SOLID STATE PHASE TRANSFORMATION

PROCESSES
B.E. Metallurgical & Material Engineering — 3rd Year, 2nd Semester
Complete Topic-wise Question Bank & Exam Analyser
Papers: 2019 · 2021 · 2022 · 2023(S) · 2024 | Tags: [Theory] [Numerical] [Diagram] [Conceptual]

A. FUNDAMENTALS OF PHASE TRANSFORMATION

Frequency: ★★★☆☆ | Focus: Conceptual understanding

A1 — Phase Transformation Basics & Kinetics

Q1. What are annealing, normalizing and hardening? Differentiate the microstructures of 0.3 wt% plain carbon
steel after annealing, normalizing and hardening. (2023S) [Theory] [Diagram]
Ans: Definitions:
 Annealing: Heating above Ac₃ (for hypo-eutectoid), soaking, followed by very slow furnace cooling.
Produces the softest, most ductile microstructure.
 Normalizing: Heating above Ac₃ (~50°C above), soaking, then air cooling. Faster than annealing —
produces finer microstructure.
 Hardening: Heating above Ac₃, soaking, then rapid quenching (water/oil). Produces martensite.
Microstructures of 0.3 wt% C Steel:
Treatment Microstructure Hardness Remarks
Coarse ferrite + coarse pearlite
Annealing Low (~100–130 HB) Equilibrium structure
(lamellar)
Medium (~150–180 Air cool — faster than
Normalizing Fine ferrite + fine pearlite
HB) furnace
Lath martensite + some retained BCT structure, highly
Hardening High (~400–500 HV)
austenite strained
Diagram description: Draw Fe–Fe₃C diagram. Mark 0.3% C. Show Ac₁ (727°C) and Ac₃ (~800°C). Mark the
three thermal paths: slow furnace cool, air cool, water quench.

Q2. What is stress relief annealing? State the normalising heat treatment conditions for hyper-eutectoid steels.
(2021) [Theory]
Ans: Stress Relief Annealing:
 Heated to below Ac₁ (typically 500–650°C)
 Held for sufficient time, then slow cooled
 Purpose: Eliminate residual stresses from welding, machining, cold working
 No phase transformation occurs — only recovery and stress redistribution
 Hardness and microstructure remain essentially unchanged
Normalizing of Hypereutectoid Steels:
 Heated to above Acm (not just above Ac₁) — typically 900–950°C for 1.0–1.2% C steel
 Soaked and then air cooled
 Why above Acm? → To dissolve the grain-boundary cementite network (proeutectoid cementite). If heated
only above Ac₁, undissolved cementite network remains, causing brittleness.
 After normalizing: fine pearlite + finely dispersed cementite in the matrix → improved toughness

Q3. How does lamellar microstructure develop in 0.8 wt% plain carbon steel after annealing? (2021) [Theory]
[Diagram]
 Ans: Mechanism (stepwise):
1. At 0.8% C, the steel is exactly eutectoid. Above 727°C, structure is single-phase austenite (γ).
2. On slow cooling to 727°C (Ac₁), eutectoid reaction initiates at austenite grain boundaries.
3. Cooperative nucleation: A nucleus of cementite (Fe₃C) forms at the grain boundary. Adjacent austenite
becomes depleted in carbon.
4. Carbon-depleted regions adjacent to Fe₃C → conditions favorable for ferrite (α) nucleation.
5. Ferrite growth rejects carbon → enriches neighboring austenite → promotes next cementite lamella.
6. This cooperative diffusion between growing α and Fe₃C fronts produces alternating lamellae.
7. The interlamellar spacing (S₀) depends on undercooling (ΔT): S₀ ∝ 1/ΔT — slower cooling → coarser
lamellae.
Driving force: Free energy difference between austenite and (ferrite + cementite).
Diagram description: Draw alternating black (Fe₃C) and white (α-ferrite) lamellae growing from a grain boundary
into the parent austenite grain

Q4. Why do pearlite start and finish temperatures of a plain carbon steel change with time but martensite start
and finish temperatures do not change? (2024) [Conceptual]
Ans: Pearlite (diffusional transformation):
 Pearlite is controlled by nucleation and growth — both are time-dependent processes
 Nucleation rate and growth rate depend on diffusion of carbon, which is thermally activated
 At higher undercooling → faster nucleation, finer spacing → Ps and Pf lines shift on TTT
 Therefore, transformation start and finish depend on both temperature AND time → C-curve shape
Martensite (diffusionless/athermal transformation):
 Martensite forms by lattice shear — cooperative motion of atoms, no diffusion
 Transformation proceeds athermal: upon cooling below Ms, martensite forms instantaneously — fraction
depends only on temperature, NOT on time
 Ms and Mf are fixed temperatures characteristic of the alloy composition
 Holding at a temperature between Ms and Mf → no additional martensite forms (Koistinen-Marburger
equation: f_m = 1 − exp[−0.011(Ms − T)])
 Hence Ms/Mf appear as horizontal lines on TTT, not C-curves

💡 INSIGHT: Kinetics of pearlitic transformation obeys Avrami-type (diffusional), whereas martensite is

athermal/diffusionless. This distinction is the most common conceptual question. Always contrast the
two.

B. TRANSFORMATION DIAGRAMS (TTT & CCT)

Frequency: ★★★★★ | Focus: Construction, application, differences

B1 — TTT Diagram Construction & Applications

Q1. What are the applications of time-temperature transformation (TTT) diagram? By what method can you
generate a TTT diagram of 0.8 wt% plain carbon steel? (2023S — 10+15 marks) [Theory] [Diagram]
Ans: Method 1: Metallographic (Interrupted Quench) Method
1. Prepare multiple small austenite samples (~0.8% C)
2. Austenitize all at ~780°C (above Ac₁)
3. Transfer quickly to salt bath at desired isothermal temperature (e.g., 600°C)
4. Hold each sample for different times (5 sec, 10 sec, 30 sec, 1 min, 5 min...)
5. After each hold time, quench each sample rapidly to room temperature
6. Examine metallographically — any pearlite (or bainite) that formed during isothermal hold is preserved;
untransformed austenite converts to martensite on final quench
7. Record: time when first pearlite appears = Ps; time when last austenite transforms = Pf
8. Plot Ps and Pf on temperature vs. log(time) axes → produces C-curves
Method 2: Dilatometric Method
1. Sample placed in a dilatometer
2. Austenitized, then rapidly cooled to isothermal temperature
3. Length change measured continuously vs. time
4. Transformation start = deviation from linear thermal contraction
5. Transformation finish = return to linear slope
6. More accurate, faster, avoids sectioning errors
Features of TTT Diagram (0.8% C):
 C-curve (upper nose): pearlite region (~720°C to ~550°C)
 Bay/bainite bay: sluggish region (~400–550°C)
 Lower C-curve: bainite region (~250–550°C)
 Ms line (~220°C for 0.8% C): martensite start
 Mf line (~−50°C): martensite finish (below room temperature — explains retained austenite)
 Nose temperature (~550°C): minimum incubation time — fastest transformation
Applications of TTT Diagram:
 Selecting quenching media and cooling rates for heat treatment
 Designing austempering and martempering cycles
 Understanding hardenability
 Predicting microstructure and properties for a given cooling path
 Comparing steel alloys based on nose position
Diagram description: Plot temperature (y-axis) vs. log time (x-axis). Draw two C-curves — upper (pearlite) and
lower (bainite). Mark Ps, Pf, Bs, Bf. Show horizontal Ms and Mf lines. Mark nose temperature.

Q2. Describe the generation of time-temperature transformation (TTT) diagram of 0.8 wt% plain carbon steel.
(2021 — 7 marks) [Theory] [Diagram]
Q3. Discuss the eutectoid transformation in 0.4 wt% plain carbon steel. What are the roles of prior austenite
grain structure in the kinetics of eutectoid transformation? (2019 — 7+5) [Theory]
Ans: Eutectoid Transformation in 0.4% C (Hypoeutectoid) Steel:
 On cooling from austenite field, first proeutectoid ferrite precipitates at grain boundaries below Ac₃
 Carbon is rejected into remaining austenite, enriching it toward eutectoid composition (0.8%)
 At Ac₁ (727°C), remaining austenite (now ~0.8% C) transforms to pearlite via eutectoid reaction
 Final microstructure: proeutectoid ferrite + pearlite (~50:50 ratio by lever rule approximately)
 γ → α (pro-eutectoid) + [α + Fe₃C] (pearlite)
Role of Prior Austenite Grain Size:
Large Prior Austenite Grains Small Prior Austenite Grains
Fewer grain boundary sites for nucleation More grain boundary sites
Slower overall transformation kinetics Faster transformation kinetics
C-curve shifts to the RIGHT on TTT diagram C-curve shifts LEFT
Longer incubation period Shorter incubation period
Coarser final microstructure Finer final microstructure
Higher hardenability Lower hardenability
Key point: Nucleation of pearlite/ferrite is heterogeneous — grain boundaries are preferred nucleation sites.
Larger grains = less grain boundary area per unit volume = fewer nuclei = slower kinetics.

Q4. What are the problems of grain coarsening of steel? What is eutectoid transformation in steel? Why is
ferrite in pearlite 8 times larger than cementite? (2023S — 10+10+5) [Theory] [Conceptual]
Ans: Problems of Grain Coarsening:
 Grain coarsening occurs at high austenitizing temperatures (above ~900°C)
 Larger grains → fewer grain boundary nucleation sites → slower transformation
 Coarse austenite grains → coarser pearlite, larger martensitic plates → lower toughness and ductility
 Grain boundary embrittlement becomes more pronounced
 Impact toughness (Charpy/Izod) decreases significantly
 In martensite: coarse prior austenite grains → larger martensite plates → worse mechanical properties
 Prevention: fine carbide particles (AlN, Nb, Ti carbides) pin grain boundaries (Zener pinning)
Eutectoid Transformation:
 (See A1-Q3 for mechanism; applies specifically to 0.8% C steel)
 γ (0.8% C, FCC) → α (0.02% C, BCC) + Fe₃C (6.67% C, orthorhombic)
 Reaction is isothermal at 727°C under equilibrium; below 727°C under practical conditions
Why is Ferrite 8 Times Larger than Cementite in Pearlite?
Using lever rule at 727°C on Fe–Fe₃C diagram:
 Ferrite: 0.02% C
 Cementite: 6.67% C
 Eutectoid composition: 0.8% C
Weight fraction of cementite = (0.8 − 0.02)/(6.67 − 0.02) = 0.78/6.65 ≈ 0.117 Weight fraction of ferrite = 1 −
0.117 = 0.883
Ratio ≈ 0.883/0.117 ≈ ~7.5 ≈ 8
Since density of α and Fe₃C are close (~7.87 vs ~7.65 g/cm³), volume fraction ≈ weight fraction.
∴ Ferrite lamellae are ~8× thicker than cementite lamellae — consistent with observed micrographs.

Q5. Why do pearlite start/finish temperatures change with time but martensite start/finish temperatures do not
change? What are the reasons for alternate lamella of ferrite and cementite in pearlite but lath or plate in
martensite? (2024 — 12+13) [Conceptual]
Ans: Reasons for Lamellar Pearlite:
 Pearlite forms by cooperative diffusional growth of α and Fe₃C
 Carbon must diffuse from the growing ferrite front to the cementite front — only possible if both grow in
close proximity
 Planar, lamellar geometry minimizes diffusion distance → most kinetically favored morphology
 High driving force at the transformation front pulls both phases to grow together as lamellae
 Regular spacing set by undercooling (ΔT)
Reasons for Lath/Plate Martensite (not lamellar):
 Martensite forms by diffusionless shear — no carbon redistribution possible
 Morphology controlled by elastic/plastic accommodation of shape strain (invariant plane strain)
 At low carbon (<0.6% C): Lath martensite — smaller shape strain, accommodated by dislocations; parallel
laths form within prior austenite grains
 At high carbon (>1.0% C): Plate martensite — larger c/a ratio (BCT), accommodation requires twinning →
plate/lens-shaped units; first plates cross the full grain, subsequent plates impinge and get smaller (each
plate bounded by previous ones)
 Lamellar morphology impossible: no diffusion → no compositional partitioning → no cooperative growth of
two phases
 💡 INSIGHT: Generating a TTT diagram (dilatometry/metallographic method) is asked nearly every
year. Always draw and annotate the TTT curve. Explain 'knee' position, austenite grain size effect,
and carbon/alloy effects on curve shift.

⚠ COMMON TRAP: Distinguish clearly: TTT = isothermal holding; CCT = continuous cooling.
Martensite formation does NOT appear on TTT as a time-dependent 'C-curve' — it appears as
horizontal Ms/Mf lines.

C. DIFFUSIONAL TRANSFORMATIONS
Frequency: ★★★★★ | Focus: Pearlite mechanism, bainite types, martensite contrast

C1 — Pearlitic Transformation
Q1. In what manners do hardness of the 0.3 wt%, 0.8 wt% and 1.1 wt% plain carbon steels change after
annealing? Why does a hand saw blade break during cutting of quenched steel? (2023S — 15+10) [Theory]
[Conceptual]
Ans: Hardness after Annealing:
Steel Carbon (%) Microstructure after Annealing Approximate Hardness (HB)
0.3% C Hypoeutectoid ~75% ferrite + ~25% pearlite 110–130
0.8% C Eutectoid 100% pearlite (coarse lamellae) 180–200
1.1% C Hypereutectoid Pearlite + grain-boundary cementite network 200–240
 Hardness increases with carbon content after annealing because:
o More pearlite is present
o Cementite (Fe₃C) itself is hard
o In hypereutectoid, continuous cementite network adds hardness (but reduces toughness)
Why a Hand Saw Blade Breaks When Cutting Quenched Steel:
 Quenched steel is fully martensitic — very high hardness (600–800 HV), very low toughness
 A hand saw blade is made of high carbon steel, annealed or lightly tempered — relatively soft and tough
enough for cutting normal metals
 When cutting martensite: the saw teeth encounter a material harder than the blade material
 The saw blade teeth are actually softer than quenched steel → teeth chip, crack, or fracture
 Additionally: residual stresses in quenched steel add to the load on the cutting tool
 The combination of abrasive wear + brittleness under cyclic bending → brittle fracture of the saw blade

Q2. Why is ferrite in pearlite 8 times larger than cementite? (2023S) [Conceptual]
Ans: Pearlite is a eutectoid microconstituent consisting of alternate lamellae of ferrite (α) and cementite (Fe₃C).
The carbon content of austenite at eutectoid composition is 0.77 wt% C. Upon cooling through the eutectoid
temperature (727°C), the austenite transforms into ferrite and cementite simultaneously.
Reason for the 8:1 Thickness Ratio
1. Lever Rule Explanation
The relative amounts of ferrite and cementite formed can be determined using the Lever Rule applied at the
eutectoid point:
Lever Rule at Eutectoid (727°C)
Weight fraction of Fe₃C = (C₀ − Cα) / (Cfe₃c − Cα)
= (0.77 − 0.022) / (6.67 − 0.022)
= 0.748 / 6.648 ≈ 0.113 (≈ 11.3%)
Weight fraction of Ferrite = 1 − 0.113 ≈ 0.887 (≈ 88.7%)
2. Volume Fraction Consideration
In terms of volume fraction (density of Fe₃C ≈ 7.66 g/cm³, α-ferrite ≈ 7.87 g/cm³), the volume of ferrite is
approximately 8 times that of cementite. Since the lamellae are parallel plates of equal length, the thickness is
directly proportional to the volume.
3. Carbon Balance
 Ferrite (α) contains only ~0.022 wt% C — nearly carbon-free.
 Cementite (Fe₃C) contains 6.67 wt% C — extremely carbon-rich.
 The austenite (0.77% C) must produce a large volume of low-carbon ferrite and a small volume of carbon-
rich cementite to satisfy mass balance.
The 8:1 ratio is a direct consequence of the mass balance of carbon redistribution during the eutectoid reaction.
Ferrite must be thick because it holds very little carbon, so more of it is needed.
Structural Implication
The resulting microstructure has broad ferrite lamellae (soft, ductile) and thin cementite lamellae (hard, brittle),
giving pearlite its characteristic combination of strength and toughness.
Draw Neat Labeled DiagramSketch alternate light (ferrite) and dark (cementite) lamellae in a colony. Mark:
inter-lamellar spacing (S₀), ferrite lamella thickness (~7 units), cementite lamella thickness (~1 unit). Label the
eutectoid colony boundary.

