Python Programming Mohanraj R

PYTHON PROGRAMMING
Learn • Practice • Build

Begin your programming journey with one of the world's most powerful

and beginner-friendly languages.

INSTRUCTOR EDITION
Mohanraj R
Python Trainer | AI & ML Enthusiast
mohanraj9677011@[Link]
[Link]/in/moganraj | [Link]/lookmohan

June 2026

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Python Programming Mohanraj R

TABLE OF CONTENTS

01 Python Basics — Data Types, Variables & Features

02 Type Casting
03 User Input
04 Operators
05 Conditional Statements
06 For Loop and Nested Loops
07 While Loop and Loop Control (break/continue/pass)
08 Functions and Lambda
09 Modules and Packages
10 String Manipulation
11 Lists
12 Tuples
13 Sets
14 Dictionaries
15 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)
16 File Handling
17 Exception Handling
18 Iterators, Generators and Decorators
19 Logging and Collections
20 Mini Projects

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Chapter 01 — Python Basics

Data Types, Variables and Python Features

What is Python?
Python is a high-level, interpreted, open-source programming language. It is easy to read, beginner-friendly, and
widely used in web development, data science, AI, and automation.

Python Features
• Open source and free to use
• Easy to read and understand
• High-level programming language
• Interpreted language — executes line by line
• Supports Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)

Data Types
A data type tells Python what kind of value a variable holds.
Data Type Keyword Example
Integer int 1, 2, 100
String str 'hello', "world"
Float float 3.14, 1.0
Boolean bool True, False

Variables
A variable is a container that stores a value.

Variable Naming Rules

• Can contain letters, digits, and underscore ( _ )
• Cannot start with a digit — e.g. 1name is INVALID
• Variable names are case-sensitive: name and Name are different
• Avoid Python keywords like if, else, for, while, etc.

Valid vs Invalid Examples

# Valid variable names
first_name = "Ravi"
name1 = "Raj"
_score = 95

# Invalid variable names

# 1name = "error"<- starts with a digit
# my-name = "error"<- hyphens not allowed

Comments
Comments are lines Python ignores. They help explain code.

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# This is a single-line comment

"""
This is a
multi-line comment
"""

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Chapter 02 — Type Casting

Converting one data type into another

Type casting means converting a value from one data type to another. Python allows this because different
operations require different data types.
Note: User input always comes as a string. To do calculations, you must convert it to int or float.

Types of Type Casting

1. Implicit Type Casting
Python automatically converts data types without any instruction from the programmer.
a = 10 # int
b = 10.1 # float
c = a + b # Python auto-converts int to float
print(c) # Output: 20.1
print(type(c)) # Output: float

2. Explicit Type Casting

We manually convert data types using built-in functions: int(), float(), str(), bool()
# String to Integer
a = "100"
b = int(a)
print(b) # Output: 100
print(type(b)) # Output: int

# Integer to Float
a = 10
b = float(a)
print(b) # Output: 10.0

# Float to Integer (decimal part is cut off, NOT rounded)

a = 10.9
b = int(a)
print(b) # Output: 10

# Integer to String
a = 50
b = str(a)
print(b) # Output: '50'
Note: int() removes the decimal part. It does NOT round the number. 10.9 becomes 10.

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Chapter 03 — User Input

Taking values from the user while the program runs

The input() function pauses the program and waits for the user to type something. Whatever the user types is
ALWAYS returned as a string.
name = input("Enter your name: ")
print("Hello,", name)

Problem Without Type Casting

Since input() returns a string, adding two numbers without casting gives wrong results:
# WRONG — this joins strings, not adds numbers
a = input("Enter first number: ")
b = input("Enter second number: ")
print(a + b) # User types 5 and 3 -> Output: 53 (not 8!)

