Chapter 1 – The Ever-Evolving World of Science

Note: Chapter 1 does not have a formal 'Check Yourself' exercise with MCQs/blanks. The main activity is the 'Happy
Exploring!' question-framing exercise.

Happy Exploring! – Frame Questions for the Given Answers

Possible Question(s): 1. How do green plants make their own food?

2. What is photosynthesis?
3. Where does photosynthesis take place in a plant?

Possible Question(s): 1. How are chalk and iron different from each other?
2. Why can chalk be broken easily but iron cannot?
3. Compare the hardness of chalk and iron.

Possible Question(s): 1. How is a shadow formed?

2. What happens when light falls on an opaque object?
3. Why does a dark shadow form behind an object?

Possible Question(s): 1. Why should we use carpooling and public transport?

2. How can we reduce air pollution caused by vehicles?
3. What causes air pollution from burning of fuels?

Chapter 2 – Exploring Substances: Acidic, Basic and Neutral

A. Choose the Most Appropriate Answer (MCQs)
1. (b) Citric acid
Explanation: Lemon contains citric acid, which gives it its characteristic sour taste.
2. (c) Red
Explanation: Turmeric turns red/reddish-brown when mixed with a basic (alkaline) solution.
3. (d) Methyl orange
Explanation: Rose extract, onion, and litmus are natural indicators. Methyl orange is a synthetic (man-made) indicator, so
it is the odd one out.
4. (b) It neutralises acidity
Explanation: Quicklime (calcium hydroxide) is a base; when added to acidic soil it neutralises the excess acid and
increases soil fertility.
5. (a) Both acids and bases
Explanation: Methyl orange turns red in acids and yellow in bases and neutral solutions, so it can detect both.

B. Fill in the Blanks

1. oesophagus
2. antiseptic
3. red
4. formic acid

C. Write 'T' for True and 'F' for False. Also Rewrite Incorrect Statements.
1. F – Correction: Antacid syrups are basic (alkaline) in nature. They are used to neutralise the excess acid in the stomach
and relieve acidity.
2. T
3. F – Correction: Milk is slightly acidic (or nearly neutral) in nature, not basic.
4. F – Correction: Phenolphthalein is colourless in acidic and neutral solutions, and turns pink/red in basic solutions.
D. Answer in Brief
1. Acid-base indicator and its classification: An acid-base indicator is a substance that changes its colour (or smell) to
show whether a given substance is acidic, basic, or neutral.
Three types:
• Natural indicators – obtained from nature, e.g., litmus paper, turmeric, red cabbage juice, China rose extract.
• Synthetic indicators – man-made chemical substances, e.g., phenolphthalein, methyl orange.
• Olfactory indicators – natural substances that change their smell in acidic or basic medium, e.g., onion, vanilla
extract, clove oil.

2. Two substances with neutral properties and their chemical formulae:

• Water – H2O
• Common salt (sodium chloride) – NaCl
Neutral substances do not change the colour of any indicator.

3. Laboratory acids (such as sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid) can be very strong and concentrated. They are
highly corrosive and can cause serious burns or permanent damage to the mouth, throat, and digestive system. Many
are also toxic and poisonous. Hence, we must never taste or smell laboratory acids directly.

4. When an acid reacts with a base, they neutralise each other's effect and form a salt and water along with the release of
heat. This reaction is called a neutralisation reaction.

Acid + Base → Salt + Water + Heat

Example:
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O + Heat
(Hydrochloric acid + Sodium hydroxide → Sodium chloride + Water + Heat)

5. Take a small piece of white paper/cloth and apply turmeric paste on it. Allow it to dry to make a turmeric strip. Now
add a few drops of the unknown solution onto the strip. If the colour of turmeric remains yellow, the solution is acidic
or neutral. If the colour changes to reddish-brown, the solution is basic in nature.

E. Answer in Detail
1. Three properties of acids:
• Acids taste sour (e.g., lemon juice contains citric acid, vinegar contains acetic acid).
• Acids turn blue litmus paper red.
• Acids react with bases to form salt and water (neutralisation reaction).
Three properties of bases:
• Bases taste bitter (e.g., baking soda).
• Bases feel slippery or soapy to touch.
• Bases turn red litmus paper blue.
2. Activity using a natural indicator (Red Cabbage) in laboratory:
Aim: To detect the acidic or basic nature of substances using red cabbage juice as a natural indicator.
Materials: Red cabbage, water, gas burner, beaker, lemon juice, vinegar, baking soda, soap solution, milk.
Steps:
• Chop red cabbage and boil in water. Cool and strain to collect the purple juice.
• Take small amounts of lemon juice, vinegar, baking soda, soap solution, and milk in separate test tubes.
• Add a few drops of red cabbage juice to each test tube and observe the colour change.
Observation: The juice turns red/pink in acidic solutions (lemon juice, vinegar) and blue/green in basic solutions (baking
soda, soap solution). It stays purple in neutral substances.
Conclusion: Red cabbage juice is a natural acid-base indicator.
3. Salts are formed when an acid reacts with a base in a neutralisation reaction. The H⁺ from the acid and OH⁻ from the
base combine to form water, and the remaining ions form a salt.
Example: CH3COOH + NaHCO3 → CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O
(Acetic acid + Sodium bicarbonate → Sodium acetate + Carbon dioxide + Water)
Salts do not show any colour change with acid-base indicators.

4. Acid rain is rainfall that has become acidic due to dissolved pollutants — mainly sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen
oxides — released from factories, power plants, and vehicles. These gases dissolve in rainwater to form sulphuric acid and
nitric acid.
Effects on Indian monuments:
• Taj Mahal: The white marble is turning yellow as calcium carbonate in marble reacts with acids in the rain.
• Lotus Temple, Delhi: Losing its white shine and turning grey.
• Charminar, Hyderabad: Showing cracks and peeling due to acid rain and pollutants.
• Qutub Minar: Getting blackened and worn by acidic chemicals and dirty air settling on it.

5. Uses of acids and bases in daily life:

Acids:
• Citric acid – used in food flavouring and preservation of food items.
• Acetic acid (vinegar) – used in cooking and as a preservative.
• Sulphuric acid – used in car batteries and fertiliser production.
• Hydrochloric acid – present in the stomach to help digest food.
Bases:
• Baking soda (NaHCO3) – used in baking to make cakes and bread fluffy, and as an antacid.
• Milk of magnesia (Mg(OH)2) – used as antacid to relieve indigestion and acidity.
• Calcium hydroxide – used in whitewashing walls and treating acidic soil in agriculture.
• Sodium hydroxide – used in making soap and detergents.

6. When soil becomes too acidic (pH below 7), crops cannot absorb nutrients properly and their growth is stunted.
Farmers add quicklime (CaO) or slaked lime (Ca(OH)2) — both are bases — to neutralise the excess acid present in
the soil. This raises the pH of the soil to a level suitable for growing crops, improving soil fertility and yield.

F. Assertion and Reason

1. (c) Assertion (A) is correct, but Reason (R) is incorrect.
Explanation: A is correct: lemon juice is acidic, and acids turn blue litmus red. But R says 'lemon juice is a basic
substance', which is wrong — lemon juice is acidic.

2. (a) Both A and R are correct, and R correctly explains A.

Explanation: Baking soda is used in fluffy cakes because it releases CO2 on heating, which makes the batter rise and the
cake become spongy. Both A and R are correct and related.

3. (a) Both A and R are correct, and R correctly explains A.

