Chapter 7.

SCATTERING

Light can scatter off air molecules, pollutant particles, dust, and cloud droplets. The type of
scattering depends on the size D of the particle relative to the wavelength λ of the light. The
type of scattering can be divided into three types as listed in the table below:

Table 1: Total scattering of visible light

D/ λ Particles Size D ( µ m ) Type Phenomenon

<1 Air molecules 0.0001 to 0.001 Rayleigh Blue Sky, red
sunsets
≈1 Aerosols (smog) 0.01 to 1.0 Mie Brown smog
>1 Cloud droplets 10 to 100 Geometric White clouds

7.1 Rayleigh Scattering

Air molecules have sizes of D ≈ 0.0001 to 0.001 µ m , which are much smaller than
the wavelength of light ( λ = 0.4 to 0.7 µ m ) . These particles cause Rayleigh
scattering. The ratio of scattered intensity of radiation Iscat to the incident radiation
intensity I0 (S) is
I scat  a × (nair − 1) 2  7-1
S = = 1 − exp  − 4
x
I0  ρλ 

where a = 1.59 x 10 −23 kg, ρ is air density, nair is the refractive index, and x is the
path length of light through the air.

 1 
The relative amount of scattering S (or Iscat/I0) depends on λ −4
S α  . For this
 4λ 
reason shorter wavelengths such as blue and violet are scattered much more (about
a factor of 10) than red. See Fig.1: a, b, c.

(b)
(c)
S (a)
I Iscat
 I scat 
 
 Is 

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Figure 1 : (a) The relative scattering; (b) Spectrum of the Sun; and (c) product
of curves a and b (c)
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Example 1

What fraction of the incident violet light is scattered from air molecules along a 20 km
horizontal ray path near the earth ?

Solution
X = 5 x 106m λ = 4x 10−7 m (violet )
Find Iscat /I0 = ?

Assume ρ = 1 kg m-3

( 1.59x 10−23 kg ( 0.0002817 )2

) 
∴ I scat / I 0 = 1 − exp  (
2x 104 m ) 

 (
1kgm − 3
)( −7
4x 10 m 4 ) 


∴ I scat / I 0 = 1 − exp [ −0.9857]

= 0.62 7
This means that object far away are difficult to see because some of the light is lost.
Vertical rays experience less scattering because the air density decreases with light.

Sun light scattered from air molecules is polarized. The maximum amount of
polarization occurs along an arc in the sky that is 90° from the sun as viewed from the
ground (see Fig.1). Polarization means eliminating the oscillations of the light waves in
one direction while passing the other oscillations (what remains in the polarized light).

Figure
ure 1: The geometry of maximum polarization

We can photograph the sky as very blue when it is scattering sunlight with sun polarity
by using a polarizing camera
camera filter or polarized sunglasses rotating them to eliminate
the other polarity. This will virtually prevent any light from reacting the camera or
observer.

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7.2 Geometric Scattering

When the particles are relatively large (like cloud droplets) light reflects from them
according to geometric optics. Because all wavelengths are reflected equally,
clouds look white when illuminated by white sunlight.

The clouds you see in the direction of the sun looks bright while those in the
directive of your short view looks darker. The first is called forward scattering
and the second case is called backward scattering.

7.3 Mie Scattering

Gustor Mie proposed a comprehensive theory that describes reflection, scattering

polarization, absorption, and other process for all size particles. The theory reduces
to Rayleigh scattering for small particles, and to geometric scattering for large
particles. Unfortunately, smog particles are of middle size, so no simplification of
Mie theory is possible. According to Mie, uniform smog particles (D ≈ λ ) can
produce bluish or reddish colors but they will be seen as brown if they are not
uniform.

7.4 Lapse Rate

The decrease of temperature with light is known as Lapse Rate. The types of lapse
rates are environmental Lapse Rate and Process (or dry) Lapse Rate.

Adiabatic Lapse Rate

An adiabatic process is one where there is no heat transfer to or from the air parcel
( ∆Q H = 0). An air parcel that rises adiabatically with no cloud formation (dry)
experiences a temperature change given by :
 g  ∆Q H
∆T = −   ∆Z + 7-2
C p m airC p
 

Where ∆Q H is the sensible heat (in J) – which can be sensed by humans - ∆Z is

vertical thickness, g =9.8ms-2, mair is mass of air and Cp is the specific heat at
constant process [Cp (dry) = 1004.67 Jkg-1K-1].

∆Q H
Herein , = 0, then
m airC p
∆T g 7-3
=− = −9.8 K / km
∆z Cp

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 Thus, the dry adiabatic lapse rate for a rising air parcel Γ d = 9.8 K / km , and it is a
process (dry) lapse rate. For wet (or environmental) lapse rate, Γd = 6.5K / km

The adiabatic lapse rate can also be found in terms of pressure (P) instead of height,
as follows:

Rd /C P Rd /C P
∆T  ∆P  T 2  P2 
=  Or = 
T  P  T1  P1 

R d = 287.053 JK −1 kg −1 = 0.287053 kPa K −1 m 3 kg −1 and is called gas constant

for dry air.

Note that:

P = ρ R dT 7-4

(Note that P αρ ;T α 1 ; ∴ P αρT )

ρ

Example 2

Suppose an air parcel of internal temperature 15°C rises adiabatically 2 km from the
surface. What is the final temperature of the parcel ?

Solution

T initial = 15o ; ∆Z = 2km ; T final = ?