Q3. Discuss the eutectoid transformation in 0.4 wt% plain carbon steel. What are the roles of prior austenite
grain structure in the kinetics of eutectoid transformation? (2019 — 7+5) [Theory]
Ans: Part A — Eutectoid Transformation in 0.4 wt% C Steel
Phase Diagram Context
A 0.4 wt% C steel is a hypoeutectoid steel (eutectoid point at 0.77% C). On slow cooling from the austenite (γ)
phase field:
1. At ~780°C (A₃ line): proeutectoid ferrite (α) begins to nucleate at austenite grain boundaries.
2. As temperature falls, ferrite grows and the remaining austenite becomes progressively enriched in carbon.
3. At 727°C (A₁ line): the remaining austenite (now at 0.77% C) undergoes the eutectoid reaction → pearlite.
Final Microstructure
Using the Lever Rule at the A₁ temperature:
Lever Rule — Amount of Pearlite
Fraction of pearlite = (0.4 − 0.022) / (0.77 − 0.022) = 0.378 / 0.748 ≈ 50.5%
Fraction of proeutectoid ferrite ≈ 49.5%
Mechanism of Pearlite Formation
 Nucleation: Pearlite colonies nucleate heterogeneously at austenite grain boundaries and at ferrite-
austenite interfaces.
 Growth: Alternating lamellae of ferrite and cementite advance cooperatively into austenite via short-range
carbon diffusion.
 Rate: Controlled by carbon diffusion in austenite (ahead of the growth front).
Draw Neat Labeled DiagramFe-Fe₃C phase diagram (hypoeutectoid region). Mark 0.4% C vertical line. Show:
single-phase γ region, two-phase (α+γ) region, and the eutectoid line at 727°C. Indicate cooling path with
arrow.
Part B — Role of Prior Austenite Grain Size on Transformation Kinetics
1. Nucleation Sites
Pearlite nucleates at austenite grain boundaries. A finer austenite grain size means:
 Greater grain boundary area per unit volume → more nucleation sites
 Higher nucleation rate → faster overall transformation
 Finer pearlite colonies and shorter diffusion distances
2. Coarse Austenite Grains
 Fewer grain boundary sites per unit volume → slower nucleation
 Longer incubation time on TTT diagram → shift of C-curves to the right
 Results in coarser pearlite with larger inter-lamellar spacing
 Increased hardenability (easier to form martensite on quenching)
3. Effect on TTT Diagram
Prior Austenite Nucleation Rate TTT C-Curve Result
Fine grain High Shifted LEFT (faster) Fine pearlite, lower hardenability
Coarse grain Low Shifted RIGHT (slower) Coarse pearlite, higher hardenability
4. Proeutectoid Ferrite Nucleation
Proeutectoid ferrite also nucleates predominantly at austenite grain boundaries and corners. Finer grains
accelerate ferrite formation, while coarser grains give Widmanstätten ferrite morphology.

Q4. What are the problems of grain coarsening of steel? (2023S) [Theory]
Ans: Grain coarsening is the growth of austenite grains at elevated temperatures, driven by the reduction in
total grain boundary energy. While some austenite grain growth is normal, excessive coarsening (above the
coarsening temperature, T_c) leads to serious metallurgical problems.
Problems Caused by Grain Coarsening
1. Reduction in Toughness and Impact Strength
 Large grains provide fewer grain boundaries to deflect cracks.
 Ductile-brittle transition temperature (DBTT) shifts to higher values.
 Impact energy (Charpy/Izod) decreases significantly.
2. Widmanstätten Structure Formation
 Coarse austenite grains promote formation of Widmanstätten ferrite — needle-like plates along grain
boundaries.
 This is a very brittle, undesirable microstructure in engineering steels.
3. Increased Hardenability
 Fewer nucleation sites → slower pearlite formation → higher tendency to form martensite on quenching.
 Increases risk of distortion and cracking during heat treatment.
4. Inferior Mechanical Properties
 Hall-Petch relationship: σ_y = σ₀ + k·d⁻¹/² — coarser grains (larger d) give lower yield strength.
 Decreased fatigue strength and creep resistance.
5. Anisotropy and Deformation Problems
 Coarse grained steels exhibit orange-peel effect during deep drawing.
 Non-uniform deformation, poor formability.
6. Problems in Welding
 Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ) adjacent to the weld undergoes extreme grain growth.
 This region becomes brittle and susceptible to cold cracking.
Prevention / Grain Refinement Methods
 Addition of grain refiners: Al, Nb, Ti, V — form stable carbides/nitrides (AlN, NbC) that pin grain boundaries
(Zener pinning).
 Controlled rolling and thermomechanical processing.
 Avoiding excessively high austenitizing temperatures.
 Normalizing treatment to refine coarsened grain structure.
C2 — Bainitic Transformation
Q5. Describe the roles of carbon and silicon in bainitic transformation. Why does bainitic microstructure exhibit
an excellent combination of strength and toughness? (2019 — 9+5) [Theory]
Ans: Role of Carbon:
 Carbon controls the T0 temperature (locus at which Gibbs energy of austenite = that of ferrite with same
composition)
 Higher carbon → lower T0 → less driving force for bainite formation → slower bainite kinetics
 Carbon partitions to untransformed austenite during bainite growth → stabilizes residual austenite
 Incomplete transformation phenomenon: as C enriches in austenite, austenite stabilizes above T0 →
transformation stops before completion
 Carbon controls the Ms of residual austenite → if Ms drops below room temperature → film austenite
retained between bainite sub-units
Role of Silicon:
 Silicon has very low solubility in cementite (Fe₃C)
 Suppresses Fe₃C precipitation during bainitic transformation (Si must partition out of cementite, which is
kinetically difficult)
 Without carbide formation: carbon remains in solution in austenite → retained austenite films are preserved
between bainitic ferrite sub-units (carbide-free bainite)
 This is the basis of TRIP (Transformation Induced Plasticity) steels and nanostructured bainite (Bhadeshia)
 In upper bainite: Si prevents coarse carbide formation between laths → toughness improved
Why Bainitic Microstructure Has Excellent Strength-Toughness:
 Strength: Fine ferrite sub-units (nanoscale in lower bainite) → high dislocation density, Hall-Petch
strengthening
 Toughness: Retained austenite films between sub-units absorb strain energy; no continuous brittle carbide
network
 Lower bainite: fine carbides within ferrite laths at ~55° to lath axis → more uniform stress distribution
 Upper bainite: worse toughness because carbides aggregate between sub-units → stress concentration
sites
 Overall: bainitic structures bridge the gap between soft pearlite and brittle martensite

Q6. Do you recommend the use of bainitic steel in power generation industries? Justify. With the increase in
retained austenite the scatter in toughness of bainitic steels increases — substantiate. (2019 — 5+6)
[Conceptual]
Ans: YES — Recommended, with justification:
 Power generation components (turbine rotors, steam pipes, pressure vessels) require:
o High strength at elevated temperature
o High creep resistance
o Good toughness (to resist fatigue cracking)
o Good weldability
 Bainitic steels (especially lower bainite) provide:
o High dislocation density → creep resistance
o Fine microstructure → high strength without severe loss of toughness
o Better than martensite (which requires heavy tempering and risks embrittlement)
 Used in Cr-Mo-V bainitic steels (e.g., 2.25Cr-1Mo) extensively in power plant boilers
Retained Austenite & Scatter in Toughness:
 During bainitic transformation, carbon-enriched austenite films are retained between sub-units
 Composition, amount, and morphology of retained austenite varies within the microstructure
(inhomogeneous carbon distribution)
 Some retained austenite films are mechanically stable → beneficial (crack blunting by TRIP effect)
 Some are unstable → transform to martensite upon impact loading → creates brittle martensite islands →
local crack initiation sites
 This variable stability of retained austenite leads to scatter in measured toughness (Charpy impact energy
varies widely from specimen to specimen)
 With increasing total retained austenite → more unstable regions → greater probability of brittle martensite
islands → higher toughness scatter

Q7. Why does lower bainite offer excellent combination of strength and ductility than upper bainite? Why does
bainitic transformation remain incomplete? (2021 — 8+6) [Theory]
Ans: Lower vs. Upper Bainite:
Feature Upper Bainite (400–550°C) Lower Bainite (250–400°C)
Ferrite lath size Coarser Finer
Carbide location Between ferrite sub-units Within ferrite laths at ~55°
Carbide morphology Coarse, aligned between laths Fine, precipitated inside lath
Strength Moderate High
Toughness Lower (carbides cause cracking) Higher (fine uniform carbides)
Ductility Moderate Better
Dislocation density Moderate High
Why Lower Bainite is Tougher:
 Carbides inside laths → no continuous interphase carbide film → crack propagation inhibited
 Finer ferrite units → more grain boundary area → more energy absorption
 High dislocation density within ferrite → work hardening capacity → energy absorption before fracture
Why Bainitic Transformation Remains Incomplete:
 As ferrite sub-units grow, carbon is expelled into surrounding austenite
 Austenite becomes progressively enriched in carbon
 When carbon content of austenite exceeds the T0 composition at that temperature, transformation stops
(no thermodynamic driving force for further bainite formation)
 The remaining carbon-enriched austenite is stabilized and cannot transform to bainite
 On further cooling to room temperature, this austenite may partly transform to martensite or remain as
retained austenite
 This is the T0 / incomplete reaction phenomenon (Bhadeshia's mechanistic explanation)

Q8. Why is retained austenite available during bainitic transformation? What are the reasons for excellent
strength-ductility of lower bainitic microstructure? What is austempering? Can austempering be performed in
plain carbon steel? Justify. (2022 — 6+7+5+7) [Theory]
Ans: Why Retained Austenite is Present During Bainitic Transformation:
 Carbon expelled from growing bainitic ferrite enriches the remaining austenite
 As austenite carbon content rises → Ms of that austenite drops well below room temperature
 Such austenite cannot transform to martensite at room temperature → remains retained
 Additionally, T0 constraint prevents further bainite formation → austenite pools are permanently stable at
transformation temperature
Reasons for High Strength-Ductility in Lower Bainite:
1. Very fine bainitic ferrite laths (100–300 nm) → Hall-Petch strengthening
2. High dislocation density → forest hardening
3. Fine Fe₂.₄C carbides at 55° within laths → precipitation strengthening, distribute stress uniformly
4. Retained austenite films → TRIP effect → crack blunting and energy absorption
 5. No continuous brittle cementite network (unlike upper bainite or pearlite)
Austempering:
 Process: Austenitize → rapid quench to temperature in bainitic bay of TTT (typically 250–400°C) → hold
isothermally until full bainite formation → air cool
 Avoids martensite formation → no quench cracking → no distortion
 Produces lower bainite: superior combination of hardness, strength, and toughness compared to tempered
martensite of similar hardness
Can Austempering be Performed in Plain Carbon Steel?
 Partially — with difficulty
 The C-curve (nose) of plain carbon steel TTT is very close to the y-axis (≤1 second at nose)
 Very rapid quench is required to avoid pearlite/upper bainite formation during transfer to the salt bath
 This is feasible only for thin sections of plain carbon steel
 For thick sections: alloyed steels (with Cr, Mn, Mo) are used — they shift the C-curve to longer times (better
hardenability), giving time to achieve full austempering without pearlite formation
 Therefore: plain carbon steel austempering is limited to thin sections only

Q9. What are the reasons to achieve high fracture toughness in maraging steel? (2024) [Theory]
(Answered in detail under Section G2-Q4 and D2-Q8 — see below)
💡 INSIGHT: Lower vs. upper bainite is a VERY FREQUENT question. Key points: upper bainite has
carbides between sub-units (weaker), lower bainite has finer carbide within ferrite laths (tougher).
Role of silicon (suppresses carbide precipitation) is critical for 2024 paper.

⚠ COMMON TRAP: 'Bainitic transformation remains incomplete' due to stabilisation of remaining

austenite (T0 concept). Don't confuse with martensite — both form from austenite but by different
mechanisms.

D. DIFFUSIONLESS (MARTENSITIC) TRANSFORMATION

Frequency: ★★★★★ | Focus: Mechanism, morphology, tempering, quench cracking

D1 — Martensitic Transformation Mechanism & Morphology

Q1. Describe martensitic transformation in steel. What are the effects of carbon content on morphology of
martensite? (2021 — 9+5) [Theory] [Diagram]
Ans: Mechanism of Martensitic Transformation:
1. On rapid quenching below Ms, transformation initiates simultaneously at multiple sites
2. FCC austenite lattice transforms to BCT (Body Centred Tetragonal) martensite by Bain distortion:
o Compression along one axis [001] of FCC by ~20%
o Expansion along two axes [100], [010] by ~12%
3. The transformation involves lattice-invariant shear (slip or twinning) to achieve the invariant plane strain
condition
4. No diffusion occurs — carbon atoms remain in the octahedral interstitial sites of BCT lattice (responsible for
tetragonality)
5. c/a ratio increases with carbon content: c/a = 1 + 0.046 × (wt% C)
6. Transformation is athermal — fraction of martensite depends on temperature, not time
7. Koistinen-Marburger equation: f_m = 1 − exp[−0.011(Ms − T_q)]
Effect of Carbon on Morphology:
Carbon (wt%) Martensite Morphology Accommodation Ms Temperature
<0.6% Lath (massive) martensite Slip (dislocations) >350°C
0.6–1.0% Mixed lath + plate Slip + twinning 200–350°C
>1.0% Plate (acicular) martensite Twinning (midrib) <200°C
 Lath martensite: parallel laths with high dislocation density, tougher, auto-tempers during quench
 Plate martensite: lens-shaped, midrib of transformation twins, brittle, higher residual stresses
 As carbon increases → c/a ratio increases → more tetragonality → accommodation by twinning → plate
morphology
 Higher carbon also → lower Ms → less auto-tempering → harder and more brittle

Q2. Discuss the lattice correspondence for the formation of martensite from austenite. (2019 — 8) [Theory]
[Diagram]
Ans: Bain Distortion Model:
FCC austenite → BCT martensite
Step 1: Identify Bain correspondence:
 Select an FCC unit cell. Within FCC, a body-centred tetragonal (BCT) cell can be identified:
o a_BCT = a_FCC/√2
o c_BCT = a_FCC (before distortion)
Step 2: Apply Bain Strain:
 Compress along the c-axis (z-direction): c contracts by ~20% (c/a_FCC → a_BCC)
 Expand uniformly along x and y axes by ~12%
 Result: c/a_BCT = 1 (for 0% C) → pure BCC; increases with carbon content
Summary equation:
 c_martensite = a_austenite (one axis)
 a_martensite = a_austenite/√2 (two axes)
Problem with pure Bain strain:
 Pure Bain distortion predicts a rotation of the lattice which violates the invariant line condition
 Phenomenological theory (Wechsler, Lieberman, Read — WLR theory) shows that an additional lattice-
invariant shear (slip or twinning) + rigid body rotation must accompany Bain strain to produce the observed
habit plane (irrational, e.g., {225} or {259} in Fe-C martensites)
Diagram description: Draw two overlapping unit cells — FCC (face-centred cube) with a body-centred
tetragonal cell inscribed inside. Show the c-axis compression and a-axis expansion with arrows. Label a_FCC,
a_BCT = a_FCC/√2, c_BCT = a_FCC.