Explanation: Red litmus stays red in acidic solutions and changes colour only in basic solutions. R correctly explains why
— red litmus only changes colour in basic conditions.

Olympiad
(b) Marble structures – because acid reacts with calcium carbonate.
Explanation: Marble is composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Acid rain (containing sulphuric acid and nitric acid)
reacts with calcium carbonate, dissolving and eroding the marble surface. Iron buildings would rust but not dissolve.
Wood and glass are not significantly affected by acid rain in the same way.
HOTS – High Order Thinking Skills
When we eat sugary or carbohydrate-rich food, bacteria in our mouth act on the food particles and release acid. This acid
gradually erodes the outermost protective layer of our teeth called enamel, causing tooth decay and toothache.
Toothpaste contains fluoride compounds, which are basic in nature. When we brush our teeth, the toothpaste (being a
base) neutralises the acid formed in the mouth. This neutralisation reaction prevents the acid from damaging the enamel,
thereby protecting our teeth. This is why brushing after eating sugary foods is very important.

Value and Life Skill Based

1. Value of helping others experiencing discomfort or health issues: When Manu's mother helped her grandmother
with acid reflux, she showed the value of empathy and compassion — being sensitive to others' pain and taking prompt
action to help them feel better. It also reflects care and responsibility towards family members. Helping someone in
physical discomfort shows kindness, patience, and concern for others' well-being.

2. Value of using natural remedies for health benefits: Turmeric has been used for centuries in Indian households as an
antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, and healing agent. Using natural substances like turmeric for health benefits shows a respect
for traditional wisdom and our natural environment. It also promotes sustainable living by reducing dependence on
chemical medicines where natural alternatives work well. We should appreciate and pass on this knowledge of nature-
based remedies while being scientifically aware.

Case Study Based Assessment

Case: Neha observed her mother using vinegar to clean stains and baking soda in cakes. She mixed both accidentally and
noticed fizzing. She decided to investigate.

1. Vinegar contains acetic acid (CH3COOH), which is acidic in nature. Many common stains (like hard water deposits,
mineral stains, and grease) are basic or alkaline. The acid in vinegar reacts with and dissolves these alkaline stains through
a neutralisation reaction, making vinegar an effective natural cleaning agent.

2. Baking soda (sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3) is basic in nature. When heated or mixed with an acidic ingredient (like
vinegar or curd) in baking, it releases carbon dioxide (CO2) gas. These CO2 bubbles get trapped in the dough/batter and
expand when heated, making the baked product light, soft, and fluffy. This is why it is called a leavening agent.

3. Carbon dioxide (CO2) gas is released. This is why vigorous fizzing (bubbling) is observed when baking soda and
vinegar are mixed.

4. Simple word equation for the reaction:

Acetic acid + Sodium bicarbonate → Sodium acetate + Carbon dioxide + Water
(Vinegar) + (Baking soda) → (Salt) + (CO₂ gas) + (Water)

Chapter 3 – Electricity: Circuits and their Components

A. Choose the Most Appropriate Answer (MCQs)
1. (b) Positive
Explanation: The longer terminal (leg) of an LED is connected to the positive terminal of the cell. It is called the anode
(+).

2. (c) Plastic
Explanation: Plastic does not allow electricity to pass through it. It is a poor conductor (insulator) of electricity.

3. (c) Light Emitting Diode

Explanation: LED stands for Light Emitting Diode.

4. (c) Open or close the circuit

Explanation: A switch is used to open (break) or close (complete) an electric circuit, controlling the flow of current.

5. (a) Positive to negative

Explanation: Electric current flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of a cell or battery in an external
circuit.

B. Fill in the Blanks

1. Switch
2. electric cell
3. conductor
4. closed
5. conductors

C. Write 'T' for True and 'F' for False. Also Rewrite Incorrect Statements.
1. T
2. F – Correction: Plastic is a poor conductor (insulator) of electricity. It does not allow electricity to pass through it.
3. T
4. F – Correction: Pure (distilled) water is a poor conductor of electricity. Tap water or salt water conducts electricity
because it contains dissolved salts and ions.
5. T

D. Answer in One Word (VSA)

1. Switch
2. Cathode (shorter wire)
3. Copper
4. Closed circuit
5. Closed circuit

E. Answer in Brief
1. An electric circuit is a closed path or loop through which electric current flows. It consists of a source of electricity (cell
or battery), connecting wires, a switch, and one or more electrical components like a bulb or LED. The current flows from
the positive terminal to the negative terminal of the source through the external circuit.

2. Although gold is a slightly better conductor than copper, it is extremely expensive and not available in sufficient
quantities. Copper is a very good conductor, affordable, widely available, and highly ductile (can be drawn into thin wires
easily). Therefore, copper is preferred for making electric wires.

3. An LED glows only when the circuit is complete (closed) and current flows in the correct direction (from its
positive/anode leg to negative/cathode leg). If the LED glows, the circuit is working correctly. If it does not glow, either
the circuit is broken (open circuit) or the LED is connected in the wrong direction.

4. Two precautions while handling electric circuits:

• Always keep hands dry before touching switches, plugs, or electrical components — never handle electricity with
wet hands.
• Never insert objects into electric sockets; always switch off before making or changing circuit connections.

5. An electric cell is a single unit that contains chemicals (electrolyte) to produce electrical energy. It has two terminals —
a positive terminal (metal cap) and a negative terminal (metal disc). A battery is formed when two or more electric cells
are connected in series (positive terminal of one to negative terminal of the next). A battery provides more electrical
energy than a single cell.

Symbol – Electric Cell:

Battery:

F. Answer in Detail
1. Making a simple electric circuit with cell, LED, and wires (with circuit diagram):
Materials: One electric cell, one LED, two connecting wires, one switch (optional).
Steps:
• Connect one end of the first wire to the positive (+) terminal of the cell.
• Connect the other end to the longer (positive/anode) leg of the LED.
• Connect one end of the second wire to the shorter (negative/cathode) leg of the LED.
• Connect the other end to the negative (–) terminal of the cell.
Observation: The LED glows because a complete closed circuit is formed and current flows from the positive to the
negative terminal through the LED.
Circuit Diagram (symbolic):

2. Electric wires carry high-voltage current that can give dangerous electric shocks if touched directly. The plastic/PVC
insulation coating on the wire prevents accidental contact with the live conductor inside. It also prevents short circuits
(where current jumps between wires), reduces fire hazards, and protects the wire from moisture, heat, and physical
damage.

3. Electricity is generated at power stations (thermal, hydro, nuclear, wind farms, etc.). It then travels through large high-
voltage transmission lines. The voltage is reduced at transformers to a safe level for household use. From there, electricity
moves through smaller distribution wires along electric poles or underground cables, passes through the electric meter,
and enters our homes through the distribution board.

4. Reasons:
(a) Electricians wear rubber gloves: Rubber is an excellent electrical insulator. Electricians wear rubber gloves to
protect themselves from electric shock when working with live wires, as rubber prevents electricity from passing through
it and reaching the electrician's body.

(b) Bulbs do not glow in open circuits: In an open circuit, the path of electricity is incomplete (switch is off or wire is
disconnected). Electric current cannot flow without a complete, unbroken path. Since there is no current flowing, the bulb
receives no electricity and cannot glow.

G. Assertion and Reason

1. (a) Both A and R are correct, and R correctly explains A.
Explanation: A bulb glows only in a closed circuit because that is the only condition in which current can flow
continuously through the filament to produce light.