Correct Approach — With Type Casting

# CORRECT — convert to int first
a = int(input("Enter first number: "))
b = int(input("Enter second number: "))
print(a + b) # Output: 8

Practice Program — Student Marks

name = input("Enter student name: ")
mark1 = int(input("Enter mark 1: "))
mark2 = int(input("Enter mark 2: "))
total = mark1 + mark2
average = total / 2
print("Name :", name)
print("Total :", total)
print("Average :", average)

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Chapter 04 — Operators

Symbols used to perform operations on values

1. Arithmetic Operators
print(10 + 3) # Addition -> 13
print(10 - 3) # Subtraction -> 7
print(10 * 3) # Multiplication -> 30
print(10 / 3) # Division -> 3.333...
print(10 // 3) # Floor Division -> 3
print(10 % 3) # Modulus -> 1 (remainder)
print(2 ** 3) # Exponent -> 8 (2 to the power 3)

2. Assignment Operators
x = 10
x += 5 # x = x + 5 -> 15
x -= 3 # x = x - 3 -> 12
x *= 2 # x = x * 2 -> 24
x //= 4 # x = x // 4 -> 6

3. Comparison Operators
Always returns True or False.
print(5 == 5) # Equal -> True
print(5 != 3) # Not equal -> True
print(5 > 3) # Greater than -> True
print(5 < 3) # Less than -> False
print(5 >= 5) # Greater or equal -> True
print(5 <= 4) # Less or equal -> False

4. Logical Operators
print(True and True) # Both must be True -> True
print(True and False) # One is False -> False
print(True or False) # At least one True -> True
print(not True) # Reverses result -> False

5. Identity Operators
a = [1, 2, 3]
b = a
c = [1, 2, 3]
print(a is b) # True — same object in memory
print(a is c) # False — different objects (same content)
print(a is not c) # True

6. Membership Operators
fruits = ["apple", "mango", "grape"]
print("mango" in fruits) # True
print("banana" in fruits) # False
print("banana" not in fruits) # True

7. Bitwise Operators
Work on binary (0s and 1s) representation of numbers.
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print(5 & 3) # AND -> 1

print(5 | 3) # OR -> 7
print(5 ^ 3) # XOR -> 6
print(~5) # NOT -> -6
print(5 << 1) # Left Shift -> 10 (multiply by 2)
print(5 >> 1) # Right Shift -> 2 (divide by 2)

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Chapter 05 — Conditional Statements

Control your program's flow based on conditions

if Statement
age = 20
if age >= 18:
print("Eligible to vote")

if-else Statement
number = int(input("Enter a number: "))
if number % 2 == 0:
print("Even number")
else:
print("Odd number")

if-elif-else Statement
Used when you need to check multiple conditions one after another.
mark = int(input("Enter your mark: "))
if mark >= 90:
print("Grade A")
elif mark >= 75:
print("Grade B")
elif mark >= 50:
print("Grade C")
elif mark >= 35:
print("Grade D")
else:
print("Fail")

Nested if Statement
An if-else placed inside another if or else block.
age = int(input("Enter age: "))
has_id = input("Do you have an ID? (yes/no): ")

if age >= 18:

if has_id == "yes":
print("Access granted")
else:
print("ID required")
else:
print("Too young to enter")

Practice Questions
• 1. Check if a number is greater than 15
• 2. Check if a number is odd or even
• 3. Check if a number is positive or negative
• 4. Print student grade based on marks (A/B/C/D/Fail)

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Chapter 06 — For Loop and Nested Loops

Repeat code a fixed number of times

A loop repeats code multiple times, saving time and reducing repetition.

For Loop Syntax

for variable in sequence:
statement

range() Function
# range(stop) — starts from 0
for i in range(5): # 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
print(i)

# range(start, stop)
for i in range(1, 6): # 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
print(i)

# range(start, stop, step)

for i in range(1, 20, 2): # 1, 3, 5, 7 ... 19
print(i)

# Reverse
for i in range(10, 0, -1): # 10, 9, 8 ... 1
print(i)

Examples
# Multiplication table of 5
for i in range(1, 11):
print("5 x", i, "=", 5 * i)