Q3. Why does quench cracks develop in steel? What is austenite stabilisation? Differentiate: Martempering and
Austempering. (2019 — 6+5+6) [Theory]
Ans: Why Quench Cracks Develop:
1. During rapid quenching, the surface cools faster than the interior
2. Surface reaches Ms first → surface martensite forms → volumetric expansion (~4% volume increase)
3. Interior is still austenitic → constrains surface expansion → surface under compression
4. Later, interior transforms to martensite → expands → now pushes against already-contracted (cooled)
surface → surface placed in tension
5. Additionally: thermal gradients → differential thermal contraction stresses
6. If tensile stresses exceed the fracture strength of martensite (brittle) → quench crack forms
7. Thick sections, sharp corners, high carbon steels → more prone to quench cracking
8. Solution: Martempering (interrupted quench) to equalize temperature before martensite forms
Austenite Stabilization:
 When cooling is interrupted or retarded between Ms and Mf (isothermal hold or slow cooling), the austenite
becomes stabilized — it requires greater undercooling (lower temperature) to resume transformation
 Mechanisms: Carbon atoms diffuse to dislocations in the transformation front, pinning them (Cottrell
atmosphere) → prevents further martensite formation without additional cooling
 Also: mechanical stabilization if stress field relaxes
 Result: less martensite than expected on final cooling, more retained austenite
 Relevant in autotempering, martempering, and cryogenic treatment considerations
Martempering vs. Austempering:
Feature Martempering Austempering
Quench medium
Just above Ms (~200–300°C) In bainite bay (250–400°C)
temperature
Short — just until temperature Long — until bainite transformation
Holding time
equalizes complete
Martensite (subsequently
Product microstructure Bainite
tempered)
Obtain bainite directly, avoid quench
Purpose Reduce quench stress/cracking
cracking
Post-treatment Tempering required Generally not required
Distortion Minimal Minimal
Hardness Very high (martensite) Moderate to high (bainite)
Toughness Lower (unless well tempered) Good (especially lower bainite)

Q4. What are the reasons for alternate lamella of ferrite and cementite in pearlite but lath or plate in martensite
in a steel? (2024 — 12+13) [Conceptual]
Ans: Part A — Why Alternate Lamellae in Pearlite?
1. Nature of Transformation
Pearlite forms by a diffusion-controlled eutectoid reaction at 727°C. Both ferrite (α) and cementite (Fe₃C) must
nucleate and grow cooperatively from austenite, requiring redistribution of carbon by diffusion.
2. Carbon Rejection and Cooperative Growth
 As ferrite forms, it rejects carbon (α has max 0.022% C).
 This rejected carbon enriches the adjacent austenite → triggers cementite nucleation.
 As cementite grows, it depletes carbon from adjacent austenite → triggers ferrite nucleation again.
 This alternating process continues, producing the characteristic lamellar pattern.
3. Minimization of Diffusion Distance
The lamellar geometry minimizes the diffusion path for carbon redistribution. Shorter diffusion paths are
thermodynamically and kinetically favored. The inter-lamellar spacing S₀ is related to the degree of
undercooling:
Inter-lamellar Spacing
S₀ ∝ 1/ΔT — finer lamellae at higher undercooling (fine pearlite), coarser at smaller undercooling (coarse
pearlite)
4. Common Nucleation Site
Both ferrite and cementite share a common growth front — a cooperative edgewise growth mechanism. Neither
phase can grow independently; they grow side by side to minimize the total interfacial energy.
Part B — Why Lath or Plate in Martensite?
1. Diffusionless Transformation
Martensite forms by rapid shear (displacive) mechanism with no carbon diffusion. All atoms move cooperatively
by less than one atomic spacing. There is no separation into two phases; all carbon remains homogeneously
trapped in the BCT lattice.
2. No Phase Separation Required
Unlike pearlite, there is NO need for carbon to diffuse to form a carbon-rich phase. Therefore, no alternating
two-phase structure forms. Instead, the parent austenite transforms as a single-phase, single-crystal unit —
either a lath or plate.
3. Habit Plane and Invariant Plane Strain
The transformation occurs on a specific habit plane (invariant plane) to minimize elastic strain energy:
 The shape of the martensite unit is determined by the invariant plane strain condition.
 A flat, plate-like or lath-like shape has the lowest strain energy relative to the surrounding matrix.
 Spherical or cubic shapes would generate enormous coherency strains — thermodynamically unfavorable.
4. Why Lath vs. Plate?
Factor Lath (low C) Plate (high C)
Transformation temperature (M_s) High (>350°C) Low (<200°C)
Accommodation mechanism Dislocation slip Mechanical twinning
Lattice tetragonality Low High
Reason for shape High M_s → cross-slip → lath packets Low M_s → twinning → isolated lens pla
5. Summary of Contrast
Feature Pearlite Martensite
Transformation type Diffusion-controlled Diffusionless (shear)
Carbon redistribution Yes — into two phases No — trapped in BCT
Morphology driver Cooperative growth + diffusion Habit plane, invariant plane strain
Crystal structure α (BCC) + Fe₃C (orthorhombic) BCT (single phase)
Shape Alternate lamellae Lath or plate

Q5. How does carbon content influence the hardness of martensite and pearlite in plain carbon steel? What is
the effect of prior austenite grain size on the hardness of plain carbon steel? (2022 — 8+6) [Theory]
[Conceptual]
Ans: Effect of Carbon on Hardness:
Carbon (wt%) Martensite Hardness (HRC) Pearlite Hardness (HB)
0.1 ~25 ~120
0.2 ~35 ~140
0.4 ~50 ~165
0.6 ~60 ~185
0.8 ~65 ~200
1.0 ~67 ~230
 Martensite hardness: Increases steeply with carbon up to ~0.6% C (solid solution hardening in BCT lattice
+ tetragonality effect), then plateaus. High carbon → plate martensite → more retained austenite → slight
reduction in measurable hardness at very high carbon
 Pearlite hardness: Increases linearly with carbon because more pearlite (ferrite + cementite) is present.
Cementite itself is hard (Fe₃C ≈ 800 HV). More pearlite → higher average hardness.
 Gap between the two curves represents the advantage of hardening treatment
Effect of Prior Austenite Grain Size on Hardness:
 Larger prior austenite grain size → coarser martensite lath/plate packets → lower hardness
 Smaller grains → finer martensite packets → more grain boundary area → Hall-Petch strengthening →
higher hardness
 However, for hardenability: larger grain size is preferred (as it shifts TTT C-curve right)
 Therefore there is a trade-off: large grains improve hardenability but reduce final hardness/toughness of
martensite
D2 — Martensite Stabilisation & Associated Phenomena
Q6. What is autotempering? Why does tempering of plain carbon steel result in decrease of hardness? (2021 —
7+7) [Theory]
Ans: Autotempering:
 Occurs in low-carbon steels where Ms is high (>300°C)
 During quenching, martensite that forms at high temperatures has sufficient thermal energy for carbon to
diffuse partially before the part cools to room temperature
 Result: spontaneous partial tempering occurs during the quench itself — epsilon carbide (ε-Fe₂.₄C)
precipitates within the martensite
 Final microstructure: partially tempered martensite (lower hardness than expected for that carbon content)
 In high carbon steels: Ms is low (<200°C) → no autotempering (insufficient diffusion)
 Autotempering is beneficial: reduces brittleness, reduces quench cracking tendency in low-C steels
Why Tempering Decreases Hardness of Plain Carbon Steel:
 Stage 1 (100–250°C): Transition carbides (ε-Fe₂.₄C) precipitate from supersaturated BCT martensite →
tetragonality decreases → some hardness reduction
 Stage 2 (200–300°C): Retained austenite → lower bainite (if any) and Fe₃C
 Stage 3 (300–400°C): ε-carbide dissolves → equilibrium cementite (Fe₃C) forms; martensite lattice
becomes BCC → large drop in hardness
 Stage 4 (400–700°C): Fe₃C coarsens (spheroidization) → ferrite recrystallizes → significant further
softening
 Overall: Supersaturated carbon in BCT → progressively expelled into carbides → BCT → BCC → loss of
solid solution hardening → hardness decreases monotonically
 Cr, Mo, W cause secondary hardening (hardness increase at 500–600°C due to alloy carbide precipitation)
— this does NOT occur in plain carbon steels

Q7. What is austenite stabilisation? Differentiate Martempering and Austempering. (2019) [Theory]
Ans: Austenite stabilisation refers to any process that retains austenite in a metastable state at room
temperature (or at temperatures where martensite would otherwise have formed), thereby suppressing or
delaying the martensitic transformation.
Types of Austenite Stabilisation
A. Thermal Stabilisation
 Interrupting quenching between M_s and M_f temperatures and holding isothermally causes mechanical
stabilisation.
 The austenite undergoes stress relaxation, requiring greater activation energy for further transformation.
 Result: retained austenite that does not fully transform even on cooling to M_f.
B. Chemical Stabilisation
 Alloying elements such as C, Mn, Ni, Cr, Mo lower the M_s temperature.
 High carbon content: M_f may be below room temperature → large amount of retained austenite.
C. Mechanical Stabilisation
 Applying stress or deformation to austenite below M_s can lock the transformation by introducing
dislocations that block martensite plate growth.
Retained austenite (from stabilisation) can be detrimental (dimensional instability, lower hardness) or beneficial
(TRIP effect — Transformation Induced Plasticity). It can be reduced by sub-zero treatment (cooling below
M_f).
Martempering vs. Austempering
Feature Martempering Austempering
Objective Produce martensite with minimal distortion Produce bainite (no tempering needed)
Quench medium Just above M_s (e.g. 200–300°C) Bainite transformation range (250–550°C)
temperature
Hold time at quench Short — until temperature equalizes Long — until bainite transformation is
temperature throughout section complete
Subsequent cooling Air cooled → martensite forms uniformly Air cooled — no further transformation
(already bainite)
Final microstructure Martensite (requires tempering) Bainite (no tempering required)
Residual stresses Low (uniform transformation) Very low
Distortion/cracking risk Low compared to direct quench Very low
Suitable steels Alloy steels with high hardenability Alloy steels (plain C steel mostly unsuitable)
Hardness achieved High (martensite hardness) Moderate (lower than martensite)
Toughness Moderate (needs tempering) Good (better than tempered martensite at
same hardness)
Limitation Requires tempering step Cannot be used for large sections or plain C
steels
Draw Neat Labeled DiagramTTT diagram showing two separate cooling curves: (1) Martempering — rapid
quench to just above M_s, hold, then air cool through M_s to M_f; (2) Austempering — rapid quench to bainite
nose temperature, hold until bainite forms, then air cool. Label bainite region (B_s to B_f) and martensite region
(M_s to M_f).

Q8. Why does carbon content nearly zero in maraging steel? What is the role of aging treatment in achieving
the fracture toughness in maraging steel? (2022 — 4+7) [Theory]
Ans: Why Carbon is Nearly Zero in Maraging Steel:
 Maraging steel composition: Fe–18Ni–8Co–5Mo–Ti–Al (approximately), C < 0.03%
 Carbon causes precipitation of TiC or alloy carbides → depletes Ti and other alloying elements from the
matrix
 These elements (Ti, Mo, Ni) are needed for intermetallic precipitation hardening during aging
 Carbon also reduces toughness (embrittlement at grain boundaries)
 Very low carbon → Ms is high (~250°C) → on cooling from solution treatment, martensite forms easily with
high toughness (lath martensite, BCC, no tetragonality)
 The soft lath martensite matrix is then age hardened (not tempered) at ~480°C
Role of Aging Treatment in Fracture Toughness of Maraging Steel:
 Aging at ~480°C for 3–5 hours precipitates Ni₃Mo, Ni₃Ti, Fe₂Mo (intermetallic compounds) within lath
martensite
 These fine, coherent precipitates provide very high strength (up to 2500 MPa yield strength) by precipitation
hardening
 At peak-aged condition: fracture toughness K_Ic ≈ 80–100 MPa√m — very high for such high strength
 Reasons for high toughness:
o BCC lath martensite matrix (intrinsically tough, high dislocation density)
o Fine, uniformly dispersed precipitates → uniform stress distribution → crack tip blunting
o Reverted austenite at lath boundaries (thin films) → absorbs crack energy (TRIP-like effect)
o No grain boundary cementite or coarse carbides → no brittle fracture initiation sites
 Over-aging → precipitate coarsening → loss of strength AND toughness

💡 INSIGHT: Lattice correspondence (Bain distortion: FCC austenite → BCT martensite, contraction
along c, expansion along a) is a diagram-based answer. Carbon content effect: below 0.6% → lath
 (low-carbon), above 1% → plate (high-carbon). Ms temperature decreases with carbon — must know
the Andrews equation trend.

⚠ COMMON TRAP: Autotempering ≠ tempering. Autotempering occurs spontaneously in low-carbon

steels during quenching (Ms is high enough). Students often confuse this with martensite
decomposition during deliberate tempering.

E. DIFFUSION & MECHANISMS

Frequency: ★★☆☆☆ | Appears as part of transformation mechanism questions
Q1. Why does pearlite start/finish temperatures change with time? (links to diffusion-controlled nucleation and
growth) (2024) [Conceptual]
Q2. How does lamellar microstructure develop in 0.8 wt% plain carbon steel after annealing? (diffusion-driven
cooperative growth of ferrite + cementite) (2021) [Theory] [Diagram]

💡 INSIGHT: Diffusion is rarely a standalone question but underpins ALL pearlite, bainite, and
tempering questions. Know: Fick's laws, C diffusion in austenite, substitutional vs. interstitial diffusion,
and their role in TTT curve shape.

F. ALLOYING IN STEEL
Frequency: ★★★★☆ | Focus: Effect on TTT, hardenability, carbide formation
Q1. Why does increase in carbon in plain carbon steel enhance its hardenability? (2019 — 4) [Theory]
Ans: Why Carbon Increases Hardenability:
 Higher carbon → depresses eutectoid temperature and shifts TTT C-curve to longer times (right shift)
 Carbon dissolves in austenite → reduces the driving force for ferrite nucleation → delays pearlite start
 Higher carbon → more dissolved carbon in austenite → more solution hardening → higher martensite
hardness at any given position from Jominy end
 Carbon lowers Ms → austenite is more stable → harder to decompose → transformation starts later
 Net effect: C-curve moves right → critical cooling rate decreases → more martensite formed in slower
quenches → higher hardenability
Effect of Austenite Grain Size on Hardenability:
 Nucleation of pearlite/ferrite is heterogeneous — occurs at grain boundaries, inclusions
 Larger austenite grains → less grain boundary area per unit volume → fewer nucleation sites → slower
nucleation → transformation starts later → C-curve shifts right
 Right-shifted C-curve → slower critical cooling rate → martensite can form even in thicker sections →
higher hardenability
 Therefore: Coarser austenite grain size → higher hardenability
 Fine-grained steels have opposite effect → higher critical cooling rate → lower hardenability
 This is why controlled grain-coarsening treatment is sometimes used before final quenching in industrial
practice (though it trades off toughness)

Q2. Why does increase in carbon improve hardenability? What is the effect of austenite grain size on
hardenability? (2021 — 5+5) [Theory]
Ans: Why Cr-containing 0.3% C Steel Shows Higher Hardness After Tempering:
 Chromium forms alloy carbides (Cr₇C₃, Cr₂₃C₆) during tempering at 500–600°C
 These carbides are finer, more stable, and harder than cementite (Fe₃C)
 Precipitation of Cr-carbides during tempering → secondary hardening effect: hardness increases at high
tempering temperature instead of monotonically decreasing
 Also: Cr retards carbide coarsening (higher interfacial energy required to coarsen Cr-carbides) → fine
carbides maintained longer → sustained precipitation strengthening
 Cr also retards recovery and recrystallization of ferrite → dislocation density maintained → higher hardness
Why Tempering Enhances Ductility:
 As-quenched martensite is supersaturated in carbon → BCT lattice → very high internal stresses and high
dislocation density → brittle
 Tempering: carbon expelled into carbides → lattice becomes BCC → residual stresses relax
 Carbides become rounded (spheroidized at high temperature) → stress concentrators reduced
 Ferrite becomes softer, more deformable → plastic deformation possible before fracture
 Overall: yield strength decreases modestly; elongation and reduction in area increase significantly
 Toughness (Charpy energy) increases substantially — key reason for mandatory tempering after quenching