2. (c) Assertion (A) is correct, but Reason (R) is incorrect.

Explanation: LED does glow only when connected correctly. But R is wrong — current does NOT flow in both directions
through an LED. An LED is a diode and allows current only in one direction (forward bias).

3. (a) Both A and R are correct, and R correctly explains A.

Explanation: Distilled water lacks ions, so it cannot conduct electricity. R correctly explains why this is so.

Olympiad
(b) Use a battery, switch, bulb — current flows when switch is closed.
Explanation: A correct electric circuit requires a power source (battery), a component (bulb), and a means to
control (switch). When the switch is closed, the circuit becomes complete and current flows, making the bulb
glow. Option (a) is wrong — wires alone cannot produce current. Option (c) is incomplete — a switch is
essential for control. Option (d) is wrong — two switches in open position keep the circuit open.

HOTS – High Order Thinking Skills

1. An electrician must check circuits before repairing to ensure the circuit is not live (carrying current). Working on a live
circuit can cause a fatal electric shock. By switching off the main supply and using a tester to confirm no current is
flowing, the electrician ensures their safety before touching any component.

2. Connect the LED to a battery with wires. Observe — if the LED glows, the leg connected to the positive terminal (+) of
the battery is the anode (positive leg). If it does not glow, reverse the connections. The leg connected to the positive
terminal when the LED glows is the positive (longer) leg. You can also identify it by length — the longer leg is always
the positive (anode) terminal.

3. A damaged wire may have its insulation (plastic coating) broken or worn off. This exposes the live conductor inside. If
someone accidentally touches it, they can receive a severe electric shock. Damaged wires can also cause short circuits,
overheating, and fires. Therefore, damaged wires must never be used and should be replaced immediately.

4. Grounding (earthing) of electric poles provides a safe path for excess or fault current to flow harmlessly into the earth.
Without proper grounding, any fault current (due to lightning, short circuit, or equipment failure) would have nowhere to
go. This could cause the poles and wires to remain dangerously charged, leading to electric shocks to anyone who touches
them, damage to electrical equipment, and risk of fire or electrocution.

Picture Based Assessment

Feature Circuit 1 (Switch OFF) Circuit 2 (Switch ON)

Switch Open Closed
Type of circuit Open circuit Closed circuit
Current flows? No Yes
Bulb Does not glow Glows

Value and Life Skill Based

1. Seema shows the value of responsibility and concern for others' safety. She demonstrates protective behaviour by
ensuring her younger brother is not exposed to danger. This also reflects awareness about electrical safety. The value
learnt is: We should always look out for the well-being of others, especially younger children who may not be aware of
dangers.

2. A broken electric pole is a serious safety hazard for the entire community. By reporting it, Raju prevents potential
accidents, electric shocks, and even loss of life. His action shows civic responsibility, bravery, and community spirit.
Values learnt from Raju: We should be alert and proactive citizens; report unsafe situations to authorities; care for the
safety of our community; and not ignore problems that may harm others.

Case Study Based Assessment

Case: Rani prepared an electric circuit using an LED, battery, and switch. She observed that the LED glowed only when
connected in one direction.

1. The observation shows that the LED is sensitive to the direction of current flow. It allows current to pass through it in
only one direction (forward bias — from anode to cathode). When connected in the reverse direction, current does not
flow and the LED does not glow.

2. An LED (Light Emitting Diode) is a diode, which means it has a property of allowing current to flow only from its
positive terminal (anode) to its negative terminal (cathode). This is called forward bias. When current flows in this
direction through the semiconductor material inside the LED, it emits light. If connected in reverse (reverse bias), current
is blocked and the LED does not glow.

3.

Note: The longer leg (anode/+) of the LED is connected to the positive terminal of the battery.

4. Safety measures Rani should take while working with electricity:

• Always keep hands dry while handling electrical components.
• Work under adult supervision and use only low-voltage batteries for school experiments — never use mains
electricity directly.
• Do not short-circuit the battery terminals (connecting + and – directly), as it can cause the battery to heat up.
• Store electrical components safely and do not touch exposed wires or terminals unnecessarily.
Chapter 4 – The World of Metals and Non-metals
A. Choose the Most Appropriate Answer (MCQs)
1. (b) Platinum
Explanation: Platinum is the most ductile metal. Even 1 gram of platinum can be drawn into a 2.5 km long wire.
2. (b) Oxygen
Explanation: Oxygen is the non-metal essential for respiration (breathing) in all living organisms.
3. (b) Ductility
Explanation: Ductility is the property of metals that allows them to be drawn into thin wires.
4. (c) Plastic
Explanation: Plastic is a non-metal and a good electrical insulator; it does not allow electricity to pass through it.
5. (c) Gold
Explanation: Gold is used in making jewellery because of its lustrous shine and high ductility and malleability, which
allow it to be shaped into intricate designs.

B. Fill in the Blanks

1. Ductility
2. Copper, Aluminium
3. Mercury
4. acidic
5. alloy

C. Write 'T' for True and 'F' for False. Also Rewrite Incorrect Statements.
1. F – Correction: Not all metals are sonorous. Metals like sodium, potassium and lead are less sonorous. Sonority is a
property of most, but not all, metals.
2. F – Correction: Iron does rust when exposed to moist air. The presence of both oxygen and water (moist air) causes rust
(hydrated iron oxide) to form on the surface of iron.
3. F – Correction: Non-metals are generally poor conductors (insulators) of electricity. Exception: Graphite (a form of
carbon non-metal) is a good conductor of electricity.
4. T
5. T

D. Answer in One Word (VSA)

1. Titanium
2. Sulphur
3. Sonority
4. Nitrogen
5. Carbonic acid (H2CO3)

E. Answer in Brief
1. Copper is an excellent thermal conductor — it absorbs heat quickly and distributes it evenly across the entire surface of
the utensil. This allows food to cook uniformly without burning in spots. Copper-plated utensils are more energy-efficient
and provide better cooking quality compared to steel or aluminium utensils.

2. Corrosion is the gradual decay or erosion of the surface of metals caused by their chemical reaction with air (oxygen),
water, or other substances present in the environment. Examples: Rusting of iron (reddish-brown layer), green layer on
copper, and dull grey layer on aluminium.

3. The handles of cooking utensils are made of plastic because plastic is a thermal insulator — it does not conduct heat.
This prevents the heat from the hot metal vessel from passing into the handle, making it safe and comfortable to hold the
utensil while cooking or serving hot food, preventing burns.
4. Malleability: The property of metals by which they can be beaten into thin flat sheets using a hammer or machine
without breaking. Example: Gold and silver are the most malleable metals.

Ductility: The property of metals by which they can be drawn out into thin wires. Example: Platinum is the most ductile
metal.

Thermal conductivity: The ability of a material to transfer heat from one part to another. Metals are good thermal
conductors; non-metals like wood, plastic, and rubber are poor thermal conductors (thermal insulators).

5. (i) When metals burn in oxygen, they form basic oxides (e.g., MgO, Na2O) that turn red litmus blue. When
non-metals burn, they form acidic oxides (e.g., SO2, CO2) that turn blue litmus red.
(ii) Metals like sodium react vigorously with water producing hydrogen gas and heat. Most non-metals do not react with
water (e.g., carbon and sulphur do not dissolve in or react with water).