T final −T initial
∆T / ∆Z = 9.8 K / km =
Z final − Z initial
( )
T final = T initial − 9.8o C / km ∆Z

= 15 C − ( 9.8 C / km ) ( 2km ) = −4.6 C

o o o

7.5 Pressure Variation With Light

The pressure varies with height in the following form:

7-
P = (101.325 kPa ) ( 288.15 K /T )−5.255877 H < 11km
5

P = ( 22.632kPa ) exp  −0.1568 ( H − 11km )  11 ≤ H ≤ 20km 7-6

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 −4.16319 7-7
P = ( 5.4749kPa ) ( 216.65K /T ) 20 < H < 32km

while
T = 288K − ( 6.5K / km ) H for H < 11km 7-8

T = 216.5 K 11 ≤ H ≤ 20
7-9
T = 216.5K + (1K / km )( H − 20km ) 20 < H < 32km

Also, the pressure variation with height can be expressed as follows:

P = Po e − ( Mg / RT ) h
M = 28.8x 10−3 kg mol −1
g = 9.8ms −2
R = 8.314 Jmol −1K −1
T = 273 K
−4 h 7-10
∴ P = 1.01x 105 ( pa )e −1.24 x 10

Example 3

Calculate the pressure at a height 2 km ?

Solution

P = 1.01 x 105 e
( −1.24x 10−4 )( 2000)

= 1.01x 105 e −0.248

91
= 1.01x 105 x 0.78
(
= 78816 Pa Nm −2 )
i.e. the pressure is only 78% of the atmosphere pressure.

The pressure variation with height can lead us to the adiabatic lapse rate, as follows:

dp = g ρ dh
PM
but ρ =
RT

dp = − g
( PM ) dh
RT
dp  gM 
= −  dh
p  RT 
but also
dT  R  dp
= 
T  MC p
  p
dT  R   − gM 
∴ =   dh
T  MCp   RT 
7-11
3
∴dT / dh = − g / C p = −9.8 /1.01x 10 = −9.8 K / km

7.6 Earth Heat Emission

The peak emissions from the average earth system are in the infrared range 8 to 18
µ m . This radiation is called terrestrial radiation, long-wave radiation, or
infrared (IR) radiation. These waves are responsible in heating the atmosphere.

Wien’s law gives the wavelength of the peak emission:

2897 µ mK 7-12
λmax = (in µ m)
T ( inK )

The earth average temperature is 255K (when no atmospheric green house gases are
considered)

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 Wavelength λ ( µ m .)

The total emission of heat from earth is given by (power of four equations):
7-13
(
E = σT 4 = 5.67 x 10−8 W m −2 K −4 T 4 (K ) )
E is in unit of Wm-2

This means that the total irradiance of heat from earth is :

(
E = 5.67 x 10−8 ) ( 255) 4
= 240 W m −2

The surface area of earth ( 4π r 2 ) is 5.1 x 1014 m2, therefore, the total emission of
heat from earth is 240 x 5.1 x 1014=1.22 x 1017 W. The earth is a giant IR light
bulb!

7.7 Albedo

The ratio of total reflected rays to total measuring rays is called Albedo ( α ).

I reflected radiation 7-14

α=
I incident (or inco min g ) radiation

The average global albedo for solar radiation reflected from our planets is
α = 0.3 or 30%. The actual global albedo at any instant varies with ice cover,
snow cover, soil moisture, topography and vegetation. Table 2 shows several values
for α for different surfaces.

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 Table 2 : The Albedo of Several Surfaces
Surface α
Snow, Fresh 75-95
Snow, old 35-75
Soil (dark) 6–8
(light) 16-18
Granite 12-18
Cloud, thin 20-65
Road, asphalt 5-15
Concrete 15-37
Cotton 20-22
Forest 5-15
Grass 26
Water, Sea 5-20

Note that aλ + rλ + t λ = 1 ; a is absorbtivity, r is reflectivity and t is

transmissivity. This means that:

E λ inco min g = E λ absorbed + E λ reflected + E λ transmitted 7-15

For opaque substances such as the earth’s surface, we have

aλ = 1 − rλ or aλ + rλ = 1

Clean snow reflects about 90% of incoming solar radiation but reflects almost 0%
of IR radiation. Such behavior is crucial to temperature forecasts at the surface.

Q: Albedo is an important factor in the global warming mechanism. How ?

Example 4

Knowing that the solar constant (Isc.) is equal to 1.4 kW, then calculate the surface
temperature of the sun ? The earth-sun distance is 1.5 x 1011m (1 AU) and the radius of the
sun is 7x108m.

Solution

94
 ( )
P = I sc 4π R s −e 2 = 3.96x 1026W

P 3.96x 1026W
∴ Psun = =
4π rsun 2 4x 3.14x 7x 108
( )
2

Psun = 6.43x 107W m −2

but
4
Psun = σεT (ε = 1)
1/4 1/4
P   6.43x 107 
T =  sun  =  −8 
 σε   5.67x 10 
∴ T=5800 K

Example 5

If the body temperature is 33°C (skin temperature) and of average surface area 1.5m2. If the
wall temperature of a room is 15°C, then for a person standing naked in a room of wall area
1.2m2, calculate the amount of heat lost from the body ?

Solution

( )
Q lost = 5.67 x 10−8 (1.5 )( 306 ) = 746W
4

∴ Plost = 1.5x 500 = 746 W

( )
Q ( gained by thewall ) = 5.67x 10−8 ( 288) = 390W
4

Pgained = 390 x 1.2m 2 = 585W

Heat will be lost from the body and gained by the wall. This heat is equal 746-585=161
W. This indicates that the body will lose 161 Joules per second!

95