Q3. With the increase in Chromium content, steels containing 0.3 wt% C exhibit higher hardness after
tempering. Why? Why does tempering lead to enhancement of ductility? (2019 — 7+6) [Theory] [Conceptual]
Ans: Tempered Martensite Embrittlement (TME):
 Also called 300°C embrittlement or one-step embrittlement (distinct from temper embrittlement which
occurs at 350–550°C upon slow cooling)
 Occurs during tempering at 250–350°C (Stage 2–3 tempering)
 In molybdenum-containing steels: Mo initially retards carbide precipitation → during Stage 3, carbides
(cementite or Mo-carbides) precipitate preferentially at prior austenite grain boundaries and interlath
boundaries
 In 0.2% C + 4% Mo steel: retained austenite (present between martensite laths) transforms to cementite +
ferrite (bainite-like) during Stage 2 tempering → creates continuous cementite film along grain boundaries
 These films act as crack initiation sites → transgranular/intergranular crack propagation under low-stress
conditions → embrittlement
 Impurity segregation (P, Sn, As) to grain boundaries during tempering in Mo-containing steels exacerbates
this
 Note: temper embrittlement (350–550°C) is separate — involves grain boundary segregation of P, Sb, Sn
(reversible with rapid cooling through that range)

Q4. A steel containing 0.2 wt% C and 4 wt% Molybdenum exhibits tempered martensite embrittlement. Why?
(2019 — 6) [Conceptual]
Ans: Tempered Martensite Embrittlement (TME)
Definition
Tempered Martensite Embrittlement (TME) or 350°C embrittlement is a loss of toughness observed when
martensite is tempered in the temperature range of 250–400°C. It is distinct from temper embrittlement (which
occurs at 450–600°C).
Why does 0.2% C + 4% Mo Steel Show TME?
1. Role of Molybdenum
 Mo is a strong carbide former. In the presence of carbon, it forms Mo₂C and complex molybdenum carbides
during tempering.
 At 250–400°C, Mo promotes the formation of thin carbide films along prior austenite grain boundaries and
martensite lath boundaries.
 These carbide films embrittle the boundaries → intergranular fracture.
2. Role of Cementite (Fe₃C) Formation
 During tempering at ~250–300°C, cementite (Fe₃C) precipitates as thin plates along prior austenite grain
boundaries.
 These continuous carbide films act as crack propagation paths → embrittlement.
3. Role of Impurity Segregation
 Phosphorus (P), sulfur (S), and other impurities segregate to prior austenite grain boundaries during
tempering.
 Mo can retard this segregation at higher temperatures but not in the 250–400°C range.
 At this temperature, impurity-boundary segregation + carbide films combine to cause embrittlement.
4. Summary of Mechanism
 Transformation of retained austenite to brittle martensite/bainite during tempering (Stage IV transformation).
 Formation of thin, continuous cementite films at boundaries.
 Grain boundary segregation of P, S, Sb, Sn.
Why 0.2% C is Significant
Although the carbon content is low (0.2%), it is sufficient to form grain boundary carbide films when combined
with 4% Mo. Mo retards the conversion of ε-carbide to cementite, leading to prolonged embrittling stage during
tempering.
TME is distinguished from reversible temper embrittlement by being irreversible — re-austenitizing and
quenching is necessary to restore toughness. Mo increases susceptibility to TME while decreasing
susceptibility to temper embrittlement.

Q5. What is Holloman-Jaffe parameter? What are the uses of Holloman-Jaffe parameter? (2019 — 5+6)
[Theory]
Ans: Definition: P = T(C + log t)
Where:
 T = Tempering temperature (in Kelvin or Rankine)
 t = Tempering time (hours)
 C = constant (~20 for steel in Rankine, ~14–15 in some formulations)
Physical Basis: Time-temperature equivalence for diffusion-controlled processes during tempering (Arrhenius
kinetics)
Uses:
1. Equivalent tempering: Two different time-temperature combinations giving the same P value will produce
the same tempered hardness → allows substituting short time at high temperature for long time at low
temperature
2. Tempering schedule design: Predict final hardness for a given T and t without experimental trial
3. Process optimization: Minimize tempering time or temperature for the same result in industrial production
4. Comparing alloy steels: Different steels with different C constants → shifted P-value → allows comparison
of tempering resistance
5. Quality control: Verify if re-tempering after machining gives same properties
Example: Tempering at 600°C (873K) for 1 hr gives same result as tempering at 550°C (823K) for longer time
— P value equates the two.

Q6. What is Hultgren extrapolation? What is the use of Hultgren extrapolation in designing the heat treatments
of steel? (2022 — 6+6) [Theory] [Diagram]
Ans: What is Hultgren Extrapolation?
 A graphical method used to determine the equilibrium carbon content of austenite in equilibrium with
cementite and ferrite at a given temperature — particularly relevant for steel containing substitutional
alloying elements (Cr, Mn, Si, Mo)
 Alloying elements shift the Acm and A₁ lines on the Fe-Fe₃C diagram
 For a given alloy steel at a given temperature, the Ae₁ and Ae₃ lines must be corrected for alloy content
 Hultgren extrapolation: by extrapolating the boundaries of the γ+α region and γ+Fe₃C region to a common
point, the effective carbon activity in austenite is determined
Use in Heat Treatment Design:
 Determines the optimal austenitizing temperature for a given alloy steel to ensure complete carbide
dissolution and proper carbon content in austenite
 Essential for designing carburizing atmospheres: ensures the carbon potential in the gas phase matches
the austenite carbon activity at the surface
 Helps in predicting: which carbides dissolve first, what temperature is needed for full homogenization of
alloyed austenite
 Used in designing austempering and martempering temperatures for alloy steels — ensures the austenite
composition is correctly defined before isothermal hold

Q7. Why is carbon content nearly zero in maraging steel? What is the role of aging treatment in fracture
toughness of maraging steel? (2022 — 4+7) [Theory]
Ans: Part A — Why Near-Zero Carbon in Maraging Steel?
Maraging steels are ultra-high-strength steels containing 18–25% Ni, 8–12% Co, 3–5% Mo, 0.2–1.6% Ti, and
typically <0.03 wt% C. The reasons for minimal carbon are:
1. Carbon Causes Brittleness
 Carbon in martensite causes BCT tetragonality, high lattice strain, and brittleness.
 Maraging steels aim for excellent fracture toughness — carbon would compromise this significantly.
2. Carbon Reduces Toughness by Forming Carbides
 Carbon forms TiC, Mo₂C and other carbides at grain boundaries — causing intergranular embrittlement.
 Coarse carbides act as stress concentrators and crack initiation sites.
3. Strength is Achieved Without Carbon
 In maraging steels, strength comes from precipitation of intermetallic phases (Ni₃Mo, Ni₃Ti, Fe₂Mo) during
aging — NOT from carbon.
 The martensite in maraging steels is BCC (not BCT) → soft, ductile, and tough in as-quenched condition.
4. Eliminates Need for Tempering
 Conventional high-carbon martensite is brittle and must be tempered.
 Carbon-free maraging martensite is already tough and can be used as-quenched, strengthened only by
aging.
Part B — Role of Aging Treatment in Fracture Toughness
The Aging Process
After solution treatment and air cooling (to obtain soft BCC martensite), maraging steel is aged at 480–510°C
for 3–6 hours. During aging:
 Coherent intermetallic precipitates (Ni₃Mo, Ni₃Ti, Fe₂Mo, Fe₇Mo₆) form on dislocations and within
martensite laths.
 These precipitates cause precipitation hardening → strength increases from ~900 MPa to ~2000 MPa.
Effect of Aging on Fracture Toughness (K_IC)
Fracture Toughness
Aging Condition Hardness Reason
(K_IC)
Under-aged (short Moderate High (~120–150 Fine, coherent precipitates; dislocations cut through the
time) MPa√m)
Peak-aged Maximum Good (~80–100 Balance of strength and toughness
(optimum) MPa√m)
Over-aged (long Decreases Decreases (~50–60 Precipitate coarsening, austenite reversion, grain boun
time) MPa√m) embrittlement
Austenite Reversion
 On over-aging, reverted austenite forms at lath boundaries (due to Ni enrichment).
 In controlled amounts, reverted austenite can actually improve toughness by blunting crack tips (TRIP
effect).
  Excess reverted austenite reduces strength and dimensional stability.
The exceptional combination of high strength (~2 GPa) and good toughness (~80–100 MPa√m) in maraging
steels is only possible because carbon is absent. Carbon-free martensite provides the ductile matrix;
intermetallic precipitates provide strength without embrittlement.

💡 INSIGHT: Alloying effects on TTT: most alloying elements (Cr, Mn, Mo, Ni) shift the C-curve to the
right (retard pearlite/bainite), improving hardenability. Carbon increases Ms temperature (lowers it).
Holloman-Jaffe parameter (P = T(C + log t)) is used for tempering equivalency — a frequent short-
answer question.

⚠ COMMON TRAP: Molybdenum causes 'secondary hardening' during tempering, not softening.
Tempered martensite embrittlement in Mo-containing steels is linked to segregation at grain
boundaries — a conceptual trap.

G. ALLOY STEEL CLASSIFICATION

Frequency: ★★★★★ | Focus: Stainless steel & High-Speed Steel — VERY HIGH MARKS

G1 — Stainless Steels (Austenitic & Ferritic)

Q1. What are the alloying elements present in precipitation-hardened austenitic stainless steel? What are the
heat treatments of precipitation-hardened austenitic stainless steel? What are the strengthening mechanisms in
ferritic and austenitic stainless steels? (2024 — 5+8+12) [Theory]
Ans: Alloying Elements in PH Austenitic Stainless Steel:
 Base: Fe–18%Cr–12%Ni (austenitic SS base)
 Additional: Cu, Al, Ti, Mo, Nb (to enable precipitation hardening)
 Example grades: A-286 (Fe–15Cr–25Ni–2Ti–1.3Al); 17-4PH (Fe–17Cr–4Ni–4Cu–0.3Nb) [17-4PH is
actually martensitic PH — the truly austenitic PH SS includes A-286]
Heat Treatments:
1. Solution annealing (~980–1100°C): Dissolve all carbides and precipitates into austenite; water quench →
single-phase supersaturated austenite
2. Aging/Precipitation treatment (~650–750°C, 16–20 hours): Precipitates nucleate and grow — Ni₃Ti, Ni₃Al,
or Cu-rich clusters form within austenite matrix
3. Result: Very high strength + good corrosion resistance + moderate ductility
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Steel Type Strengthening Mechanism
Ferritic SS (e.g., Solid solution strengthening (Cr, Mo in ferrite); limited work hardening; no precipitation
430) hardening possible in simple ferritic SS
Austenitic SS (e.g., Solid solution strengthening (Cr, Ni, Mo, N); work hardening (FCC — high strain
304, 316) hardening rate); grain boundary strengthening; N addition greatly improves strength
PH Austenitic SS All of the above PLUS precipitation hardening by Ni₃Ti, Ni₃Al intermetallics; highest
(e.g., A-286) strength among SS

Q2. What is the precipitate-free zone in austenitic stainless steel? Why does the precipitate-free zone develop?
What are the processes for exclusion of the precipitate-free zone in austenitic stainless steel? (2024 — 5+8+12)
[Theory] [Conceptual]
Ans: What is PFZ?
 A narrow band (~50–200 nm wide) adjacent to grain boundaries in austenitic SS that is devoid of
precipitates (specifically Cr₂₃C₆ or other carbides)
  Visible in TEM adjacent to grain boundaries
Why Does PFZ Develop?
 Mechanism 1 — Vacancy depletion: Carbide precipitation requires vacancies for diffusion; vacancies
migrate to grain boundaries (sinks) → adjacent zone becomes vacancy-depleted → nucleation of
precipitates suppressed in this zone → PFZ
 Mechanism 2 — Solute depletion: Chromium diffuses toward grain boundaries to form Cr₂₃C₆; zone
adjacent to grain boundary becomes depleted in Cr (below threshold for precipitation) → no further Cr₂₃C₆
forms there
 Consequence: PFZ is Cr-depleted → sensitization zone → less corrosion resistant → intergranular
corrosion in aggressive environments (e.g., weld decay in marine environments)
 Also: PFZ is weaker than the precipitation-hardened matrix → preferential slip band development → stress
corrosion cracking initiation site
Elimination/Prevention of PFZ:
1. Use of low-carbon grades (304L, 316L, C < 0.03%): less Cr₂₃C₆ precipitation → less Cr depletion →
narrower/no PFZ
2. Solution annealing (re-dissolving Cr₂₃C₆) followed by rapid quenching
3. Stabilization using Ti or Nb: TiC and NbC form preferentially → tie up carbon → prevent Cr₂₃C₆ formation
→ no sensitization → no PFZ (e.g., Grade 321 with Ti, 347 with Nb)
4. Fine grain size can reduce PFZ width by changing diffusion geometry
5. Nitrogen addition: raises the critical sensitization temperature, reduces PFZ tendency

Q3. Why does sigma phase form in austenitic stainless steel? (2024 — 8+9+8) [Theory]
Ans: What is Sigma Phase (σ)?
 A hard, brittle, tetragonal intermetallic compound (FeCr composition approximately, 45–50 at% Cr)
 Forms in Fe-Cr alloys and austenitic SS containing >18% Cr
 Temperature range of formation: 600–900°C (peak rate ~750°C)
Why Does Sigma Phase Form?
 In austenitic SS with high Cr content, at intermediate temperatures (600–900°C), the Cr-Fe system tends
toward ordered intermetallic rather than disordered solid solution
 Thermodynamic driving force: At these temperatures, sigma phase has lower Gibbs energy than disordered
FCC solid solution for the local Cr-rich regions
 Mechanism: Sigma typically nucleates at grain boundaries, triple points, and twin boundaries —
heterogeneous nucleation
 In alloys with Mo, Si, Mn: these elements promote sigma formation by expanding the sigma phase field
 Slow cooling through 600–900°C (as in welding heat affected zones or service exposure) → sigma forms
 High Cr (>20%) and Mo contents → most susceptible grades (e.g., duplex SS, 316 with high Mo)
Consequences:
 Sigma phase is brittle (poor toughness, almost zero ductility)
 Removes Cr and Mo from matrix → locally reduces corrosion resistance
 Detected by: XRD, EBSD, etching with Murakami's reagent (colors sigma distinctly)
Dissolution: Heat to >1000°C followed by rapid quenching dissolves sigma phase

G2 — High-Speed Steels (HSS) & Maraging Steel

Q4. What are the reasons to achieve high fracture toughness in maraging steel? Why are high carbon and
tungsten used in high speed steel? (2024 — 8+9+8) [Theory]
Ans: Key reasons (summary):
 Ultra-low carbon → BCC lath martensite (no tetragonality) → intrinsically tough
 Aging produces fine coherent Ni₃Mo, Ni₃Ti precipitates → no grain boundary embrittlement
 Reverted austenite at lath boundaries → TRIP effect → crack blunting
 No carbides → no brittle fracture initiation at carbide-matrix interfaces
 Combination of very high strength (~1800–2500 MPa) + K_Ic > 80 MPa√m is unique to maraging steels
Why High Carbon and Tungsten in High-Speed Steel (HSS):
High Carbon (~0.7–1.5% C):
 Required to form large volume fraction of hard alloy carbides (W₂C, VC, Mo₂C, Cr₂₃C₆)
 These carbides provide wear resistance (hardness of carbides: WC ~ 2400 HV, VC ~ 2800 HV)
 Carbon also dissolves in austenite during austenitizing → after quenching → high-carbon martensite →
high matrix hardness (red hardness)
 Insufficient carbon → insufficient carbide volume → poor wear resistance
High Tungsten (~18% W in 18-4-1 grade):
 Tungsten forms W₂C and WC carbides during solidification (primary carbides) and during tempering
 These carbides are extremely hard and thermally stable → maintain hardness at elevated temperatures (up
to ~600°C) → red hardness / hot hardness → essential for cutting tools that heat up during machining
 Tungsten also: (i) raises the martensite start temperature slightly; (ii) retards carbide coarsening; (iii) raises
the eutectic temperature → allows higher austenitizing temperature → more carbide dissolution → higher
alloy content in martensite → more secondary hardening
 Secondary hardening (increase in hardness during tempering at 550–600°C) is due to W₂C and VC re-
precipitation after dissolution of primary carbides during austenitizing