F. Answer in Detail
1. Metals vs Non-metals based on physical properties:
Metals: Generally lustrous (shiny), hard, malleable (beaten into sheets), ductile (drawn into wires), good conductors of
heat and electricity, and sonorous (produce ringing sound when struck). They exist as solids at room temperature, except
mercury.
Non-metals: Non-lustrous (dull surface), soft and brittle (break when pressure is applied), non-malleable, non-ductile,
poor conductors of heat and electricity (insulators), and non-sonorous. They can exist as solids, liquids, or gases at room
temperature.

2. Alloys and two examples with uses: An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals, or a metal and a non-metal, prepared
to have improved properties such as greater strength, better resistance to corrosion, or improved hardness.
• Steel (iron + carbon): Stronger than iron. Used in construction of buildings, bridges, and making tools.
• Stainless steel (iron + carbon + chromium 10.5–30%): Does not rust or corrode. Used in kitchen utensils,
cutlery, and surgical instruments.

3. Effects of air and water on iron, copper, and aluminium:

Iron: When iron is exposed to both oxygen and water (moist air), a reddish-brown flaky substance called rust
(Fe2O3·xH2O) forms on its surface. This is called rusting. Iron rusts only when both air and water are present.

Copper: When exposed to moist air for a long duration, a greenish layer forms on copper's surface. This is corrosion of
copper.

Aluminium: When exposed to moist air, aluminium forms a dull grey oxide layer on its surface, losing its shine. This is
also a form of corrosion.

4. (a) Silver is the best conductor of electricity, but it is extremely expensive and not available in the large quantities
needed for widespread use. Copper is nearly equally conductive, far more affordable, abundantly available, and
ductile enough for wire-making. Hence copper (and aluminium) are used instead.

(b) Steel (iron + carbon alloy) has much higher tensile strength than pure iron — it can bear very heavy loads without
stretching or breaking. Pure iron is weaker, less flexible, and more prone to deformation under heavy stress. Additionally,
stainless steel resists corrosion, making it ideal for outdoor structures like suspension bridges.

5. Nature of metal oxides compared to non-metal oxides:

Metal oxides: Formed when metals burn in oxygen. They are basic in nature (turn red litmus blue). When dissolved in
water, they form metal hydroxides (bases).
Example: CaO (calcium oxide) + H2O → Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide, a base).
Non-metal oxides: Formed when non-metals burn in oxygen. They are acidic in nature (turn blue litmus red). When
dissolved in water, they form acids.
Example: SO2 + H2O → H2SO3 (sulphurous acid)
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 (carbonic acid)

G. Assertion and Reason

1. (a) Both A and R are correct, and R correctly explains A.
Explanation: Sodium is stored in kerosene oil because it is a highly reactive metal that catches fire when
exposed to even small amounts of air or water. Kerosene protects it from both.

2. (c) Assertion (A) is correct, but Reason (R) is incorrect.

Explanation: Aluminium IS used in making aeroplanes
because it is lightweight and strong. However, R is wrong — aluminium is NOT heavy and brittle. It is actually
light and malleable.

3. (a) Both A and R are correct, and R correctly explains A.

Explanation: Graphite (a form of carbon) conducts electricity because of its unique layered structure with
delocalised electrons. R correctly explains why a non-metal can conduct electricity.

4. (c) Assertion (A) is correct, but Reason (R) is incorrect.

Explanation: Silver and gold are used in jewellery because of their shine and high malleability/ductility.
However, R is wrong — these metals are NOT highly reactive. In fact, they are among the least reactive (noble)
metals.

Olympiad
(b) Blue litmus turns red as the solution is acidic in nature.
Explanation: When carbon (C) burns in oxygen, it produces carbon dioxide (CO2). When CO2 is dissolved in
water, it forms carbonic acid (H2CO3), which is acidic. An acidic solution turns blue litmus red. So the correct
observation is blue litmus turning red.

HOTS – High Order Thinking Skills

1. Gold and silver are better conductors of electricity than aluminium, but they are extremely expensive, rare,
and their high density makes them very heavy. Aluminium is a good enough conductor, much cheaper,
abundantly available, and very lightweight. For transmission lines that run for thousands of kilometres, using
lightweight aluminium wires on electric poles is practical and economical. It would be impossible to support the
weight of gold or silver wires over such distances.

2. Graphite is a special form (allotrope) of carbon, which is a non-metal. In graphite, each carbon atom is
bonded to three other carbon atoms in a layered structure, leaving one electron per atom free (delocalised).
These free electrons can move throughout the layers, just like electrons in a metal. This is why graphite, despite
being a non-metal, is a good conductor of electricity. It is the only non-metal that conducts electricity well.

Picture Based Assessment

Property Plastic Bucket Metal Bucket

Material Non-metal (plastic) Metal (iron/steel)
 Lustre Dull (non-lustrous) Shiny (lustrous)
Malleability Non-malleable, breaks Malleable
Sonority Dull sound Ringing sound
Conductor of heat Poor conductor Good conductor
Can rust (prevented by zinc
Rusting Does not rust
coating)

Value and Life Skill Based

Activity: Visit a metal scrapyard and observe workers while collecting metals and recycling.
Values learnt from the workers:
• Hard work and dedication — scrapyard workers do physically demanding work to collect and sort recyclable
materials, showing the value of honest labour.
• Environmental responsibility — recycling metals reduces the need for mining new raw materials, conserves
energy (recycling aluminium saves 95% of the energy compared to producing it from raw ore), and reduces
pollution.
• Resourcefulness — workers find value in discarded materials, teaching us that nothing should be wasted.
• Sustainable living — the act of recycling directly supports SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production).

Case Study Based Assessment

Case: Manu and Bhrigu visited a gold showroom. The goldsmith showed how a gold ball is converted into a sheet and
then a wire to make jewellery.

1. Properties of gold they observed and analysed:

• Malleability – The goldsmith beat the gold ball into a thin flat sheet using a hammer, showing that gold can be
beaten into sheets without breaking.
• Ductility – The gold sheet was drawn out into thin wires, showing that gold can be pulled into fine wires.
• Lustre – Gold has a shiny, attractive surface, making it beautiful for jewellery.
• Workability/Softness – Gold is soft enough to be shaped into intricate designs by craftsmen.

2. Two key properties help the goldsmith:

Malleability: Gold is the most malleable metal — it can be beaten into extremely thin sheets (gold leaf) without cracking.
This allows the goldsmith to shape and flatten the gold into flat decorative pieces and backings for jewellery.
Ductility: Gold is also highly ductile — it can be drawn into very fine, thin wires. These wires are used to make intricate
designs, chains, and filigree work in jewellery. The combination of malleability and ductility makes gold the ideal metal
for creating beautifully crafted ornaments.

Chapter 5 – Changes Around Us: Physical and Chemical

A. Choose the Most Appropriate Answer (MCQs)
1. (c) Chemical change
Explanation: When one or more new substances with different properties are formed, it is a chemical change. These
changes are irreversible and permanent.
2. (c) Chemical change
Explanation: Browning of cut fruits is caused by a chemical reaction between enzymes in the fruit (tyrosinase/PPO) and
oxygen in air. New brown substances are formed and the change is permanent and irreversible.
3. (b) Hydrated iron oxide
Explanation: Rust is chemically known as hydrated iron oxide, represented as Fe2O3·xH2O.
4. (b) Water
Explanation: The three necessary conditions for combustion are: a combustible substance, air (oxygen), and ignition
temperature. Water is NOT required — it is actually used to put out fires.
5. (c) Weathering
Explanation: The process of rocks breaking down into smaller pieces due to effects of wind, water, or temperature
changes is called weathering.