# Sum from 1 to 10
total = 0
for i in range(1, 11):
total += i
print("Sum:", total) # 55

# Count vowels in a word

word = "apple"
count = 0
for char in word:
if char in "aeiou":
count += 1
print("Vowels:", count) # 2

Nested For Loop

A loop inside another loop. The inner loop runs completely for each outer loop value.
# Pattern: numbers
for i in range(1, 4):
for j in range(1, 4):
print(i, end="")
print()

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# Output:
# 1 1 1
# 2 2 2
# 3 3 3

# Triangle pattern
for i in range(1, 6):
for j in range(i):
print("*", end="")
print()
# Output:
# *
# * *
# * * *
# * * * *
# * * * * *

# Reverse triangle
for i in range(6, 0, -1):
for j in range(i):
print("*", end="")
print()

Practice Questions
• 1. Print numbers from 1 to 5
• 2. Print all even numbers from 1 to 20
• 3. Print all odd numbers from 1 to 20
• 4. Print multiplication table of a number entered by the user
• 5. Print your name four times using a loop
• 6. Find the sum of numbers from 1 to 100
• 7. Print square values from 1 to 10 (1, 4, 9, 16 ...)
• 8. Print a diamond pattern using nested loops

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Chapter 07 — While Loop and Loop Control

Run code while a condition is True

The while loop runs as long as a condition is True. Use it when you do not know exactly how many times to
repeat.
count = 1
while count <= 5:
print("Count:", count)
count += 1 # Always update — or you get an infinite loop!

# Output: Count: 1 Count: 2 Count: 3 Count: 4 Count: 5

User Input with While Loop

while True:
name = input("Enter name (or 'quit' to stop): ")
if name == "quit":
break
print("Hello,", name)

break — Stop the Loop Completely

for i in range(10):
if i == 5:
break # loop stops here
print(i)
# Output: 0 1 2 3 4

continue — Skip Current Iteration

for i in range(6):
if i == 3:
continue # skip 3, go to next
print(i)
# Output: 0 1 2 4 5

pass — Placeholder (Do Nothing)

for i in range(5):
if i == 3:
pass # does nothing, continues normally
print(i)
# Output: 0 1 2 3 4
Note: Use pass when you want to write code later but need the block structure now.

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Chapter 08 — Functions and Lambda

Write reusable blocks of code

A function is a block of reusable code. Instead of writing the same code again and again, we create a function
and call it whenever needed.
# Define a function
def greet():
print("Hello, Welcome!")

# Call the function

greet()

Types Based on Arguments and Return Value

# 1. No arguments, No return
def greet():
print("Hello!")
greet()

# 2. With arguments, No return

def add(a, b):
print(a + b)
add(10, 20) # Output: 30

# 3. No arguments, With return

def get_pi():
return 3.14159
result = get_pi()
print(result)

# 4. With arguments and return value

def multiply(a, b):
return a * b
result = multiply(4, 5)
print(result) # Output: 20

Types of Arguments
# 1. Positional Arguments — order matters
def student(name, age):
print(name, age)
student("Arun", 20)

# 2. Keyword Arguments — order does not matter

def employee(id, dept):
print("ID:", id)
print("Dept:", dept)
employee(dept="IT", id=101)

# 3. Default Arguments — used when argument is not passed

def city(place="Chennai"):
print("City:", place)
city() # Output: Chennai
city("Madurai") # Output: Madurai

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# 4. Variable Length Arguments (*args)

def marks(*score):
print(score)
print("Total:", sum(score))
marks(85, 90, 78, 92)

Lambda Functions (Anonymous Functions)

A lambda is a small one-line function without a name. Used for quick operations.
# Syntax: lambda arguments : expression

# Regular function
def square(x):
return x * x

# Same as lambda
square = lambda x: x * x
print(square(5)) # Output: 25

# Lambda with two arguments

add = lambda a, b: a + b
print(add(3, 7)) # Output: 10

Local vs Global Variables

# Local Variable — only inside the function
def student():
name = "Arun" # local
print(name)
student()
# print(name) <- This would give an error outside

# Global Variable — accessible anywhere

city = "Chennai" # global
def show():
print(city) # can use global variable
show()
print(city)

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Chapter 09 — Modules and Packages

Organise and reuse code across files

A module is a Python file (.py) that contains functions, variables, and classes. Import it whenever needed instead
of rewriting code.