Q5. What are the heat treatments of high speed steel? What is the microstructure of the high speed steel after
heat treatments? Why does high speed steel undergo brittle fracture? What are the causes for high wear
resistance of high speed steel? (2024 — 12+4+6+3) [Theory] [Diagram]
Ans: HSS Composition (18-4-1): 18% W, 4% Cr, 1% V, ~0.8% C, balance Fe
Heat Treatment Steps:
1. Annealing (~850–870°C): To soften for machining — produces spheroidized carbides in ferrite/pearlite
matrix
2. Preheating (800–850°C): Prevents thermal shock — HSS has low thermal conductivity
3. Austenitizing (~1260–1300°C, very high): Dissolves most carbides into austenite (primary M₆C carbides
partially dissolve; some remain undissolved)
4. Quenching: In air, oil, or salt bath to ~550°C then air (to minimize distortion)
5. Subzero treatment (−80°C): Converts retained austenite to martensite (Ms ~200°C, Mf well below 0°C for
this alloy)
6. Triple tempering (3× at 550–580°C, each 1–2 hrs): Each cycle: (i) tempers martensite from previous cycle;
(ii) converts some retained austenite → martensite; subsequent cycles temper this new martensite and
convert more retained austenite
Microstructure After Complete Heat Treatment:
 Tempered martensite matrix (BCC) — high strength
 Undissolved primary carbides (M₆C type: Fe₃W₃C) — provide wear resistance, grain growth prevention
 Secondary carbide precipitates (W₂C, VC, Mo₂C) — precipitated during tempering — provide secondary
hardening
 Virtually no retained austenite (after subzero + triple tempering)
Why HSS Undergoes Brittle Fracture:
 Very high carbon → high carbide volume fraction → carbide-matrix interfaces are crack initiation sites
 Primary carbides are brittle, angularly shaped → stress concentration under load
 High matrix hardness (martensite) → limited plastic deformation → cracks propagate without blunting
 Large primary carbide clusters (ledeburite eutectic) in as-cast HSS → serious stress concentration → hot
and cold working (rolling/forging) is essential to break up carbide clusters before heat treatment
 Causes of High Wear Resistance:
1. Extremely hard carbide particles (WC, VC, M₆C > 2000 HV) → resist abrasive wear
2. High matrix hardness (martensite + secondary carbides, ~65 HRC)
3. Carbides thermally stable up to 600°C → maintain hardness at cutting temperatures
4. Fine secondary carbide distribution → uniform hardness across tool edge

Q6. What is the microstructure of high speed steel at room temperature? How is grain coarsening of high speed
steel stopped and why? How is the amount of carbides in high speed steel controlled and why? What is the
need of subzero treatment in high speed steel heat treatment? (2022 — 3+9+8+5) [Theory]
Ans:Microstructure of HSS at Room Temperature (After Annealing):
 Spheroidized carbides (M₂C, M₆C, MC type) uniformly distributed in ferrite/pearlite matrix
 Hardness ~230–250 HB — machinable condition
After Complete Heat Treatment:
 Tempered martensite + secondary alloy carbides + residual primary undissolved carbides + negligible
retained austenite
How Grain Coarsening is Stopped:
 Undissolved primary carbides (especially M₆C) at grain boundaries and within grains act as physical
barriers to grain boundary migration (Zener pinning mechanism)
 Even at very high austenitizing temperature (1260–1300°C), these undissolved carbides prevent excessive
grain growth
 If temperature exceeds carbide dissolution limit → grain coarsening occurs rapidly (no pinning particles) →
seriously reduces toughness and mechanical properties
How Carbide Amount is Controlled:
 Austenitizing temperature controls how much carbide dissolves into austenite:
o Too low T → insufficient carbide dissolution → low alloy content in martensite → poor secondary
hardening and hardness
o Too high T → excessive carbide dissolution → grain coarsening; if all carbides dissolve, no wear
resistance particles remain
o Optimal temperature (1260–1280°C for M2 HSS): partial dissolution — enough alloy in austenite for
secondary hardening, undissolved carbides remain for wear resistance and grain pinning
 Alloy composition (W, Cr, V, Mo content) and carbon content determine the equilibrium carbide fraction at a
given temperature
Need for Subzero Treatment:
 After quenching HSS from austenitizing temperature, large amounts of retained austenite (30–50%) remain
because:
o Very high alloy content → Ms is low (~200°C), Mf is well below room temperature (−100°C)
o Normal quench to room temperature → only partial martensite transformation
 Retained austenite is soft and reduces hardness
 Subzero treatment (−70 to −80°C in dry ice/acetone or liquid nitrogen) → temperature crosses Mf →
additional martensite forms → more complete martensite transformation
 This martensite is then tempered in the subsequent tempering cycles
 Without subzero treatment: more retained austenite → lower hardness → lower wear resistance → poor
tool performance

💡 INSIGHT: Stainless steel and HSS were the ENTIRE Question 1 (compulsory, 25 marks) in 2024.
These topics are now clearly in the syllabus. Key for SS: sensitisation, Cr depletion at grain
boundaries, PFZ (precipitate-free zone), sigma phase. Key for HSS: 18-4-1 composition, triple
 tempering necessity, subzero treatment to convert retained austenite.

⚠ COMMON TRAP: Sigma phase in austenitic SS is a BCC intermetallic compound of Fe-Cr, forms
between 600–850°C, causes embrittlement — do NOT confuse with precipitation hardening phases.

H. HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS

Frequency: ★★★★★ | Focus: Tempering stages, annealing of hypereutectoid, normalising

H1 — Annealing & Normalising

Q1. What is the normalising temperature of the hypereutectoid steel? Justify. (2019 — 5) [Theory]
Ans: Normalizing Temperature:
 Hypereutectoid steels (C > 0.8%) are normalized by heating to above Acm (typically 50°C above)
 Example: 1.0% C steel → Acm ≈ 900°C → normalize at ~950°C
 Then air cool
Why Above Acm (Not Just Above Ac₁)?
 Below Acm but above Ac₁: structure is austenite + proeutectoid cementite → cementite network at grain
boundaries is NOT dissolved
 This cementite network is continuous and brittle → severely reduces toughness and ductility
 Heating above Acm → all cementite dissolves → fully austenitic structure → uniform carbon distribution
 On air cooling from above Acm: carbon precipitates as fine, discontinuous cementite (not the dangerous
continuous network)
 Fine pearlite + fine distributed cementite → improved toughness vs. furnace-cooled annealed structure
 However: risk of grain coarsening if too far above Acm → normalized temperature must be controlled

Q2. What is stress relief annealing? State the normalising heat treatment conditions for hyper-eutectoid steels.
(2021 — 7+7) [Theory]
Ans: same as above
Q3. Is tempering imparted after annealing in hyper-eutectoid steel? Substantiate. What is the annealing
temperature of hyper-eutectoid steel? Justify. (2022 — 7+6) [Theory]
Ans: Is Tempering Done After Annealing Hypereutectoid Steel?
 NO — Tempering is not applied after annealing
 Tempering is used after quenching/hardening to reduce brittleness of martensite
 After annealing, the steel is soft (pearlite + spheroidized cementite) — no martensite is present
 There is no brittle martensite to temper → tempering is unnecessary and meaningless after annealing
 The purpose of annealing is already to achieve a soft, machinable structure → tempering cannot add any
benefit and is not part of the annealing process
Annealing Temperature of Hypereutectoid Steel:
 Subcritical annealing (Spheroidizing annealing): Heat to just below Ac₁ (700–720°C) or cycle just above
and below Ac₁
 Why below Ac₁ (not above Acm)?
o Heating above Acm and slow furnace cooling → coarse continuous cementite network → brittle
o Subcritical annealing → cementite lamellae in pearlite dissolve and re-precipitate as spheroids
(globular cementite in ferrite matrix)
o Spheroidized structure → softest, most machinable form of hypereutectoid steel
o Spheroidized cementite → minimum stress concentration → best formability
  For full annealing of hypereutectoid steel (rarely done industrially): heat slightly above Ac₁ only → never
above Acm (to avoid cementite network formation on cooling)

Q4. In what ways can wear resistance be improved in hypereutectoid steel? (2023S — 8) [Theory]
Ans: Methods:
1. Spheroidizing followed by hardening + tempering: Dissolve cementite in austenite → quench to form high-
carbon martensite → light temper at 150–200°C → high hardness (60–65 HRC) → good wear resistance
2. Induction hardening: Surface heating above Ac₁ + rapid self-quench → surface martensite → hard wear-
resistant case, tough core
3. Carburizing is NOT recommended (already high C) — instead, nitriding can add surface hardness
4. Austempering: Produce lower bainite structure — good wear resistance + toughness (better than tempered
martensite at same hardness for sliding wear applications)
5. Ensuring fine undissolved cementite particles: Controlled austenitizing temperature → some cementite
remains → acts as hard phase within martensite → enhances abrasive wear resistance (similar to HSS
approach)

H2 — Hardening & Tempering

Q5. Discuss the microstructure changes that take place during tempering of a steel containing 0.4 wt% carbon.
(2019 — 8) [Theory] [Diagram]
Ans:Stage 1 (100–200°C):
 As-quenched martensite (BCT, high carbon supersaturation) → ε-iron carbide (Fe₂.₄C, hexagonal)
precipitates as fine rods/discs on {100} planes
 Martensite loses some carbon → tetragonality decreases slightly
 Small hardness drop
Stage 2 (200–300°C):
 Retained austenite (if present — small amount in 0.4% C) → decomposes to lower bainite structure (ferrite
+ Fe₃C)
 Hardness may remain roughly constant or slightly decrease
Stage 3 (300–400°C):
 ε-carbide dissolves → equilibrium cementite (Fe₃C) forms as thin platelets (Widmanstätten pattern)
 All tetragonality lost: martensite → ferrite (BCC) + Fe₃C
 Major hardness drop occurs here
 Residual stresses relieve significantly
 Microstructure: tempered martensite — fine lath structure with Fe₃C platelets visible at grain boundaries
and interfaces
Stage 4 (400–700°C):
 Fe₃C platelets coarsen and spheroidize (driven by surface energy minimization)
 Ferrite recovers and recrystallizes
 At very high tempering (~650–700°C): coarse spheroidized cementite in equiaxed ferrite → maximum
ductility and toughness, minimum hardness
 Microstructure: sorbite (fine tempered martensite at 400–500°C) → troostite (at 550–650°C) → tempered
martensite with spheroidal carbides (>650°C)
Diagram description: Draw hardness vs. tempering temperature curve. Mark Stages 1–4. Show monotonically
decreasing hardness with inflection points at ~200°C and ~350°C. For Mo-containing steels: show secondary
hardening hump at 500–600°C.

Q6. A steel containing 0.2 wt% C and 4 wt% Mo exhibits tempered martensite embrittlement. Why? (2019 — 6)
[Conceptual]
Ans: Tempered Martensite Embrittlement (TME)
Definition
Tempered Martensite Embrittlement (TME) or 350°C embrittlement is a loss of toughness observed when
martensite is tempered in the temperature range of 250–400°C. It is distinct from temper embrittlement (which
occurs at 450–600°C).
Why does 0.2% C + 4% Mo Steel Show TME?
1. Role of Molybdenum
 Mo is a strong carbide former. In the presence of carbon, it forms Mo₂C and complex molybdenum carbides
during tempering.
 At 250–400°C, Mo promotes the formation of thin carbide films along prior austenite grain boundaries and
martensite lath boundaries.
 These carbide films embrittle the boundaries → intergranular fracture.
2. Role of Cementite (Fe₃C) Formation
 During tempering at ~250–300°C, cementite (Fe₃C) precipitates as thin plates along prior austenite grain
boundaries.
 These continuous carbide films act as crack propagation paths → embrittlement.
3. Role of Impurity Segregation
 Phosphorus (P), sulfur (S), and other impurities segregate to prior austenite grain boundaries during
tempering.
 Mo can retard this segregation at higher temperatures but not in the 250–400°C range.
 At this temperature, impurity-boundary segregation + carbide films combine to cause embrittlement.
4. Summary of Mechanism
 Transformation of retained austenite to brittle martensite/bainite during tempering (Stage IV transformation).
 Formation of thin, continuous cementite films at boundaries.
 Grain boundary segregation of P, S, Sb, Sn.
Why 0.2% C is Significant
Although the carbon content is low (0.2%), it is sufficient to form grain boundary carbide films when combined
with 4% Mo. Mo retards the conversion of ε-carbide to cementite, leading to prolonged embrittling stage during
tempering.

Q7. With the increase in Chromium content in steels containing 0.3 wt% C, exhibits higher hardness after
tempering. Why? Why does tempering lead to enhancement of ductility? (2019 — 7+6) [Theory]
Ans: Part A — Why Cr Increases Hardness After Tempering?
1. Secondary Hardening Phenomenon
When Cr-containing steels are tempered, an initial softening occurs (dissolution of ε-carbide and formation of
cementite) but at higher tempering temperatures (500–600°C), hardness increases again. This is
called secondary hardening.
2. Chromium Carbide Precipitation
 Cr is a strong carbide former. During tempering at 450–600°C, the iron cementite (Fe₃C) is
gradually replaced by chromium carbides: Cr₇C₃ and Cr₂₃C₆.
 These Cr carbides precipitate as fine, coherent particles within the martensite matrix.
 These fine precipitates cause precipitation hardening — blocking dislocation movement.
3. Retardation of Softening
 Cr retards the coarsening of carbides (Ostwald ripening) at tempering temperatures.
 Fine carbides persist longer → higher hardness is maintained for a wider range of tempering conditions.
 The effect increases with Cr content — more Cr → more Cr carbides → more secondary hardening.
4. Stabilization of Martensite
 Cr retards recovery and recrystallization of the martensite matrix.
  Dislocations are retained longer → maintains work hardening contribution to strength.
Draw Neat Labeled DiagramGraph of Hardness (HRC) vs. Tempering Temperature (°C) for plain carbon steel
vs. Cr-steel. Plain C: monotonically decreasing. Cr-steel: decreases, shows a hardness minimum around
400°C, then increases (secondary hardening peak at ~520°C), then decreases. Mark the secondary hardening
peak.
Part B — Why Does Tempering Enhance Ductility?
Changes During Tempering
Tempering Stage Temperature Process Effect on Ductility
Stage 1 100–200°C ε-carbide precipitation, carbon migration Slight improvement
Stage 2 200–300°C Retained austenite → bainite Slight improvement
Stage 3 250–350°C ε-carbide dissolves, Fe₃C (cementite) forms Moderate improvement
Stage 4 350–700°C Recovery, recrystallization, carbide spheroidization Major improvement
Reasons for Ductility Enhancement
 Reduction of internal stresses: As-quenched martensite has high residual stresses (from volume
expansion). Tempering relaxes these stresses by dislocation rearrangement (recovery) → less likelihood of
brittle fracture.
 Reduction of BCT tetragonality: Carbon migrates out of interstitial sites → martensite approaches BCC
structure → more slip systems available → higher ductility.
 Carbide spheroidization: Sharp cementite plates transform into spherical particles → removes stress
concentration sites → increases elongation and reduction in area.
 Lath boundary recovery: Dislocation tangles recover → more uniform dislocation distribution → better
plastic flow.
 Retained austenite decomposition: Brittle transformation products replaced by stable phases → improved
toughness.
The hardness-ductility trade-off in tempering is captured by the Hollomon-Jaffe parameter: higher tempering
temperature and time → greater ductility but lower hardness. Cr shifts this curve upward — maintaining
hardness while still improving ductility.