B. Fill in the Blanks

1. reversible
2. reaction
3. water
4. air
5. ignition

C. Write 'T' for True and 'F' for False. Also Rewrite Incorrect Statements.
1. F – Correction: Curdling of milk is a chemical change, not a physical change. New substances (curd/paneer) with
different properties are formed and the process is irreversible.
2. T
3. T
4. F – Correction: Different substances have different ignition temperatures. Each substance requires its own specific
minimum temperature to start burning.
5. F – Correction: Respiration involves both physical and chemical changes. Breathing (movement of gases) is physical;
breakdown of glucose by oxygen inside the body to release energy is chemical.

D. Answer in Brief
1. Two noticeable effects that accompany chemical reactions:
• Change in colour or production of a new smell (e.g., burning paper produces a burnt smell).
• Release or absorption of heat/light, formation of a gas (bubbles/fizzing), or formation of a precipitate (solid
deposit).

2. When paper burns, it reacts with oxygen and produces entirely new substances — ash, carbon dioxide, and
water vapour. These new substances have completely different properties from the original paper. The original
paper cannot be recovered. The change is permanent, irreversible, and is accompanied by the release of heat and
light energy. Therefore, burning of paper is a chemical change.

3. Three necessary conditions for combustion:

• A combustible substance (material that can catch fire).
• Presence of air or oxygen (supporter of combustion).
• Heat equal to or greater than the substance's ignition temperature.

4. Two methods to prevent browning of cut fruits:

• Apply lemon juice over the cut surface — citric acid creates an acidic barrier that prevents enzymes from reacting
with oxygen.
• Keep cut vegetables/fruits submerged in water — this prevents contact with air/oxygen, stopping the browning
reaction.

5. Desirable vs Undesirable changes:

Desirable changes: Changes that are helpful or beneficial to us and society are called desirable changes. Examples:
Cooking food, making curd from milk, formation of clouds (rainfall).
Undesirable changes: Changes that are harmful, wasteful, or damaging are called undesirable changes. Examples:
Rusting of iron, burning of plastic, spoiling of food, formation of acid rain.

E. Answer in Detail
1. Compare and contrast physical and chemical changes:
Physical Changes: Changes in which only physical properties (shape, size, colour, state) change but no new substance is
formed. They are reversible and temporary. Examples: melting ice, tearing paper, inflating a balloon.
Chemical Changes: Changes in which one or more new substances with completely different properties are formed. They
are irreversible and permanent. They are accompanied by energy changes, gas production, or colour change. Examples:
burning paper, rusting iron, curdling milk, cooking food.
2. Rusting occurs when iron (Fe) reacts with oxygen (O2) and water (H2O) in the presence of moist air. A
reddish-brown, flaky layer called rust — chemically hydrated iron oxide (Fe2O3·xH2O) — forms on the iron
surface.
Rusting is a chemical change because: a completely new substance (rust) is formed with different properties (colour,
texture, strength) from iron; the original iron cannot be recovered; and the change is irreversible and permanent.

3. Chemical reaction when lime water reacts with CO2:

When carbon dioxide is passed into lime water (Ca(OH)2), a white precipitate of calcium carbonate is formed, turning the
solution milky.
Chemical equation: Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3(ppt) + H2O
This reaction is used as a test to detect the presence of CO2 gas.

4. Breathing (inhaling and exhaling air) involves only the physical movement and exchange of gases — no new
substance is formed, so it is a physical change. However, inside the body, the inhaled oxygen reacts with
glucose (food) and breaks it down to release energy. New substances — CO2 and water — are formed. Since
new substances are formed in an irreversible reaction, this internal process is a chemical change. Therefore,
respiration involves both.

5. Weathering: The natural process where rocks break down into smaller pieces due to wind, water, temperature, or
plants. Physical weathering (cracking by temperature/water) is a physical change. Chemical weathering (changes in
mineral composition) is a chemical change.
Erosion: The process by which soil, rocks, or surface materials are worn away and carried from one place to another by
wind, water, glaciers, or gravity. It is a physical change — soil particles are moved but their composition doesn't change.

F. Assertion and Reason

1. (a) Both A and R are correct, and R correctly explains A.
Explanation: Burning of paper is irreversible because ash cannot be converted back to paper. R correctly
explains the basis of this irreversibility.

2. (c) Assertion (A) is correct, but Reason (R) is incorrect.

Explanation: Burning paper does produce heat and light (A is correct). But R says chemical changes are
always accompanied by energy release — this is incorrect. Some reactions absorb energy (endothermic). So
R is a false generalisation.

3. (d) Assertion (A) is incorrect, but Reason (R) is correct.

Explanation: Rusting of iron is an undesirable change (it weakens iron). So A is wrong. R is correct — rust is
indeed a new substance (hydrated iron oxide) formed from iron, oxygen, and water.

4. (d) Assertion (A) is incorrect, but Reason (R) is correct.

Explanation: Formation of acid rain is clearly undesirable (it damages the environment). So A is wrong. R is
correct — undesirable changes do negatively impact the environment.

5. (d) Assertion (A) is incorrect, but Reason (R) is correct.

Explanation: Same as above — formation of acid rain is undesirable. R is correct.
6. (a) Both A and R are correct, and R correctly explains A.
Explanation: Erosion is a physical change (soil particles are moved, not chemically altered) and it is temporary/reversible
as the soil can be replenished over time. R correctly explains why.

Olympiad

1. (b) II and III only — Rusting of a nail and Burning of LPG.

Explanation: Rusting of a nail is a chemical change (new substance rust is formed, irreversible). Burning of LPG is a
chemical change (combustion — new substances CO2 and H2O are formed, irreversible). Tearing paper is a physical
change (no new substance formed). Dissolving sugar in water is a physical change (sugar can be recovered by evaporating
the water).

2. (c) Calcium carbonate — CaCO3.

Explanation: When CO2 reacts with Ca(OH)2 (lime water), the white precipitate formed is calcium carbonate
(CaCO3), which makes the lime water turn milky.

HOTS – High Order Thinking Skills

1. When the gas stove is lit, LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) burns. The burning (combustion) of LPG in the
presence of oxygen is a chemical change. New substances — carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapour (H2O) —
are produced along with the release of heat and light energy. The original LPG cannot be recovered from the
products. Since new substances are formed and the change is irreversible, this is a chemical change.
Note: The boiling of water itself (liquid to vapour) is a physical change since no new substance is formed.

2. A chemical change does not always need to produce smoke or ash — these are just some of the signs. The
defining feature of a chemical change is the formation of one or more new substances with different properties.
During digestion, complex food molecules like starch, proteins, and fats are broken down by enzymes into
simpler substances like glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids. These new substances have completely different
properties from the original food. The process is irreversible — digested food cannot be converted back to its
original form. Energy is also released. Hence, digestion is a chemical change, even though no visible smoke or
ash is produced.

Picture Based Assessment

Picture 1: Unripe (green) banana vs Ripe (yellow) banana.

Aspect Unripe Banana Ripe Banana
Colour Green Yellow
Taste Starchy / bland Sweet
Texture Hard and firm Soft
Type of change — Chemical change
Reversible? — No (irreversible)

Picture 2: Whole vegetables vs Cut vegetables.