Importing Modules
# 1. Normal import
import math
print([Link](25)) # 5.0
print([Link](5)) # 120
print([Link]) # 3.14159...

# 2. Import specific function

from math import sqrt
print(sqrt(16)) # 4.0

# 3. Import multiple functions

from math import sqrt, factorial
print(sqrt(9))
print(factorial(4))

# 4. Import all functions (use carefully)

from math import *
print(sqrt(49))

# 5. Alias (rename on import)

import math as m
print([Link](36))

Useful Built-in Modules

import random
print([Link](1, 10)) # random number 1 to 10
print([Link](["a", "b", "c"])) # random item from list

import datetime
now = [Link]()
print(now) # current date and time

import os
print([Link]()) # current working directory

Packages
A package is a folder containing multiple modules. It must have a file called __init__.py inside.
# Installing third-party packages using pip
# Run in terminal:
# pip install requests

import requests
response = [Link]("[Link]
print(response.status_code) # 200

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Chapter 10 — String Manipulation

Working with text data in Python

A string is a sequence of characters written inside single or double quotes.
word = "python"
# Index: 0 1 2 3 4 5
# Neg idx: -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1

print(word[0]) # p
print(word[2]) # t
print(word[-1]) # n (last character)

Basic String Operations

# Concatenation
first = "Hello"
second = "World"
print(first + "" + second) # Hello World

# Repetition
print("Hi " * 3) # Hi Hi Hi

# Length
name = "python"
print(len(name)) # 6

String Slicing
# Syntax: string[start : stop : step]
name = "python"
print(name[2:4]) # th
print(name[:4]) # pyth
print(name[2:]) # thon
print(name[::2]) # pto (every 2nd character)
print(name[::-1]) # nohtyp (REVERSE the string!)

Useful String Methods

text = "hello world"
print([Link]()) # HELLO WORLD
print([Link]()) # Hello World
print([Link]("world", "Python")) # hello Python
print([Link]("")) # ['hello', 'world']
print([Link]()) # removes leading/trailing spaces
print([Link]("he")) # True
print([Link]("l")) # 3

# f-string formatting (modern and recommended)

name = "Ravi"
age = 20
print(f"Name: {name}, Age: {age}")

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Chapter 11 — Lists

Ordered, mutable collection of items

A list stores an ordered collection of items. It is mutable — you can change its contents.
numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
mixed = [1, "hello", 3.14, True]
empty = []

fruits = ["apple", "mango", "grape"]

print(fruits[0]) # apple
print(fruits[-1]) # grape

List Operations
fruits = ["apple", "mango", "pineapple", "grape"]

# Add
[Link]("banana") # add at end
[Link](1, "watermelon") # add at index 1

# Remove
[Link]("mango") # remove by value
[Link](0) # remove by index
[Link]() # remove last item

# Update
fruits[0] = "kiwi"

# Sort
numbers = [3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9]
[Link]()
print(numbers) # [1, 1, 3, 4, 5, 9]
[Link](reverse=True)
print(numbers) # [9, 5, 4, 3, 1, 1]

# Length and concatenation

print(len(fruits))
print([1,2,3] + [4,5,6]) # [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

List Slicing
numbers = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60]
print(numbers[1:4]) # [20, 30, 40]
print(numbers[:3]) # [10, 20, 30]
print(numbers[3:]) # [40, 50, 60]
print(numbers[::-1]) # [60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10]

Looping Through a List

fruits = ["apple", "mango", "grape"]
for item in fruits:
print(item)

for i, item in enumerate(fruits):

print(i, item)

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Practice Questions
• 1. Create a list of 5 colours
• 2. Print the first and last item
• 3. Add one new item and remove one item
• 4. Print all items using a for loop
• 5. Find the length of the list
• 6. Sort the list and print it