Q8. What is Holloman-Jaffe parameter? What are the uses? (2019 — 5+6) [Theory]
Ans: Hollomon-Jaffe (H-J) Parameter
Definition
The Hollomon-Jaffe (H-J) tempering parameter (also called the Larson-Miller-type parameter for tempering) is
a combined time-temperature parameter that describes the equivalence of different tempering time and
temperature combinations in producing the same hardness (or degree of tempering).
Formula
Hollomon-Jaffe Parameter
P = T (C + log t)

Where:
T = Absolute tempering temperature (Kelvin)
t = Tempering time (hours)
C = Material constant (~14–21, depending on carbon content; typical value ~14.44 for carbon steels)

or equivalently: P = T × (log t + C) × 10⁻³ (scaled form)

Physical Meaning
 The parameter captures the fact that tempering is a thermally activated diffusion-controlled process.
 A short time at high temperature can produce the same result as a long time at lower temperature — if both
give the same H-J parameter value.
 Example: Tempering at 500°C for 1 hr may give the same hardness as tempering at 450°C for 10 hrs.
Uses of the Hollomon-Jaffe Parameter
1. Prediction of Hardness After Tempering
 A master tempering curve (Hardness vs. H-J parameter) can be developed for a given steel.
 For any desired hardness, the required combination of temperature and time can be directly read off.
2. Equivalence of Tempering Conditions
 Process engineers can substitute one tempering condition for another without changing the final properties.
 Useful when furnace equipment or cycle time constraints require changing one parameter.
3. Quality Control in Heat Treatment
 Used to verify that a given heat treatment cycle has achieved the required tempering degree.
 If H-J parameter is calculated and hardness predicted, it can be compared to measured hardness for
quality assurance.
4. Autotempering Assessment
 During quenching of low-carbon/alloy steels, the specimen does not cool instantaneously — autotempering
occurs.
 The H-J parameter can estimate the equivalent tempering effect produced by the heat of quench itself.
5. Designing Tempering Schedules for Complex Geometries
 Large components have temperature gradients. The H-J parameter helps predict the hardness variation
from surface to core based on local time-temperature history.
The constant C in the H-J equation is empirically determined. Higher carbon steels have slightly higher values
of C (~15–21), reflecting stronger carbide interactions. The master curve approach using H-J parameter is
widely adopted in industrial heat treatment practice.

Q9. Why does increase in carbon improve hardenability? What is the effect of austenite grain size on
hardenability? (2021) [Theory]
Ans: Hardenability — Definition
Hardenability is the ability of a steel to be hardened to a given depth on quenching. It is not the same as
hardness — it measures how deep martensite can form. Measured by the Jominy End-Quench Test.
Why Carbon Increases Hardenability
1. Carbon Suppresses Diffusion-Controlled Transformations
 Higher carbon content lowers the M_s and M_f temperatures, indicating thermodynamic stability of
austenite.
 Carbon retards the nucleation and growth of ferrite, pearlite, and bainite during cooling — shifts TTT C-
curves to the right.
 With TTT curves shifted right, more time is available to cool below M_s without forming pearlite → deeper
martensite formation.
2. Carbon Stabilizes Austenite
 Carbon dissolves in austenite and provides thermodynamic stability to the FCC structure.
 Higher C content → greater driving force needed to nucleate ferrite/cementite → longer incubation period
→ shifted TTT curves.
3. Carbon Increases Critical Cooling Rate (CCR)
 The critical cooling rate (minimum rate to fully form martensite) decreases with increasing carbon.
 Lower CCR means a slower (gentler) quench can still produce full martensite → better hardenability.
Effect of Carbon on M_s
M_s decreases by ~423°C per wt% C (Andrews equation).
Higher C → lower M_s → wider austenite stability range on cooling → higher hardenability.
Effect of Austenite Grain Size on Hardenability
1. Coarse Grains → Higher Hardenability
 Grain boundaries are nucleation sites for ferrite, pearlite, and bainite.
 Coarse austenite grains → less grain boundary area per unit volume → fewer nucleation sites → slower
transformation rates → TTT curves shift right.
  Result: critical cooling rate is lower → steel can be hardened to greater depth → higher hardenability.
2. Fine Grains → Lower Hardenability
 Fine grains → large grain boundary area → many nucleation sites → faster pearlite/bainite formation.
 Harder to avoid diffusion-controlled transformation → martensite only forms near the surface → lower
hardenability.
Austenite Grain Size Nucleation Sites TTT C-Curves Hardenability
Fine (ASTM 8–10) Many Shifted LEFT Lower
Coarse (ASTM 1–4) Few Shifted RIGHT Higher
ASTM grain size number N: finer grains have higher ASTM number. Grain coarsening by high-temperature
austenitizing improves hardenability — used in high-alloy tool steels. However, it reduces toughness, so
balance is critical.

Q10. What is autotempering? Why does tempering of plain carbon steel result in decrease of hardness? (2021
— 7+7) [Theory]
Ans: Autotempering (also called self-tempering) refers to the tempering of martensite that occurs
spontaneously during the quenching operation itself, before the component reaches room temperature.
Mechanism
 In steels with a high M_s temperature (typically >300°C), martensite begins to form at high temperatures
during quenching.
 The latent heat of the martensitic transformation, combined with the slower-cooling core, keeps the early-
formed martensite at an elevated temperature for a significant time.
 This thermal exposure is sufficient to cause partial carbon diffusion and precipitation of transition carbides
(ε-carbide) within the martensite — i.e., the martensite tempers itself.
Conditions Favoring Autotempering
 High M_s temperature (low carbon and alloy content)
 Low carbon content (< ~0.2% C) — carbon diffuses quickly at high M_s temperatures
 Thick sections (slower surface cooling, higher temperature maintained longer)
 Low conductivity quench media
Effects of Autotempering
 Reduced hardness compared to theoretically predicted martensite hardness
 Improved toughness and reduced brittleness — beneficial for many applications
 Coarser ε-carbide precipitation than in furnace tempering
 Can make subsequent formal tempering less effective (some softening already achieved)
Autotempering is prominent in low-carbon steels (e.g., 0.1–0.2% C) used for structural applications. It helps
produce the desirable tough-but-strong lath martensite microstructure without a separate tempering furnace
step.
Part B — Why Does Tempering Decrease Hardness of Plain Carbon Steel?
Origin of Hardness in As-Quenched Martensite
 Hardness in martensite arises from: (a) carbon in solid solution causing lattice distortion (BCT
tetragonality), (b) high dislocation density, and (c) fine grain size (lath boundaries).
 The dominant contribution is from carbon supersaturation in the BCT lattice.
Softening Mechanisms During Tempering
Stage 1 (100–250°C) — Minor Softening
 Carbon atoms cluster and precipitate as ε-carbide (Fe₂₄C) — hexagonal, coherent.
 BCT tetragonality decreases → lattice distortion reduces → slight softening.
Stage 2 (200–300°C) — Moderate Change
 Retained austenite transforms to bainite or lower bainite → can cause slight hardness increase.
 This stage can temporarily offset softening in high-carbon steels.
Stage 3 (250–350°C) — Significant Softening
 ε-carbide dissolves and cementite (Fe₃C) forms.
 Martensite approaches BCC structure (c/a → 1) → major loss of solid solution strengthening.
 Hardness decreases significantly.
Stage 4 (350–700°C) — Major Softening
 Recovery and recrystallization of martensite — dislocation density decreases dramatically.
 Carbide spheroidization: plate-like Fe₃C → spherical particles (lower surface energy).
 Grain growth: subgrain boundaries migrate and coalesce.
 Result: well-annealed ferrite matrix with spheroidal carbides → substantial hardness decrease.
Tempering Temp. Main Change Effect on Hardness
100–250°C ε-carbide precipitation Slight decrease
200–300°C Retained austenite → bainite Slight increase (high C steels)
250–350°C Fe₃C forms, BCT → BCC Moderate decrease
350–700°C Recovery, spheroidization Major decrease

Q11. What is ausforming? What is the thermomechanical treatment to produce ferrite and spherical cementite
in the microstructure of a steel? What is zerolling? (2024 — 7+11+7) [Theory]
Ans: Part A — Ausforming
Definition
Ausforming (Austenite Forming) is a thermomechanical treatment in which the steel is deformed (worked) while
in the metastable austenite condition, i.e., in the bainite bay (metastable zone) of the TTT diagram — below the
pearlite nose but above the M_s temperature. The deformed austenite is then quenched to form martensite.
Process Steps
1. Austenitize at appropriate temperature.
2. Rapidly cool to the metastable zone (typically 450–550°C), fast enough to avoid pearlite and bainite
formation.
3. Deform (roll, forge, extrude) the austenite by 50–95% reduction in area.
4. Quench immediately to form martensite before bainite starts.
5. Temper to relieve stresses.
Draw Neat Labeled DiagramTTT diagram with bainite bay (the metastable zone between pearlite nose and
bainite nose, with wide separation). Show ausforming path: quench to bainite bay → hold and deform →
quench to martensite.
Properties Achieved
 UTS: 2000–3000 MPa (exceptionally high)
 High toughness and ductility compared to conventional quenched martensite at same strength
 Fine martensite laths with high dislocation substructure → superior strength
Mechanism
 Deformation introduces high dislocation density in austenite.
 On quenching, martensite inherits this dislocation substructure → extra work-hardening contribution.
 Fine austenite grain size from deformation → finer martensite plates → improved toughness.
Requirements
 Steel must have a wide bainite bay on the TTT diagram — possible only with certain alloy steels (Cr-Mo-V,
Si steels).
 Not suitable for plain carbon steels (narrow bainite bay, insufficient time for deformation).
Part B — Thermomechanical Treatment for Ferrite + Spherical Cementite
To produce a microstructure of ferrite matrix with fine spherical cementite particles (spheroidized
microstructure), the following thermomechanical route is used:
Process — Controlled Rolling + Spheroidization Annealing
 Step 1: Hot Rolling in the Two-Phase (α + γ) Region
 Hot roll the steel just below the A₃ temperature (in α + γ region) — intercritical rolling.
 This refines both the ferrite grain size and breaks up cementite plates into coarser fragments.
Step 2: Controlled Cooling or Isothermal Annealing
 Slow cool or isothermally anneal just below A₁ (690–720°C) — subcritical annealing / spheroidization
annealing.
 At these temperatures, cementite has high interfacial energy → surface energy minimization drives
carbides to become spherical.
 Fine, fragmented cementite from deformation has higher curvature → drives faster spheroidization.
Step 3: Warm Rolling or Cyclic Annealing (Alternative)
 Cyclic annealing: Repeatedly cycling above and below A₁ causes repeated dissolution and re-precipitation
of carbides → spheroidal morphology develops faster.
Why Spherical Cementite is Desirable
 Best combination of machinability (soft ferrite matrix) and toughness (no sharp carbide plates).
 Required before cold drawing/cold heading of high-carbon wire.
 Used for bearing steels, tool steels before hardening.
Part C — Zerolling
Definition
Zerolling is a thermomechanical treatment in which the steel is deformed (rolled) in the martensite condition —
i.e., at room temperature or slightly above, after martensite has already formed. It combines cold deformation
with the martensite transformation.
Process
1. Austenitize and quench → form martensite.
2. Immediately cold roll or deform the martensite (before tempering).
3. Temper.
Mechanism and Effects
 Cold deformation of martensite further increases dislocation density and refines the substructure.
 Tempering after deformation produces very fine, uniformly distributed carbides — more effective
strengthening.
 Results in higher strength than conventional tempered martensite.
 Also causes strain-induced transformation of any retained austenite → more complete martensite
conversion.
Comparison
Feature Ausforming Zerolling
Stage of deformation Metastable austenite (above M_s) As-quenched martensite (below M_s)
Temperature of deformation 450–550°C (bainite bay) Room temperature (cold)
Strength level Very high (2000–3000 MPa) High (1500–2500 MPa)
Mechanism Dislocation substructure inherited Cold work + fine carbide

💡 INSIGHT: Tempering stages are frequently examined: Stage 1 (100–200°C): epsilon carbide
precipitation; Stage 2 (200–300°C): retained austenite → bainite; Stage 3 (300–400°C): Fe₃C forms,
martensite fully tempered; Stage 4 (400+°C): coarsening. These stages connect to hardness vs.
temperature curves.
I. ADVANCED HEAT TREATMENT PROCESSES
Frequency: ★★★★☆ | Focus: Ausforming, Martempering, Austempering, Zerolling
Q1. What is ausforming? What is the thermomechanical treatment to produce ferrite and spherical cementite in
the microstructure of a steel? What is zerolling? (2024 — 7+11+7) [Theory]
Q2. Why does quench cracks develop in steel? What is austenite stabilisation? Differentiate Martempering and
Austempering. (2019 — 6+5+6) [Theory] [Diagram]
Ans: Part A — Why Quench Cracks Develop in Steel
Mechanism of Quench Cracking
Quench cracking is caused by excessive thermal and transformational stresses generated during rapid
quenching. These stresses exceed the fracture strength of the steel.
1. Thermal Stresses
 Rapid quenching creates a temperature gradient — surface cools faster than the core.
 The cold surface contracts (compressive) while the hot core is still expanding (tensile).
 Initially, the surface is under tension when the core is rigid → may crack the surface.
2. Transformation Stresses (Volume Expansion)
 Martensite formation is accompanied by a volume expansion of ~3–4% (FCC → BCT).
 The surface transforms to martensite first → expands → puts the surface in compression.
 Later, the core transforms → expands → core pushes outward → surface is placed in tension.
 If this tensile stress exceeds fracture strength → quench crack.
3. Factors Increasing Quench Crack Tendency
 High carbon content (increases brittleness of martensite)
 Large section sizes (greater temperature gradient)
 Sharp corners, notches, deep tool marks (stress concentrators)
 Very severe quench media (brine, water)
 Retained austenite pockets (later transforming regions create stress concentration)
 High hardenability steels (deep martensite transformation → more stress)
Prevention of Quench Cracking
 Use martempering (quench to just above M_s to equalize temperature)
 Use milder quench media (oil instead of water)
 Preheat before quenching
 Temper immediately after quenching (before martensite becomes too brittle)
 Avoid stress concentrators by proper design
 Use steels with lower carbon or alloying for hardenability without extreme brittleness
Part B — Austenite Stabilisation
(See detailed answer in Q6 above — full definition, types: thermal, chemical, mechanical, and effects on
retained austenite.)
Part C — Martempering vs. Austempering
(See comprehensive comparison table in Austenite Stabilization question above.)
Draw Neat Labeled Diagrams(1) Quench crack diagram: cross-section of a quenched cylinder showing surface
under tension (arrows pointing outward) after core transformation — crack path along prior austenite grain
boundaries. (2) TTT diagram showing martempering and austempering paths as described in Austenite
Stabilization question