Aspect Whole Vegetables Cut Vegetables
Shape/Size Unchanged Changed
 Material Same Same (only shape changes)
Type of change (cutting) No change Physical change
Yes — chemical change (reacts
Browning of surface No
with air)
Reversible? — Cutting — yes; Browning — no

Value and Life Skill Based

Value violated: Environmental responsibility and respect for nature are violated when industries dump waste into rivers.
It reflects a disregard for the well-being of the ecosystem, aquatic life, and communities that depend on clean water.
Responsibility of industries:
• Industries must treat their chemical waste (which may contain strong acids, bases, or toxic heavy metals) through
neutralisation and purification before releasing it into water bodies.
• They must follow government environmental regulations and obtain proper licences for waste disposal.
• Industries should invest in eco-friendly production methods and waste recycling to minimise pollution.
• They have a moral duty to protect rivers, soil, and air for the health of current and future generations. Responsible
industrial practice aligns with SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) and SDG 6 (Clean Water and
Sanitation).

Case Study Based Assessment

Case: Rohan made a bonfire with dry leaves, twigs, and logs. The leaves caught fire immediately but logs burned slowly.
After the fire, only ash remained. His iron shovel developed a reddish-brown coating after a few days of rain.

1. Two combustible substances mentioned in the case:

• Dry leaves (plant material — low ignition temperature, catch fire rapidly).
• Wood logs (also plant material but denser — higher ignition temperature, burn slowly).
(Twigs are also combustible and can be mentioned as a third substance.)

2. Burning (combustion) of dry leaves, twigs, and logs is a chemical change. New substances — ash, carbon
dioxide, and water vapour — are formed. The original leaves and wood cannot be recovered from the ash. The
change is irreversible and permanent.

3. Each substance has its own specific ignition temperature — the minimum temperature at which it begins to
burn and keeps burning on its own. Dry leaves are thin, have a large surface area exposed to oxygen, and have a
lower ignition temperature. So they catch fire easily and burn rapidly. Logs are thick and dense with a smaller
surface area to volume ratio and a higher ignition temperature. They need more heat to start burning and burn
much more slowly.

4. The reddish-brown coating on the iron shovel is rust (hydrated iron oxide — Fe2O3·xH2O).
Two conditions necessary for rust formation:
• Presence of oxygen (air).
• Presence of water (moisture).
Both oxygen and water must be present together for rusting to occur. Rain provided the moisture, and the air provided the
oxygen — together causing the iron shovel to rust.
Chapter 6 – Adolescence: A Stage of Growth and Change
A. Choose the Most Appropriate Answer (MCQs)
1. (a) Boys
Explanation: The Adam's apple (enlarged voice box/larynx) is more visible and prominent in boys because the male
hormone testosterone causes the larynx to grow larger during puberty.
2. (c) 3–7 days
Explanation: Menstruation usually lasts for 3 to 7 days in a normal, healthy menstrual cycle.
3. (b) Increase in oily secretions
Explanation: Acne occurs during puberty due to an increase in oily secretions from the skin glands. This clogs
the skin pores and leads to bacterial infection, causing pimples.
4. (b) Development of breasts
Explanation: Development of breasts is a secondary sexual characteristic in girls — it is not directly involved in
reproduction but helps distinguish females from males.
5. (b) Breast development
Explanation: Breast development is a sign of puberty in girls, NOT in boys. Signs of puberty in boys include
broad shoulders, voice change (heavy voice), and growth of facial hair.

B. Fill in the Blanks

1. periods
2. Endocrine
3. Adam's apple
4. endocrine
5. menopause
6. childhood

C. Write 'T' for True and 'F' for False. Also Rewrite Incorrect Statements.
1. F – Correction: Puberty and adolescence do not begin at exactly the same age in everyone. The onset varies from
person to person. In boys it generally starts between 11–14 years, and in girls between 11–12 years.
2. T
3. F – Correction: Boys develop a heavy, deep, and low-pitched voice after puberty. Girls develop a relatively higher-
pitched and softer voice.
4. T
5. F – Correction: Exercise and yoga have a very positive and significant effect during adolescence. They improve
physical strength, mental health, reduce stress, and support healthy growth and development.
6. T
7. T

D. Answer in One Word (VSA)

1. Adolescence
2. Adam's apple
3. Menarche
4. Menstrual cycle
5. Menopause

E. Answer in Brief

1. Puberty is the stage during adolescence when the body undergoes various physical, external and internal changes to
develop into an adult capable of reproduction. It is controlled by hormones produced by endocrine glands. In boys it
generally begins between 11–14 years and in girls between 11–12 years.

2. Adam's apple is the visible bump in the throat caused by the enlargement of the larynx (voice box) during puberty. This
enlargement is triggered mainly by the hormone testosterone in boys. As the larynx grows bigger, the vocal cords become
longer and thicker, causing the voice to become deeper and heavier. In girls, the larynx also grows slightly (leading to a
higher-pitched voice) but the Adam's apple is much less visible.

3. During adolescence, girls begin their menstrual cycle. During menstruation, blood is lost every month. Blood contains
haemoglobin which is iron-rich. Girls therefore need extra dietary iron to replace the iron lost each month during
menstruation. Iron is also needed for building muscles and supporting the rapid body growth during this stage. Iron
deficiency can lead to anaemia, causing weakness, fatigue, and pale skin.

4. Cyberbullying means troubling, harassing, threatening, or humiliating someone online using digital devices like mobile
phones, tablets, or laptops. Cybercriminals harass others by sending threatening or misleading messages, spreading false
rumours, sharing private information or photos without consent, or impersonating someone online.

5. Two secondary sexual characteristics in boys and girls each:

In Boys:
• Growth of facial hair (beard, moustache) and body hair in armpits and pubic region.
• Deepening (heaviness) of voice due to the enlargement of the larynx.
In Girls:
• Development of breasts.
• Growth of hair in armpits and pubic region; widening of hips.

6. During adolescence, the body undergoes rapid growth and bones are developing — becoming longer and denser.
Calcium is the primary mineral required for building strong and healthy bones and teeth. If adolescents do not consume
adequate calcium (from dairy products, green leafy vegetables, etc.), their bones may not develop properly and can
become weak, increasing the risk of fractures and osteoporosis later in life. This is the critical window for bone
development.

F. Answer in Detail
1. Physical changes in boys and girls during adolescence:
Changes in Boys:
• Growth spurt — rapid increase in height and weight.
• Shoulders become broader, chest widens, and lean muscle mass increases.
• Growth of facial hair (beard, moustache) and body hair in armpits and pubic region.
• Voice becomes deep and heavy due to enlargement of the larynx (Adam's apple becomes prominent).
• Enlargement of genitals and beginning of sperm production (first ejaculation).
Changes in Girls:
• Growth spurt — increase in height and weight.
• Development of breasts.
• Hair growth in armpits and pubic region; hips become broader.
• Increase in body fat, especially around hips and thighs.
• Beginning of the menstrual cycle (menarche) and vaginal discharge.
• Voice becomes slightly higher-pitched.

2. The menstrual cycle is a monthly cycle (approximately 28–30 days) that occurs in girls after puberty. It begins with
menstruation — the shedding of the inner lining of the uterus along with blood (lasts 3–7 days). After menstruation, the
uterus lining thickens again. An egg (ovule) matures and is released from the ovary — this is called ovulation. If the egg
is not fertilised, the uterus lining breaks down again and menstruation occurs. The cycle repeats monthly until menopause
(usually around ages 45–55).
3. Hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands and released directly into the bloodstream. They
control growth, metabolism, reproduction, and emotional behaviour.
Four endocrine glands:
• Pituitary gland – controls growth and directs other endocrine glands.
• Thyroid gland – controls the body's metabolism and development.
• Adrenal gland – controls the body's response to stress ('fight or flight' response).
• Pancreas – produces insulin, which regulates blood sugar levels.