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Chapter 12 — Tuples

Ordered, immutable collection of items

A tuple is like a list but immutable — once created you cannot change, add, or remove items.
tuple1 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
colors = ("red", "green", "blue")
single = (42,) # Single-item tuple needs a trailing comma!

fruits = ("apple", "mango", "pineapple", "grape")

print(fruits[0]) # apple
print(fruits[-1]) # grape
print(fruits[1:3]) # ('mango', 'pineapple')
print(len(fruits)) # 4

for item in fruits:

print(item)

a = (1, 2)
b = (3, 4)
print(a + b) # (1, 2, 3, 4)

List vs Tuple — Key Differences

Feature List Tuple
Mutable? Yes No
Symbol [ ] ( )
Speed Slower Faster
Memory More Less
Use Case Data that changes Fixed/constant data

Practice Questions
• 1. Create a tuple with 5 numbers
• 2. Print the first and last item
• 3. Find the length of the tuple
• 4. Try changing an item — observe the error

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Chapter 13 — Sets

Unordered collection of unique values

A set stores unique values only — duplicates are removed automatically. Sets are unordered, so items may
appear in a different order each time.
fruits = {"apple", "mango", "grape"}
print(fruits)

# Duplicates removed automatically

numbers = {1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5}
print(numbers) # {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

[Link]("banana") # Add item

[Link]("mango") # Remove item

for item in fruits:

print(item)

Set Operations
a = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
b = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

# Union — combine both sets

print(a | b) # {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}
print([Link](b))

# Intersection — common values only

print(a & b) # {4, 5}
print([Link](b))

# Difference — values only in first set

print(a - b) # {1, 2, 3}
print([Link](b))

# Symmetric Difference — values NOT in both

print(a ^ b) # {1,2,3,6,7,8}
print(a.symmetric_difference(b))

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Chapter 14 — Dictionaries

Store data as key: value pairs

A dictionary stores data in key:value pairs. Keys must be unique. You access values using their key, not an index.
student = {
"name" : "Dhanush",
"age" : 20,
"dept" : "CSE"
}

print(student["name"]) # Dhanush
print([Link]("age")) # 20
print([Link]())
print([Link]())
print([Link]())

Modifying Dictionaries
student["blood_group"] = "B+" # Add new key
student["blood_group"] = "A+" # Update value
[Link]("dept") # Remove key
print(student)

Looping Through a Dictionary

student = {"name": "Ravi", "age": 21, "city": "Chennai"}

for key in student:

print(key)

for key, value in [Link]():

print(key, ":", value)

All Data Structures — Quick Comparison

Type Symbol Duplicates Mutable Ordered
List [ ] Yes Yes Yes
Tuple ( ) Yes No Yes
Set { } No Yes No
Dictionary {k:v} Keys: No Yes Yes (3.7+)

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Chapter 15 — Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)

Classes, Objects, Inheritance, Polymorphism and Data Hiding

OOP organises code into classes and objects. It makes code reusable, structured, and easier to maintain.

Classes and Objects

class Student:
def __init__(self, name, age): # constructor
[Link] = name
[Link] = age

def display(self):
print("Name:", [Link])
print("Age :", [Link])

s1 = Student("Ravi", 20)
s2 = Student("Priya", 21)
[Link]()
[Link]()
Note: __init__ is the constructor — it runs automatically when you create an object.

Inheritance
A child class inherits all properties and methods of a parent class.
# Single Inheritance
class Animal:
def speak(self):
print("Animal speaks")

class Dog(Animal):
def bark(self):
print("Dog barks")

d = Dog()
[Link]() # Inherited from Animal
[Link]() # Dog's own method

# Multilevel Inheritance: Grandparent -> Parent -> Child

class Grandparent:
def a(self): print("Grandparent")

class Parent(Grandparent):
def b(self): print("Parent")

class Child(Parent):
def c(self): print("Child")

obj = Child()
obj.a() # from Grandparent
obj.b() # from Parent
obj.c() # own

Polymorphism and Method Overriding

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Same method name, different behaviour depending on which class calls it.
class Animal:
def speak(self):
print("Some sound")

class Dog(Animal):
def speak(self): # overrides parent method
print("Woof!")

