell.
• Contains genetic information (DNA) — governs protein synthesis.
• Directs cell division.
• Central to heredity and variation.
Enucleated cells: Mature RBCs, sieve tube cells, lens cells — they lose nucleus during maturation to
perform specialised functions.
8. Cytoplasm & Cell Organelles
Cytoplasm
• Definition: Semi-fluid jelly-like substance between nucleus and cell membrane; also called cytosol.
• Contents: All organelles, cytoskeleton, dissolved nutrients, salts, and enzymes.
• Cytoskeleton: Network of microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules — provides shape
and supports movement.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• Extensive network of membranous tubules and flattened sacs (cisternae).
• Connects nuclear envelope to cell membrane.
• Rough ER (RER): Studded with ribosomes; synthesises and processes secretory and membrane
proteins.
• Smooth ER (SER): No ribosomes; involved in lipid/steroid synthesis, detoxification, calcium storage.
• SER is abundant in liver cells and steroid-producing cells.
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Cell — The Building Unit of Life | Class 9 NCERT Biology
Golgi Apparatus
• Discovered by: Camillo Golgi (1898) — Nobel Prize 1906.
• Structure: Stack of flattened cisternae surrounded by vesicles.
• Cis face: Receiving face — faces the ER.
• Trans face: Secretory face — faces the cell membrane.
• Receives proteins from RER, modifies, sorts, packages, and dispatches them.
• Called the 'post office' or 'traffic police' of the cell.
• Forms lysosomes, secretory vesicles, and cell plate during plant cell division.
• Involved in glycoprotein and glycolipid formation.
Mitochondria
• Nickname: Powerhouse of the cell.
• Outer membrane: Smooth; permeable to small molecules.
• Inner membrane: Folded into finger-like projections called cristae — site of ATP synthesis.
• Matrix: Inner fluid space; contains circular DNA, ribosomes (70S), enzymes for Krebs cycle.
• Site of aerobic cellular respiration → produces ATP.
• Have own DNA and ribosomes → semi-autonomous organelle.
• Endosymbiotic theory: Mitochondria evolved from ancient aerobic prokaryotes engulfed by ancestral
eukaryotic cells.
Ribosomes
• Smallest organelle; not membrane-bound.
• Composed of rRNA and proteins.
• 80S: In eukaryote cytoplasm (60S + 40S subunits).
• 70S: In prokaryotes, chloroplasts, and mitochondria (50S + 30S subunits).
• Site of protein synthesis (translation).
• Polysome: A string of ribosomes along one mRNA strand — also called polyribosome.
Lysosomes
• Membrane-bound sacs containing ~50 types of hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes.
• Formed from the Golgi apparatus.
• Suicidal bags: Term coined by de Duve (Nobel Prize 1974) — if membrane ruptures, enzymes destroy
the whole cell.
• Autophagy: Digestion of worn-out organelles within the cell.
• Phagocytosis: Digestion of foreign particles; very active in WBCs.
• Enzymes function at pH ~5 (acidic interior).
Centrosome & Centrioles
• Present in animal cells and lower plants; absent in higher plants.
• Centrosome contains two centrioles arranged perpendicular to each other.
• Each centriole has 9 triplets of microtubules (9+0 arrangement).
• Forms spindle fibres during cell division.
• Also forms cilia and flagella (as basal body).
Peroxisomes: Small single-membrane vesicles; contain oxidase enzymes; break down fatty acids and
H₂O₂ (H₂O₂ → H₂O + O₂); abundant in liver and kidney cells.
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Cell — The Building Unit of Life | Class 9 NCERT Biology
9. Plastids & Vacuoles
Plastids (Plant cells only)
• Double membrane-bound organelles; unique to plant cells and some algae.
• Contain own circular DNA and 70S ribosomes — semi-autonomous.
Type Pigment Colour Function
Chloroplasts Chlorophyll, carotenoids Green Photosynthesis — 'kitchen
of the cell'
Chromoplasts Carotene, xanthophyll Yellow / Red / Attract pollinators and
Orange seed dispersers
Leucoplasts None Colourless Storage: amyloplast
(starch), elaioplast (fat),
aleuroplast (protein)
Chloroplast Structure
• Outer membrane: Smooth and permeable.
• Inner membrane: Less permeable.
• Thylakoids: Flattened membranous sacs stacked into grana — site of light reactions.
• Grana: Stacks of thylakoids interconnected by stroma lamellae.
• Stroma: Fluid matrix surrounding thylakoids — site of dark reactions (Calvin cycle).
• Chlorophyll is located in thylakoid membranes.
• Plastids can interconvert: leucoplast ↔ chromoplast ↔ chloroplast.
Vacuoles
• Plant cells: Large central vacuole bounded by tonoplast (vacuolar membrane); may occupy up to 90%
of cell volume.
• Contains cell sap — water, sugars, salts, pigments (e.g. anthocyanins).
• Maintains turgor pressure and stores waste products.
• Animal cells: Small, temporary vacuoles (food vacuoles in Amoeba; contractile vacuoles in
Paramecium for osmoregulation).
Plastid vs Mitochondria: Both have double membranes, own circular DNA, 70S ribosomes, and divide
by binary fission — both are semi-autonomous (endosymbiotic origin).