4. Four important tips for adolescents to stay healthy and safe:

• Balanced diet: Eat a diet rich in proteins (for muscles), calcium and Vitamin D (for bones), iron (especially
girls), vitamins, and carbohydrates. Include fruits, vegetables, dairy, and whole grains.
• Regular exercise and yoga: Physical activity builds strength, maintains healthy body weight, improves mental
health, and reduces stress.
• Personal hygiene: Maintain cleanliness especially in armpits and pubic areas. Girls should practice proper
menstrual hygiene using clean sanitary products and dispose of them responsibly.
• Say NO to harmful substances: Avoid tobacco, alcohol, drugs, and other addictive substances. These can cause
serious health damage. Seek help from parents or teachers if pressured by peers.

5. (i) Always be polite and respectful — greet people, be kind both online and offline.
(ii) Be aware of cybercrime and cyberbullying — never share personal information, photos, or passwords with strangers
online.
(iii) Report any online harassment or troubling behaviour immediately to a trusted adult, parent, or teacher.
(iv) Limit social media screen time and spend quality time with family and friends in person.
(v) Think critically before posting or sharing content — once posted, it can spread quickly and cause harm.

G. Assertion and Reason

1. (a) Both A and R are correct, and R correctly explains A.
Explanation: Adolescents experience sudden mood swings because hormones (released by the endocrine system
during puberty) affect the brain's emotional centres, causing rapid changes in mood and behaviour. R correctly
explains A.

2. (c) Assertion (A) is correct, but Reason (R) is incorrect.

Explanation: Menstruation does mark the start of reproductive capability in girls (A is correct). But R says
'menopause occurs at the start of adolescence' — this is wrong. Menopause occurs at the end of a woman's
reproductive years, usually between ages 45–55.

3. (a) Both A and R are correct, and R correctly explains A.

Explanation: Boys do develop facial hair during adolescence, and this is triggered by the hormone testosterone.
R correctly and completely explains A.

4. (c) Assertion (A) is correct, but Reason (R) is incorrect.

Explanation: Social media is NOT always safe for adolescents (risks of cyberbullying and cybercrime exist) —
so A is incorrect. However, R (social media helps improve social skills) has some truth but doesn't make social
media unconditionally safe. The correct answer is: A is incorrect and R is partially true but doesn't support A.
Best answer: (d) — A is incorrect, R is correct in isolation.

5. (d) Assertion (A) is incorrect, but Reason (R) is correct.

Explanation: Smoking does NOT boost memory. In fact, nicotine and other chemicals in cigarettes damage
brain function, reduce memory, and harm the lungs. R is correct — nicotine does negatively affect the brain and
lungs.

Olympiad
1. (c) She should understand that these feelings are normal and talk to a trusted adult.
Explanation: The emotional confusion, sadness, and self-consciousness Maya is experiencing are completely normal signs
of adolescence caused by hormonal changes. She should not hide or suppress these feelings. Talking to a trusted adult
(parent, teacher, or counsellor) will help her understand that these changes are a natural part of growing up and get the
guidance and support she needs.

2. (c) The Endocrine System.

Explanation: The endocrine system is specifically responsible for producing and releasing hormones. Major endocrine
glands include the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries (girls), and testes (boys). These hormones guide all the
growth, physical, and emotional changes during adolescence.

HOTS – High Order Thinking Skills

1. Possible reasons:
• Hormonal changes during puberty can cause mood swings, aggression, and emotional sensitivity.
• Peer pressure, academic stress, or social media influence may cause anxiety and isolation.
• Low self-esteem due to physical changes (acne, voice change, body image issues).
• Cyberbullying or family problems may cause them to withdraw from social life.
How to support them:
• Talk to them kindly and let them know you are there to listen, without judging.
• Encourage them to share their feelings with a trusted adult — parent, teacher, or school counsellor.
• Suggest they try physical activity, yoga, or creative hobbies to manage stress.
• Remind them that these changes are temporary and a normal part of growing up.

2. Harmful effects of substance abuse: Using alcohol, tobacco, drugs, etc. can cause addiction; serious damage to the
brain, lungs, liver, and heart; poor academic performance; mental health problems like depression; and long-term
health disorders.
How peer groups can be positive:
• Peer groups can encourage healthy habits like sports, yoga, and clean eating.
• Friends can support each other in saying 'NO' to drugs and harmful substances.
• Peer learning and group study can motivate better academic performance.
• Friends who genuinely care can report signs of substance abuse to responsible adults and get help for a friend in
need.
• Peer groups can create a culture of awareness about cyberbullying and online safety.

Picture Based Assessment

Picture 1 (Adam's apple diagram).
• The bump in the throat region is called the Adam's apple.
• It is formed due to the growth of the voice box (larynx) during puberty.
• It is more visible in boys than in girls.
• It causes deepening of voice in boys.
• It is a secondary sexual characteristic.
Picture 2 (group of teenagers).
• The picture shows adolescents with different emotions like mood swings, happiness and sadness.
• These emotional changes occur due to hormonal changes during puberty.
• Adolescents are strongly influenced by their peer group.
• They should say NO to harmful substances like alcohol, tobacco and drugs.
• Cyberbullying should be reported to a trusted adult immediately.

Value and Life Skill Based

Responsibilities of adolescents:
• Think carefully before posting, sharing, or liking content — consider if it could hurt someone or spread
misinformation.
• Never share personal details (home address, school name, photos) with strangers online.
• Report cyberbullying or unsafe situations to a trusted adult immediately.
• Do not follow or imitate negative or harmful behaviours seen on social media.
Values that should guide digital interactions:
• Empathy: Be kind and considerate online — think about how your words or posts affect others.
• Integrity: Be honest and genuine online; do not pretend to be someone you are not.
• Respect: Treat every person online with dignity and respect, regardless of differences.
• Responsibility: Take ownership of your digital footprint — what you post stays online permanently.
• Safety awareness: Stay alert to cybercrime risks and protect your personal information.

Case Study Based Assessment

1. Ravi was avoiding social interaction because he felt low on energy and embarrassed about changes in his body like
his voice and acne. These changes made him feel uncomfortable and less confident.

2. Parents can help by:

Talking openly about puberty changes
Giving emotional support and understanding
Guiding them to follow a healthy routine
Making them feel comfortable and confident

3. Communication helps adolescents to:

Share their feelings and problems
Clear their doubts about body changes
Feel supported and less stressed
Build confidence

4. Ravi can feel confident again by understanding that puberty changes are normal and talking to his parents or
friends about his feelings.

5. This case teaches that a good support system (parents, family) helps adolescents feel safe, understood, and confident
during puberty.