class Cat(Animal):
def speak(self): # overrides parent method
print("Meow!")

animals = [Dog(), Cat(), Animal()]

for animal in animals:
[Link]()
# Output: Woof! Meow! Some sound

Data Hiding (Encapsulation)

Use double underscore __ to make an attribute private — cannot be accessed from outside.
class Student:
def __init__(self):
self.__mark = 95 # private attribute

def show(self):
print("Mark:", self.__mark)

s = Student()
[Link]() # Works fine -> Mark: 95
# print(s.__mark) # Error! Cannot access directly

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Chapter 16 — File Handling

Create, read, write and manage files

File handling allows programs to permanently store data on disk, unlike variables which lose values when the
program ends.

File Modes
Mode Symbol Description
Read r Open for reading (file
must exist)
Write w Create new file or
overwrite existing
Append a Add to end without
deleting existing content
Read+Write r+ Read and write (file must
exist)

File Operations
# 1. Write to a file
file = open("[Link]", "w")
[Link]("Hello, Python!")
[Link]()

# 2. Read from a file

file = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())
[Link]()

# 3. Append data
file = open("[Link]", "a")
[Link]("\nNew line added")
[Link]()

# 4. Read line by line

file = open("[Link]", "r")
for line in file:
print(line, end="")
[Link]()

Best Practice — using with open()

The with statement automatically closes the file when done.
# Read
with open("[Link]", "r") as file:
data = [Link]()
print(data)

# Write
with open("[Link]", "w") as file:
[Link]("Python is awesome!")

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# Read and Write

with open("[Link]", "r+") as file:
content = [Link]()
print(content)
[Link]("\nAdded via r+ mode")
Note: Always use 'with open()' in real projects — it is safer and cleaner.

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Chapter 17 — Exception Handling

Handle errors so your program does not crash

An exception is an error that occurs during execution. Without handling it, Python stops the program and shows
an error. Exception handling lets us control what happens when an error occurs.

Common Exceptions
Exception Cause
ZeroDivisionError Division by zero
ValueError Invalid value e.g. int('abc')
TypeError Wrong data type in operation
IndexError List index out of range
KeyError Dictionary key not found
FileNotFoundError File does not exist
NameError Variable used before being defined

try-except Syntax
try:
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
print(10 / num)
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Cannot divide by zero!")
except ValueError:
print("Please enter a valid number!")
except:
print("Some other error occurred")

try-except-finally
try:
file = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())
except FileNotFoundError:
print("File not found!")
finally:
print("Program finished.") # always runs, error or not
Note: 'finally' always runs — use it to close files, database connections, etc.

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Chapter 18 — Iterators, Generators and Decorators

Advanced Python concepts for cleaner, smarter code

Iterators
An iterator goes through items one by one. Every for loop uses an iterator internally. Needs two methods:
__iter__() and __next__()
class MyNumbers:
def __iter__(self):
self.n = 1
return self

def __next__(self):
if self.n <= 5:
x = self.n
self.n += 1
return x
else:
raise StopIteration # stops the iterator

obj = MyNumbers()
for i in obj:
print(i) # Output: 1 2 3 4 5

Generators
A generator is an easy way to create an iterator using yield. yield pauses the function and remembers where it
stopped.
def my_gen():
yield 1
yield 2
yield 3

for i in my_gen():
print(i) # Output: 1 2 3

# Generator for squares

def squares(n):
for i in range(1, n+1):
yield i * i

for val in squares(5):

print(val) # 1 4 9 16 25

Decorators
A decorator adds extra functionality to a function without changing the original function.
def wish(func):
def wrapper():
print("Good morning!")
func()
print("Have a nice day!")
return wrapper

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@wish
def student():
print("I am a student.")

student()
# Output:
# Good morning!
# I am a student.
# Have a nice day!