Q3. What is austempering? Can austempering be performed in plain carbon steel? Justify. (2022) [Theory]
Ans: Austempering — Definition
Austempering is an isothermal heat treatment in which austenitized steel is quenched into a bath maintained at
a temperature between the M_s and the pearlite nose (typically 250–550°C) and held there until the
austenite completely transforms to bainite, followed by air cooling.
 Process Steps
1. Austenitize at 800–950°C.
2. Quench rapidly into molten salt/lead bath at the bainite transformation temperature (250–550°C), fast
enough to bypass the pearlite nose.
3. Hold isothermally until bainite transformation is complete (time from minutes to hours depending on steel
and temperature).
4. Air cool to room temperature — no further transformation occurs.
Products and Properties
 At lower temperatures (250–350°C): Lower bainite — high hardness, good toughness
 At higher temperatures (400–550°C): Upper bainite — lower hardness, better ductility
 Hardness range: 35–55 HRC depending on temperature and carbon content
 No tempering required — bainite is already in a stable, less-stressed state
Advantages Over Conventional Hardening
 No distortion or quench cracking (isothermal transformation, no steep thermal gradient)
 Better toughness than tempered martensite at same hardness
 Eliminates tempering step → cost savings
Can Austempering be Performed in Plain Carbon Steel?
Limitation — Narrow "Bainite Bay"
In plain carbon steels, the TTT diagram has a very narrow or non-existent bainite bay — the pearlite nose and
bainite nose are very close together or overlapping. This makes it practically impossible to:
 Quench fast enough to bypass the pearlite nose, AND
 Still allow sufficient time to complete bainite transformation before martensite starts to form.
Critical Cooling Rate Problem
 Plain carbon steels have a high critical cooling rate — the quench must be extremely rapid to avoid pearlite.
 Such extreme quenching (brine, water) causes the sample temperature to fall below M_s before bainite
transformation can complete — martensite forms instead.
Section Size Limitation
 For plain carbon steels, austempering is only feasible for very thin sections (<5 mm), where cooling is fast
enough to bypass the pearlite nose.
 Larger sections have insufficient cooling rate at the core → pearlite forms before bainite completion.
Alloy Steel Solution
 Alloying elements (Mn, Ni, Cr, Mo, Si) shift both the pearlite and bainite noses to the right and separate
them, creating a wider bainite bay.
 This gives sufficient time to complete the isothermal bainite transformation before martensite forms.
 Example: Medium-carbon alloy steels (e.g., 4340, 9260) are excellent candidates for austempering.
Steel Type Bainite Bay Austempering Feasibility
Plain carbon (>5mm section) Narrow / absent NOT feasible for thick sections
Plain carbon (thin, <5mm) Marginally adequate Possible but limited
Low alloy steel (Mn, Cr, Mo) Wide Fully feasible
High alloy steel Very wide Easily feasible

Q4. Do you recommend carburising treatment to a steel containing 0.3 wt% carbon? Justify. Why does nitriding
offer higher hardness than carburising treatment of a steel? (2019 — 5+5) [Theory] [Conceptual]
Q5. What is the need of subzero treatment in high speed steel heat treatment? (2022) [Theory]
Ans: Subzero Treatment in HSS Heat Treatment
(Already answered in detail under G2-Q6 above)
Brief recap:
  Ms is ~200°C, Mf is ~−100°C for 18-4-1 HSS
 Room temperature quench leaves 30–50% retained austenite (soft)
 Subzero treatment at −70 to −80°C → additional martensite formation → harder, more wear-resistant
structure
 Necessary before tempering → ensures maximum conversion of austenite → maximum secondary
hardening during tempering

💡 INSIGHT: Ausforming (deformation of metastable austenite in the bay of the TTT diagram before
quenching) produces ultra-high strength. Zerolling = thermomechanical treatment below Ar1 to
produce spheroidised cementite in ferrite. These are 2024 exam focus areas — prepare fully.

J. SURFACE ENGINEERING PROCESSES

Frequency: ★★★★★ | Focus: Carburising, Nitriding, Induction — Always present

J1 — Carburising
Q1. What is carburising? What are the different types of carburising? In what way can the core microstructure of
the carburised sample be refined? (2023S — 7+10+8) [Theory]
 Ans: A case-hardening process where carbon is diffused into the surface of a low-carbon steel (0.1–0.3%
C) at elevated temperature (typically 900–950°C) to enrich the surface carbon to 0.8–1.2%
 Surface becomes hardenable; core retains toughness
Types of Carburizing:
Type Medium Temperature Advantages Disadvantages
Charcoal + BaCO₃ Slow, non-uniform,
Pack carburizing 900–950°C Simple, low cost
(energizer) in box messy
CH₄, C₃H₈, CO-CO₂ Controllable C Gas handling
Gas carburizing 900–950°C
atmosphere potential, fast, clean required
Liquid/Salt bath Cyanide salts Toxic salts, disposal
800–870°C Fast, uniform
carburizing (NaCN, KCN) problems
Vacuum Low-pressure C₂H₂ Fastest, cleanest, no High equipment
900–1050°C
carburizing or CH₄ intergranular oxidation cost
Refinement of Core Microstructure after Carburizing:
 After carburizing at ~930°C: core austenite grains may have coarsened (long time at high temperature)
 Single quench from carburizing temperature → case hardened but core may be coarse
 Double quench process for refinement:
1. First quench from ~870°C (above Ac₃ of core, ~0.2% C): refines core grain structure → fine core
martensite
2. Reheat to ~760°C (above Ac₁ of case, ~0.8% C): austenitizes case
3. Second quench: hardens case (fine grain martensite in case)
4. Temper at 150–200°C
 Result: Refined core + hard case + minimal distortion
 For fine-grained steels (Al-killed steels with AlN grain refiners): single quench may suffice

Q2. How are the temperature and time of carburising determined? How does the microstructure from the
surface to the centre of the specimen after carburising change? What is the heat treatment to improve the
mechanical property of the carburised component? What is the need of multiple tempering after carburising?
(2022 — 6+6+7+6) [Theory] [Diagram]
Ans: How Temperature and Time of Carburizing are Determined:
Temperature:
 Higher temperature → faster diffusion of C (D_C increases exponentially with T)
 Typical: 900–950°C (austenite region, above Ac₃ of low-C steel)
 Above 950°C: excessive grain coarsening, furnace/fixture life reduced
 D_C in austenite at 930°C ≈ 2×10⁻¹¹ m²/s
Time:
 Case depth (x) required is determined by application (typically 0.5–2 mm for gears)
 Using simplified diffusion equation: x = K√(Dt)
 Or Fick's 2nd law solution: C(x,t) = C_s − (C_s − C_0) × erf(x/2√(Dt))
 Rearranging for required depth and concentration → solve for t
Microstructure from Surface to Centre:
Zone Region Carbon Microstructure
Outer
Surface 0.8–1.2% C Martensite + retained austenite (after quench)
case
Transition
Inner case Gradient Fine martensite
zone
~0.3% C Lath martensite or bainite (depending on quench
Core Centre
(original) severity)
Heat Treatment after Carburizing:
1. Quench from carburizing temperature (or reheat + quench) → martensite in case
2. Temper at 150–200°C → reduces brittleness, maintains hardness
Why Multiple Tempering is Needed After Carburizing:
 Surface carbon is high (0.8–1.2%) → Ms is very low → Mf is below room temperature
 After single temper: surface martensite tempers but retained austenite is still present
 Retained austenite → soft → reduces wear resistance → thermally unstable (may transform to martensite
during service → dimensional change)
 First temper: Tempers martensite that formed on quench; some retained austenite → martensite
 Second temper: Tempers the fresh martensite from Stage 1 of tempering; further reduces retained
austenite
 Third temper (if needed in HSS): Same rationale; for carburized plain steel, 2 tempers usually sufficient
 Result: Maximum conversion of retained austenite + all martensite adequately tempered → stable, hard,
tough case

Q3. Do you recommend carburising treatment to a steel containing 0.3 wt% carbon? Justify. (2019 — 5)
[Conceptual]
Ans: NOT Generally Recommended
Reasoning
Carburising is primarily designed for steels with <0.2 wt% C (commonly 0.08–0.20% C). While 0.3% C is still a
relatively low-carbon steel, carburising is generally not the most appropriate treatment for this composition.
1. Risk of Hypereutectoid Case
 During carburising, the surface carbon is raised to 0.8–1.2%.
 Starting from 0.3% C, the case will develop a carbon gradient up to ~1.0–1.2% at the very surface
→ hypereutectoid surface.
 This leads to proeutectoid cementite formation as a network along grain boundaries during slow cooling
→ brittle, weak case.
 To avoid this, very precise atmosphere control is needed, adding cost and complexity.
2. Core Hardenability Issue
 The core with 0.3% C has moderate hardenability.
  However, the core's properties after carburising and quenching may not be optimally matched to the
intended application — the core may be harder/stronger than needed, reducing toughness.
3. Better Alternatives for 0.3% C Steel
 Induction hardening or flame hardening is more suitable — local surface hardening without changing
composition, using the existing 0.3% C.
 Nitriding is better for a 0.3% C steel if surface hardness and wear resistance are needed without risk of
boundary cementite.
 Through-hardening (austenitizing + quenching) may also achieve sufficient properties for many
applications.
When Carburising MAY Be Considered for 0.3% C
 If a shallower case (0.3–0.6 mm) is desired and carbon potential is carefully controlled to stay ≤0.8%.
 For components where the carburised case is later mechanically worked to break up boundary carbides.
Carburising is best applied to steels with <0.2% C where the case-to-core carbon gradient gives a hard case
and genuinely soft, tough core. For 0.3% C, the gradient is narrower and the risk of grain boundary cementite is
higher. Nitriding or surface induction hardening are preferred.

J2 — Nitriding
Q4. Why is nitriding imparted on the alloy steel? Why does hardness of the steel surface increase after
nitriding? Why is post-nitriding heat treatment not needed? (2022 — 7+7+4) [Theory]
Ans: Why Nitriding is Imparted on Alloy Steel (Not Plain Carbon Steel):
 Nitriding requires nitride-forming elements (Cr, Al, Mo, V, Ti) to form hard alloy nitrides
 Plain carbon steel: nitrogen forms only Fe₄N (gamma prime, γ') and Fe₂₋₃N (epsilon) → moderate
hardness, but case hardness is much lower than alloy steel nitriding
 Alloy steels (Nitralloy: Fe–0.3C–1.5Cr–1.0Al–0.2Mo): Al, Cr, Mo form CrN, AlN, Mo₂N → extremely hard
precipitates → 1100–1200 HV
 Without these alloying elements, case hardness is insufficient for most industrial applications
 Also: alloy steels maintain better core properties after nitriding
Why Hardness Increases After Nitriding:
 Nitrogen diffuses into surface at 500–550°C (in NH₃ atmosphere)
 Forms compound layer (white layer, ε-Fe₂₋₃N) at the surface: very hard (900–1200 HV)
 Below compound layer: diffusion zone where nitrogen forms fine coherent/semicoherent precipitates (CrN,
AlN, Mo₂N) within ferrite → precipitation hardening effect
 These nitrides are harder than Fe₃C and resist coarsening up to 500°C → sustained hardness
Why No Post-Nitriding Heat Treatment is Needed:
 Nitriding is performed at relatively low temperature (500–550°C — below Ac₁)
 No phase transformation occurs → no martensite forms during nitriding → no quenching required
 The hardness comes entirely from nitride precipitation, not from martensite
 No quenching = no quench stresses = no distortion → dimensional precision maintained (critical for
precision gears, crankshafts, dies)
 Component can be finish-machined before nitriding (only final polish/grind after if needed)
 If quenching were done after nitriding: distortion would destroy the nitrided component's dimensional
accuracy

Q5. Why does nitriding offer higher hardness than carburising treatment of a steel? Do you recommend
tempering after nitriding? (2019 — 5+4) [Conceptual]
Ans: Part A — Why Nitriding Gives Higher Hardness Than Carburising?
1. Nature of Hardening Phase
 Diffusing
Process Hard Phase Formed Typical Case Hardness
Element
Carburising + Carbon Martensite (Fe, C BCT) 58–62 HRC (≈700–800
Quench
Nitriding Nitrogen Iron nitrides (Fe₂N, Fe₄N) + alloy nitrides (AlN, 65–70 HRC (≈900–120
CrN) HV)
2. Alloy Nitride Formation
 Nitrogen reacts with nitride-forming elements in the steel: Al, Cr, Mo, V.
 This produces extremely hard, finely dispersed alloy nitrides (AlN, CrN, VN, Mo₂N).
 These have hardness values of 1200–2000 HV — much higher than martensite (~800 HV).
 The precipitation hardening effect from these fine nitrides gives nitriding its superior hardness advantage.
3. No Phase Transformation Required
 Carburising requires a subsequent quench to form martensite. The quench introduces internal stresses and
may reduce surface hardness if martensite tempers.
 Nitriding is done at 500–600°C directly on pre-hardened and tempered steel — no quench is needed. The
nitride precipitates form in situ → no transformation stresses, no distortion.
4. Additional Hardening Mechanisms
 Nitriding introduces a surface layer of ε-iron nitride (Fe₂N) and γ' iron nitride (Fe₄N) — these "white layers"
are extremely hard.
 Nitrogen in solid solution also provides solid solution hardening of the ferrite matrix beneath the nitride
layer.
 The compressive residual stresses induced by nitrogen expansion in the lattice are significantly higher than
those from carburising → improved fatigue resistance.
5. Hardness Comparison
Typical Case Hardness Values
Carburised and quenched: ~700–800 HV
Gas nitriding (alloy steel): ~900–1100 HV
Plasma nitriding (with Al): up to 1300 HV
Hard chrome plating (for reference): ~900 HV
Part B — Should Tempering Be Done After Nitriding?
Answer: NO — Tempering is NOT Recommended After Nitriding
Reasons
 Nitriding temperature (500–600°C) is already a tempering temperature. The base material must be pre-
hardened (quenched) and tempered to at least 550°C before nitriding to ensure it doesn't soften during the
nitriding cycle.
 Alloy nitrides are stable up to 600°C. Tempering after nitriding would coarsen the fine nitride precipitates →
reduce hardness → defeat the purpose of nitriding.
 The white layer (iron nitride layer) at the surface is very hard and brittle but is also heat-sensitive —
tempering would dissolve part of this layer.
 Nitriding itself does not introduce quenching stresses (no martensite formation) → no need for stress
relief after nitriding.
What IS Recommended Instead
 Before nitriding: Properly quench and temper the steel to the required core properties at a temperature ≥
the nitriding temperature (e.g., pre-temper at 580°C if nitriding at 550°C).
 After nitriding: Air cool. No further heat treatment is needed or desirable.
 If the white layer is undesirable (too brittle for some applications), it can be removed by controlled grinding
or lapping — not by tempering.
J3 — Induction Hardening
Q6. Discuss the role of permeability in induction hardening. How is hardened layer thickness determined during
induction hardening? (2019/2022 — 6+7) [Theory]
Ans:Induction Hardening Principle:
 High-frequency alternating current in a coil induces eddy currents in the steel surface
 Eddy currents → resistive heating (Joule heating) → surface heats to above Ac₃ rapidly
 Self-quenching by cold interior, or water/polymer spray quench → surface martensite → hard case
Role of Permeability (μ_r):
 Permeability determines how the induced electromagnetic field distributes within the steel
 Below Curie temperature (~768°C): steel is ferromagnetic (μ_r >> 1, ~50–100)
 High μ_r → magnetic flux concentrates near surface → shallow penetration depth → thin heated layer
 As temperature rises above Curie point → steel becomes paramagnetic (μ_r ≈ 1)
 Penetration depth suddenly increases → heating pattern changes
 Design implication: Frequency must be selected considering the variation of permeability during heating
Hardened Layer Thickness (Skin Depth Formula):
δ = √(ρ / (π × f × μ₀ × μ_r))
Where:
 δ = skin depth (m) — depth at which current density drops to 1/e (~37%) of surface value
 ρ = electrical resistivity (Ω·m)
 f = frequency (Hz)
 μ₀ = 4π × 10⁻⁷ H/m (permeability of free space)
 μ_r = relative permeability of steel
Practical implications:
 High frequency (100–500 kHz) → small δ → very shallow case (0.5–2 mm) → gear teeth surface
 Low frequency (1–10 kHz) → larger δ → deeper case (3–6 mm) → large shafts, crankshafts
 Rule: Higher frequency → shallower case → finer control needed

💡 INSIGHT: Carburising is a full-question topic in 2022 and 2023S. Know all types (gas, pack,
liquid/salt bath, vacuum). Nitriding produces an epsilon compound layer and diffusion zone — no
quenching needed (hence no post-treatment). Induction hardening depth = skin depth formula (δ ∝
1/√f). Multiple tempering after carburising converts retained austenite (from high surface carbon).

⚠ COMMON TRAP: 'Do you recommend carburising to 0.3 wt% C steel?' → YES, because core
carbon is low enough. 'Do you recommend tempering after nitriding?' → Generally NO for plain
nitriding, but YES after ion nitriding to relieve any brittleness. Examiner looks for justified reasoning.