10. Cell Division
Mitosis vs Meiosis
Feature Mitosis Meiosis
Occurs in Somatic (body) cells Reproductive cells / gonads
Number of divisions 1 2 (Meiosis I + Meiosis II)
Cells produced 2 daughter cells 4 daughter cells (gametes)
Chromosome number Same as parent: 2n → 2n Half of parent: 2n → n (haploid)
Genetic identity Identical to parent Genetically varied
Purpose Growth, repair, asexual Sexual reproduction, genetic
reproduction variation
Crossing over Does not occur Occurs in Prophase I — source of
variation
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Cell — The Building Unit of Life | Class 9 NCERT Biology
Phases of Mitosis — PMAT
• Prophase: Chromosomes condense and become visible; nucleolus disappears; spindle fibres form;
nuclear envelope breaks down.
• Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate (cell equator); spindle fibres attach to
centromeres.
• Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles; cell elongates.
• Telophase: Chromosomes reach poles; nuclear envelope reforms; nucleolus reappears;
chromosomes decondense.
• Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm — cleavage furrow in animals; cell plate (from Golgi vesicles) in
plants.
Cell Cycle
• Interphase (longest): G1: cell growth | S: DNA replication | G2: preparation for division.
• M phase: Actual division (karyokinesis + cytokinesis).
• Typical human cell cycle: ~24 hours; M phase: ~1 hour.
Key fact: DNA replication occurs during S phase of interphase — NOT during mitosis itself. The cell
enters mitosis with already-duplicated DNA.
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Cell — The Building Unit of Life | Class 9 NCERT Biology
11. Key Terms Glossary
Term Definition
Protoplasm All living contents of cell (nucleus + cytoplasm); 'physical basis of life'.
Cytoplasm Protoplasm excluding the nucleus.
Nucleoplasm Semi-fluid matrix within the nucleus.
Karyokinesis Division of the nucleus during cell division.
Cytokinesis Division of the cytoplasm.
Plasmolysis Shrinkage of protoplasm away from cell wall when placed in hypertonic
solution.
Turgidity Swollen state of cell due to water entering by osmosis.
Tonoplast Membrane surrounding the vacuole in plant cells.
Cristae Finger-like folds of inner mitochondrial membrane; site of ATP
synthesis.
Grana Stacks of thylakoids inside chloroplast.
Stroma Fluid matrix of chloroplast; site of Calvin cycle (dark reactions).
Cisternae Flattened, disc-shaped membranous sacs of Golgi apparatus or ER.
Plasmodesmata Cytoplasmic channels through cell wall connecting adjacent plant cells.
Endosymbiosis Theory explaining origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts from ancient
prokaryotes.
PPLO Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organism = Mycoplasma; smallest known cell
(~0.1 µm).
Nucleoid Region in prokaryotic cell where naked circular DNA is located.
Syncytium Multinucleate cell formed by fusion of cells, e.g. muscle fibres.
Coenocyte Multinucleate mass not divided into cells; e.g. fungal hyphae.
12. Exam Tips & One-Liners
Frequently Asked Questions
• Who discovered cell?: Robert Hooke (1665), cork slice, named 'cells'.
• Who observed living cells first?: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek.
• Who gave cell theory?: Schleiden & Schwann; completed by Virchow (Omnis cellula e cellula).
• Smallest cell?: Mycoplasma. Largest? Ostrich egg. Longest? Nerve cell.
• Powerhouse of cell?: Mitochondria. Kitchen? Chloroplast. Suicidal bags? Lysosomes. Post office?
Golgi.
• Cells without nucleus?: Mature RBCs, sieve tube cells, mature lens cells.
• Organelles with own DNA?: Mitochondria and chloroplasts (both semi-autonomous).
• Ribosome sizes?: Prokaryotes: 70S | Eukaryote cytoplasm: 80S | In plastids/mito: 70S.
• Crossing over?: Occurs in Prophase I of meiosis — source of genetic variation.
• DNA replication?: Occurs during S phase of interphase.
• Cell plate formed by?: Golgi vesicles in plants during cytokinesis.
• Centrioles absent in?: Higher plant cells — spindle still forms via microtubules.
• Tonoplast surrounds?: The vacuole in plant cells.
• Middle lamella made of?: Pectin — glues adjacent plant cells together.
Diagram Tips for Exam
• Always label both membranes of the nucleus and show nuclear pores.
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Cell — The Building Unit of Life | Class 9 NCERT Biology
• For mitochondria: show outer membrane, inner membrane, and cristae clearly.
• For chloroplast: label grana (thylakoids), stroma, and double membrane.
• For plant cell: show cell wall, large central vacuole with tonoplast, chloroplasts.
• For animal cell: show centrioles, multiple small vacuoles, lysosomes.
• A well-labelled diagram earns full marks — practise drawing both plant and animal cells.
Memory trick for organelle functions: My Roof Gives Cover Like Leaving → Mitochondria (energy),
Ribosomes (protein synthesis), Golgi (packaging), Chloroplasts (photosynthesis), Lysosomes
(digestion), Leucoplasts (storage).
End of Notes — Cell: The Building Unit of Life — Class 9 NCERT
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