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Chapter 19 — Logging and Collections

Track program behaviour and use advanced data structures

Logging
Logging records what happens in your program. It is better than print() for real projects.
Level When to Use
DEBUG Detailed info for diagnosing problems
INFO Confirm things are working as expected
WARNING Something unexpected but not an error
ERROR A serious problem occurred
CRITICAL A very serious error — program may crash
import logging
[Link](level=[Link])

balance = 1000
[Link]("User logged in")

withdraw = 200
if withdraw > balance:
[Link]("Insufficient balance")
else:
balance -= withdraw
[Link](f"Transaction successful. New balance: {balance}")

Collections Module
The collections module gives special data structures more useful than normal list/dict.

Counter — Count frequency of items

from collections import Counter

c = Counter(["a", "b", "b", "c", "c", "c"])

print(c) # Counter({'c': 3, 'b': 2, 'a': 1})

words = "apple banana apple cherry banana apple"

word_count = Counter([Link]())
print(word_count.most_common(2)) # Top 2 most common words

deque — Double-Ended Queue

from collections import deque

data = deque([1, 2, 3])

[Link](4) # add to right
[Link](0) # add to left
print(data) # deque([0, 1, 2, 3, 4])

[Link]() # remove from right

[Link]() # remove from left

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print(data) # deque([1, 2, 3])

Note: deque is faster than a list for adding/removing items from both ends.

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Chapter 20 — Mini Projects

Apply what you've learned — build real programs!

Project 01 — Simple Calculator

Build a calculator that performs addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
Skills Used: User Input, Type Casting, Operators, Conditional Statements

Step-by-Step Instructions
1. Get two numbers from the user using input() and convert to float
2. Ask the user to choose an operation (+, -, *, /)
3. Use if-elif-else to perform the selected operation
4. Handle division by zero: if b == 0 print an error message
5. Display the result clearly
6. Bonus: Wrap in a while loop so the user can calculate multiple times

Project 02 — Number Guessing Game

The program picks a random number and the user must guess it.
Skills Used: random module, While Loop, Conditional Statements, Functions

Step-by-Step Instructions
7. Import the random module
8. Generate a random number between 1 and 100 using [Link]()
9. Use a while loop to keep asking the user for a guess
10. Tell the user if their guess is Too High, Too Low, or Correct
11. Count and display how many attempts the user took
12. Bonus: Limit attempts to 10 and end the game if exceeded

Project 03 — Student Report Card

Take student name and marks for 5 subjects, calculate total, average, and grade.
Skills Used: Lists, Functions, Conditional Statements, Loops

Step-by-Step Instructions
13. Create a function to collect marks for 5 subjects using a loop
14. Calculate total using sum() and average using total / 5
15. Use if-elif-else to assign a grade: A (90+), B (75+), C (50+), D (35+), Fail
16. Store student details in a dictionary
17. Display the full report card: name, marks, total, average, grade
18. Bonus: Store multiple students in a list of dictionaries

Project 04 — To-Do List App

A command-line app where users can add, view, and delete tasks.
Skills Used: Lists, While Loop, Functions, File Handling

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Step-by-Step Instructions
19. Create an empty list to store tasks
20. Show a menu: 1-Add Task 2-View Tasks 3-Delete Task 4-Quit
21. Use a while loop to keep showing the menu
22. Implement add, view, and delete as separate functions
23. Save tasks to a text file so they persist between program runs
24. Bonus: Add a 'Mark as Complete' feature

Project 05 — Contact Book

A simple app to store, search, and display contact information.
Skills Used: Dictionary, Lists, Functions, File Handling, Exception Handling

Step-by-Step Instructions
25. Use a dictionary to store contacts (name as key, phone as value)
26. Create functions: add_contact(), view_contacts(), search_contact(), delete_contact()
27. Use a while loop with a menu to navigate between features
28. Handle 'contact not found' using try-except or if-else
29. Save contacts to a file and load them when the program starts
30. Bonus: Add email and address using nested dictionaries

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