K. HARDENABILITY
Frequency: ★★★★★ | Focus: Jominy test, critical diameter, factors affecting hardenability
Q1. What are the different methods of determination of hardenability? What is critical diameter? Compare and
contrast: Grossman's critical diameter method and Jominy end quench test. (2019 — 4+2+10) [Theory]
[Diagram]
Ans: Methods of Hardenability Determination:
1. Jominy End Quench Test (most common)
2. Grossman Critical Diameter Method
3. Ideal Critical Diameter (D_I) from multiplying factors (calculated)
4. Lamont/other graphical methods
Critical Diameter:
 The largest diameter of a round bar that can be hardened to produce 50% martensite at its centre when
quenched in a specific medium (defined by the severity of quench, H-factor)
 Ideal Critical Diameter (D_I): Corresponds to quenching in an ideal quench (H = ∞, i.e., no surface
resistance to cooling)
 Grossman's method: uses hardenability multiplying factors (f_C, f_Mn, f_Cr, f_Mo, etc.) based on
composition to calculate D_I
Jominy End Quench Test vs. Grossman's Method:
Feature Jominy End Quench Test Grossman's Critical Diameter
Type Experimental Experimental + theoretical
Specimen 25mm dia × 100mm bar Series of round bars of different diameters
One end quenched with water jet; hardness Bars quenched in standard media; cross-
Method
traversed along length section etched
Hardness vs. distance from quenched end
Output Critical diameter for specific quench severity
curve
Information Complete hardenability profile Single hardenability number
Direct engineering value for section size
Advantage Simple, reproducible, single specimen
selection
Requires multiple specimens and quenching
Limitation Doesn't directly give section-size answer
in calibrated media
Diagram description: For Jominy test: Draw specimen (25mm dia, 100mm long) with one flat end face being
quenched by a vertical water jet from below. Show hardness traversed along the flat ground surface of the bar.
Plot hardness (HRC) vs. distance from quenched end — decreasing curve.

Q2. Is it possible to define hardenability of cast iron? Explain. (2019 — 5) [Conceptual]

Ans: Is Hardenability Definable for Cast Iron?
 Partially — with significant limitations
 Cast iron contains graphite (flake, nodular, or compact forms) distributed throughout the matrix
 Graphite itself is a form of carbon but is NOT in solid solution in the matrix
 During austenitizing: carbon dissolves from graphite into austenite near the graphite → locally variable
carbon content in austenite → non-uniform Ms temperature across the section
 The conventional definition of hardenability (50% martensite at centre of a round bar) becomes ambiguous
because:
o Carbon content of austenite is non-uniform → variable Ms → patchy martensite distribution
o Graphite flakes act as stress concentrators → fracture before hardening can be fully evaluated
 Grey cast iron: flake graphite → very poor hardenability concept applicable; also causes quench cracking
 Ductile/Nodular cast iron: graphite is spheroidal → matrix is more uniform → hardenability concept has
more meaning; Jominy-type testing can be applied to the matrix (treating it similarly to low-alloy steel)
 White cast iron: no graphite, all carbon as Fe₃C → hardenability concept IS applicable (but rarely hardened
further due to already high hardness)
 Conclusion: For grey CI — not meaningfully definable; for ductile CI — partially applicable; conventional
definition does not rigorously apply

Q3. Why does increase in carbon in plain carbon steel enhance its hardenability? (2019 — 4) [Theory]
Ans: Part A — Carbon and Hardenability
(See detailed answer in h2 q9 above — mechanism by which carbon shifts TTT curves right, lowers
critical cooling rate, and improves depth of martensite formation.)
Part B — Austenite Grain Size and Hardenability
(See detailed answer above — coarse grains increase hardenability by reducing nucleation site
density.)
Part C — Benefits of Higher Hardenability
1. Deeper Martensite Penetration (Through-Hardening)
 High hardenability steels can form martensite throughout the entire cross-section, even in large
components.
 Uniform hardness from surface to core → uniform mechanical properties throughout.
2. Use of Milder Quench Media
 High hardenability allows use of oil or air quenching instead of severe water/brine quenching.
 Milder quench → less thermal gradient → reduced distortion and residual stresses.
 Lower risk of quench cracking — especially important for complex-shaped components.
3. Better Properties in Large Cross-Sections
 Plain carbon steels have low hardenability — only the surface hardens; the core remains soft
(pearlite/bainite).
 High hardenability alloy steels maintain uniform high strength and hardness even in large forgings,
shafts, and gears.
4. Enables Martempering and Austempering
 Both martempering and austempering require the steel to remain untransformed during transfer to
the treatment bath → only possible with sufficient hardenability.
5. Consistent Heat Treatment Response
 High hardenability steels are more forgiving of minor quench variations (slight temperature
fluctuations, quench agitation differences).
 More consistent properties batch-to-batch in manufacturing.
6. Applications
Application Why High Hardenability is Needed Example Steel
Large crankshafts, axles Through-hardening for uniform strength 4340 (Ni-Cr-Mo)
Automotive gears High surface hardness + tough core 8620 (carburising grade)
Die blocks, large tooling Uniform hardness in large section H13, D2
Springs Consistent through-hardness, spring-back 9260 (Si-Mn)
Ball bearings Deep hardness, wear resistance 52100 (Cr steel)
Measurement — Jominy End-Quench Test
Hardenability is quantified by the Jominy End-Quench Test: a standard bar is quenched at one end;
hardness is measured along the bar length. The distance at which hardness drops to 50 HRC (or 80%
martensite) defines the hardenability. Alloy steels show a slower hardness drop-off = higher
hardenability.
Hardenability should not be confused with hardness. A steel with very high carbon has very high
potential hardness (martensite hardness) but may have low hardenability (hardens only near the
surface). An alloy steel with moderate carbon can have excellent hardenability despite lower maximum
hardness.

Q4. Define hardenability of steels. Describe Jominy end quench test for estimation of hardenability. (2021 —
4+10) [Theory] [Diagram]
Ans:Hardenability:
 Definition: The ability of a steel to be hardened (form martensite) to a specified depth when quenched from
the austenitic condition
  NOT the same as hardness — a steel can be very hard (high C) but low hardenability (thin case)
 High hardenability = martensite forms even at the centre of a large section with moderate quench
 Measured by: depth (or proportion) of martensite formed as a function of distance from quenched surface
Jominy End Quench Test (ASTM A255):
Procedure:
1. Austenitize standard specimen (25mm dia × 100mm long) at appropriate temperature until uniform
austenite achieved
2. Transfer within 5 seconds to Jominy fixture
3. Quench one flat end face with a standard water jet (25.4mm dia jet, ~25°C water, 63.5mm below specimen)
4. After quenching, grind two flat surfaces along length of bar (0.38mm depth)
5. Measure Rockwell C hardness at every 1.5mm from the quenched end
6. Plot hardness (HRC) vs. distance from quenched end → Jominy hardenability curve
Interpretation:
 Steep drop in hardness = low hardenability steel
 Flat/shallow curve = high hardenability steel
 At quenched end: highest cooling rate → martensite → maximum hardness
 At far end: lowest cooling rate → pearlite/bainite → low hardness
 The curve is characteristic of the steel composition
Benefit of Higher Hardenability:
 Allows hardening of thicker sections with less severe (gentler) quenching media → less distortion and
quench cracking
 More uniform hardness across cross-section → more uniform mechanical properties
 Enables use of oil quench instead of water quench → better dimensional control
 Critical for large engineering components: crankshafts, gears, heavy axles, pressure vessels

Q5. Why does increase in carbon improve hardenability? What is the effect of austenite grain size on
hardenability? State the benefit of higher hardenability in steel. (2021 — 5+5+4) [Theory]
Q6. What is hardenability? What is Jominy end quench test? (2023S — 7+7) [Theory] [Diagram]
Q7. In what way can the wear resistance be improved in hypereutectoid steel? What is hardenability? (2023S —
8+7) [Theory]
Ans: (Wear resistance covered in H1-Q4; Hardenability covered in K-Q4 above)

💡 INSIGHT: Jominy end quench test is the MOST REPEATED single topic — appears in 2019, 2021,
2023S. Must draw: specimen geometry, quenching setup, hardness vs. distance curve. Key factors:
carbon content (increases), austenite grain size (larger = higher hardenability), alloying elements (Cr,
Mn, Mo increase), undissolved carbides (decrease).

⚠ COMMON TRAP: 'Is hardenability possible for cast iron?' → Partially/No — cast iron contains
graphite which causes local chemical non-uniformity, and the concept of 50% martensite criterion
doesn't apply in the same way. Give a justified answer.

EXAM ANALYSIS: Priority Matrix

# Topic Frequency Max Marks Priority Key Sub-topics
1 Hardenability (K) ★★★★★ 25 marks 🔴 CRITICAL Jominy test, Grossman,
Every paper grain size effect

2 Surface Engineering — ★★★★★ 25 marks 🔴 CRITICAL Types of carburising,

 Carburising/Nitriding (J) Every paper nitriding hardness, induction
skin depth

3 Martensitic Transformation (D) ★★★★★ 25 marks 🔴 CRITICAL Lattice corr., morphology,

Every paper stabilisation, tempering
stages

4 Alloy Steel Classification — SS & ★★★★★ 25 marks 🔴 CRITICAL PFZ, sigma phase, HSS
HSS (G) 2024 heat treatment, subzero
compulsory treatment

5 TTT Diagram & Bainitic ★★★★★ 25 marks 🔴 CRITICAL TTT generation,

Transformation (B, C) Every paper upper/lower bainite,
austempering

6 Heat Treatment — ★★★★☆ 4/5 20 marks 🟠 HIGH Hypereutectoid annealing,

Annealing/Normalising/Tempering papers Holloman-Jaffe, tempering
(H) stages

7 Alloying Elements (F) ★★★★☆ 4/5 15 marks 🟠 HIGH Hultgren extrapolation,

papers Cr/Mo effects, maraging
steel

8 Advanced Treatments — Ausforming, ★★★☆☆ 25 marks 🟠 HIGH Ausforming, zerolling,

Zerolling (I) 2024 focus martempering vs.
austempering

9 Pearlitic Transformation (C1) ★★★☆☆ 3/5 15 marks 🟡 MEDIUM Lamellar spacing, grain size
papers effect, ferrite:cementite ratio

10 Fundamentals & Diffusion (A, E) ★★☆☆☆ 10 marks 🟢 MODERATE Kinetics contrast, diffusion
Supporting types

TOP 5 MOST IMPORTANT TOPICS

1. Hardenability (Jominy End Quench Test)
• Jominy specimen: 25mm dia × 100mm bar, end-quenched with water
• Plot hardness (HRC) vs. distance from quenched end — hardness decreases with distance
• Factors: C content ↑ → hardenability ↑; grain size ↑ → hardenability ↑; alloying elements (Cr, Mn, Mo) → shift
TTT right
• Grossman's ideal critical diameter (DI): hypothetical bar that gives 50% martensite at centre when quenched
in an ideal medium
• Key equation: Severity of quench (H-factor), hardenability multiplying factors
2. Martensitic Transformation & Tempering
• Bain distortion: FCC → BCT; c/a ratio depends on C content
• Morphology: Lath (<0.6%C) vs. Plate (>1%C), mid-range: mixed
• Athermal transformation: Ms and Mf do NOT change with time
• Tempering stages I–IV: know the products at each stage and hardness change
• Autotempering: spontaneous partial tempering during quench in low-C steels (Ms is high)
3. Stainless Steel & High-Speed Steel
• Austenitic SS (304/316): FCC, non-magnetic, PFZ due to Cr₂₃C₆ at grain boundaries
• Sigma phase: Fe-Cr BCC intermetallic, 600–850°C, causes severe embrittlement
• HSS (18-4-1: W-Cr-V): must be triple-tempered; subzero treatment converts retained austenite
• Precipitation-hardened SS: strengthened by Ni₃Al or Cu-rich precipitates
• Maraging steel: ultra-high strength, aged at 480°C, Fe-Ni-Co-Mo alloy, no carbon
4. Surface Engineering — Carburising & Nitriding
• Carburising: gas (CH₄/propane), pack (charcoal+BaCO₃), liquid (cyanide salt), vacuum
• Temperature ~930°C; carbon profile varies from 0.8–1.2% surface to core carbon
• Post-carburising HT: double quench + temper to refine core, harden case
 • Multiple tempering after carburising: converts retained austenite (high C in surface suppresses Mf)
• Nitriding: compound layer (ε-Fe₂₋₃N) + diffusion zone; no quench needed — hence no distortion
• Nitriding hardness higher than carburising because nitrides (AlN, CrN, Mo₂N) are harder than cementite
5. TTT Diagram & Bainite
• TTT diagram of 0.8%C steel: C-curve for pearlite/bainite, horizontal Ms/Mf lines
• Generation: dilatometry (length change vs. time) or metallographic method (interrupted quench)
• Upper bainite (400–550°C): sheaves of ferrite with carbides between sub-units — lower toughness
• Lower bainite (250–400°C): carbide precipitates within ferrite laths at ~55° — higher strength AND toughness
• Incomplete reaction: T0 line constraint — austenite becomes enriched in C, stabilised, cannot transform

10 PREDICTED EXAM QUESTIONS (Based on Pattern Analysis)

These are high-probability questions based on repetition trends and new topic emergence:

Q1. Describe in detail the Jominy end quench test. How would you use it to compare the hardenability of two
steels? What are the factors that affect hardenability? (Predicted) [Theory] [Diagram]
Q2. What are the heat treatments of High-Speed Steel? Explain the need for subzero treatment and triple
tempering. (Predicted) [Theory]
Q3. What is the precipitate-free zone in austenitic stainless steel? How can it be prevented? What is the role of
sigma phase in austenitic stainless steel? (Predicted) [Theory] [Conceptual]
Q4. Compare upper bainite and lower bainite with respect to: mechanism, microstructure, and mechanical
properties. Why does lower bainite exhibit better toughness? (Predicted) [Theory] [Diagram]
Q5. Discuss the lattice correspondence for martensite formation. How does carbon content affect the
morphology and Ms temperature of martensite? (Predicted) [Theory] [Diagram]
Q6. What is carburising? Describe gas carburising process. What are the heat treatments given to the
carburised component and why? (Predicted) [Theory]
Q7. What is ausforming? How does it differ from conventional hardening? What is zerolling? (Predicted)
[Theory]
Q8. Describe all stages of tempering of a martensite steel. How does the Holloman-Jaffe parameter help in
tempering design? (Predicted) [Theory] [Conceptual]
Q9. How is a TTT diagram of 0.8 wt% plain carbon steel generated? What is the significance of the 'bay'
region? How does austenite grain size affect the TTT curve? (Predicted) [Theory] [Diagram]
Q10. What is nitriding? Why is post-nitriding heat treatment not needed? Why does nitriding give higher surface
hardness than carburising? (Predicted) [Conceptual]

KEY DIAGRAMS TO PRACTISE

Diagram Key Features to Label
TTT Diagram (0.8% C steel) Ps, Pf, Bs, Bf, Ms, Mf lines; 'knee' position; nose
temperature; austempering/martempering paths
Fe–Fe₃C Phase Diagram A1, A3, Acm lines; eutectoid point (0.8%C, 727°C);
hypo/hyper eutectoid regions
Jominy Hardenability Curve Specimen geometry; quench end; hardness vs.
distance plot; effect of alloy addition
Tempering Stages Diagram Hardness vs. tempering temperature; stages I–IV;
secondary hardening hump for Mo/W steels
Martensite Morphology Sketch Lath (<0.6%C) vs. plate (>1%C); habit planes; c/a ratio
 vs. carbon content
Upper vs. Lower Bainite Sketch Upper: carbides between sub-units; Lower: carbides at
55° within ferrite lath
Carburising Microstructure Sketch Surface: high-C martensitic case; transition; core: low-
C martensite
Jominy Test Setup Specimen dimensions, water jet position, hardness
traverse direction

Best of luck! Compiled from: 2019 · 2021 · 2022 · 2023(S) · 2024 Examination Papers — Jadavpur University