Chapter 7: Heat Transfer in Nature

A. Choose the Most Appropriate Answer
1. (b) Conduction
Explanation: Heat travels through solids by direct contact of particles — this is conduction.
2. (c) Radiation
Explanation: Radiation does not need any medium; it can travel through the vacuum of space.
3. (b) Liquids and gases
Explanation: Convection occurs mainly in fluids (liquids and gases) through movement of heated molecules.
4. (d) Convection
Explanation: The flame heats the air inside the lantern; hot air rises and makes it float — this is convection.
5. (c) Metal is a good conductor
Explanation: Metals have tightly packed particles that allow heat to transfer quickly by conduction.
B. Fill in the Blanks
1. Convection
2. radiation
3. thermal conductors
4. Wood
5. hotter, colder

C. True or False
1. F — Correction: Conduction occurs mainly in solids, not gases.
2. F — Correction: Radiation can occur in space as it does not need any medium.
3. F — Correction: Air is a poor conductor of heat; it is a good insulator.
4. T
5. T

D. Answer in Brief

1. Conduction: Transfer of heat through a solid by direct contact.

Example: When one end of a metal rod is heated, the other end also becomes hot.

2. Woollen clothes trap air between their fibres. Air is a poor conductor, so body heat does not escape, keeping us warm.

3. A convection current is a circular flow of fluid (liquid or gas) in which warm, lighter fluid rises and cool, heavier fluid
sinks, transferring heat.

4. Hot air is lighter (less dense) than cold air. When air is heated it rises, creating convection currents that carry it upward.

5. Heat travels from the hot tea to the metal spoon by conduction, through direct contact of metal particles.

E. Answer in Detail

1. Three Modes of Heat Transfer:

(i) Conduction: Transfer of heat through solids by direct particle contact without movement of the material.
Example: a metal pan heating on a stove.
(ii) Convection: Transfer of heat in liquids and gases through the movement of heated molecules.
Example: hot air rising in a hot-air balloon.
(iii) Radiation: Transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves without any medium.
Example: heat from the Sun reaching the Earth through space.

2. Hot air balloons rise due to convection. The flame beneath heats the air inside the balloon. This hot air becomes lighter
(less dense) than the cooler air outside. The lighter hot air rises, pushing the balloon upward. When the air cools, it sinks
back, completing the convection cycle.
3. Sea Breeze: During the day, land heats faster than the sea. Warm air over the land rises and cooler air from the sea
moves in to take its place. This cool wind blowing from sea to land is called sea breeze.

Land Breeze: At night, the land cools faster than the sea. Warm air over the sea rises and cooler air from the land moves
toward the sea. This is called land breeze.

4. Woollen garments are important in cold regions because wool fibres are curly and create tiny air pockets. Since air is a
poor conductor of heat, these pockets trap body heat and prevent it from escaping, keeping the body warm even in very
cold weather.

5. A thermos flask has two walls with vacuum between them. The vacuum blocks conduction and convection (no medium
present). The shiny inner surface reflects radiation back inward. The tight lid prevents convection currents. Together,
these three features stop all modes of heat transfer, keeping contents hot or cold for long periods.
F. Assertion and Reason

1. (a) — Both A and R are correct and R correctly explains A.

Explanation: Metals have tightly packed particles that vibrate and pass energy quickly by conduction.

2. (d) — A is incorrect (woollen clothes are NOT used in summer), but R is incorrect too.
Explanation: Wool does NOT allow heat to pass; it traps heat.

3. (c) — A is correct (AC uses convection), but R is incorrect.

Explanation: It is actually warm air that rises and cool air that sinks, not the other way around.

4. (a) — Both A and R are correct and R correctly explains A.

Explanation: Radiation travels as electromagnetic waves and needs no medium.

Olympiad

1. (c) Woollen cloth

Explanation: Wool traps air which is a poor conductor of heat, preventing the ice from absorbing heat from the
surroundings.

2. (b) It will circulate and settle

Explanation: Hot air being lighter rises to the top, cools down, and sinks back, creating a convection current inside the
box.

HOTS — High Order Thinking Skills

1. The bonfire transfers heat by radiation. Radiation does not need any medium and can travel through air as
electromagnetic waves, so we feel warm even when sitting a few feet away from the fire.

2. Birds fluff up their feathers on cold mornings to trap more air between the feathers. Since air is a poor conductor of
heat, this trapped air acts like an insulating layer, reducing heat loss from the body and keeping the birds warm.
Picture Based Assessment

1. Terminologies used in the water cycle:

Evaporation — water changing to vapour due to solar radiation; Condensation — water vapour cooling to form water
droplets and clouds; Precipitation — water droplets falling as rain, snow, sleet, or hail; Transpiration — loss of water
vapour from plants through stomata; Collection — water collecting in oceans, rivers, and lakes.

2. Radiation from the Sun heats water bodies, causing evaporation. This water vapour rises into the atmosphere, cools, and
condenses to form clouds. Eventually, water falls back as precipitation, completing the cycle. Without solar radiation, the
water cycle would not occur.

Value and Life Skill Based

Arjun is applying the concept of thermal insulation. Thick curtains act as insulators that reduce heat loss by conduction
and convection through walls and windows. Closing windows stops convection currents that carry away warm air. This
reflects values of energy awareness, responsibility, and practical application of science in daily life.

Case Study Based Assessment

1. The thermos failed because the inner glass lining created the vacuum that blocked conduction and convection. Once the
glass broke, air filled the space between the walls. Heat could now escape by conduction and convection through the air.
The reflective coating was also lost, allowing radiation to escape. So all three modes of heat transfer became active and
the milk cooled quickly.
2. Bhrigu's curiosity and habit of asking questions and seeking scientific explanations from his teacher will help him
connect classroom learning with real life. This approach encourages critical thinking, observation skills, and a deeper
understanding of science concepts.

3. Thermal insulation means slowing down or stopping heat transfer between two regions. Materials that are poor
conductors of heat (like foam, wool, vacuum) are used to prevent heat from entering or leaving a space.

Chapter 8: Measurement of Time and Motion

A. Choose the Most Appropriate Answer
1. (d) Stopwatch
Explanation: Stopwatches can measure time in milliseconds, making them most accurate for sports timing.

2. (c) Second
Explanation: The SI unit of time is the second, denoted by 's'.

3. (b) Ambulance accelerating

Explanation: Non-uniform linear motion means changing speed on a straight path — an accelerating ambulance fits this.

4. (b) Distance ÷ Time

Explanation: Speed = Total Distance Covered / Total Time Taken.

5. (c) Change in position over time

Explanation: Motion is defined as the change in position of an object with respect to time.

B. Fill in the Blanks

1. distance
2. m/s
3. string (thread)
4. linear
5. periodic (oscillatory)

C. True or False
1. F — Correction: Motion cannot occur without time; motion is defined as change in position with respect to time.
2. F — Correction: The time period of a pendulum depends on the length of the string, not the mass of the bob.
3. T
4. F — Correction: Pendulum clocks are accurate. The first practical pendulum clock was invented by Christiaan Huygens
and reduced time error significantly.
5. F — Correction: A runner who covers more distance in the same time (or covers the same distance in less time) is
faster.
6. T

D. Answer in One Word (VSA)

1. Sundial
2. Uniform linear motion
3. Mean position (or rest position)
4. Average speed
E. Answer in Brief

1. One oscillation of a pendulum is the complete to-and-fro motion of the bob from its starting position to one extreme,
then to the other extreme, and back to the starting position (A→ O→ B→ O→ A).
2. Speed is the distance covered by an object in a unit of time.
Total Distance Covered
Formula: Speed = Total Time Taken

SI unit is m/s.

3. When the length of a pendulum's string is increased, the time period increases (pendulum takes more time for one
oscillation). When the string is shortened, the time period decreases.

4. Uniform linear motion: an object moves on a straight path covering equal distances in equal time intervals (constant
speed). Non-uniform linear motion: an object moves on a straight path but its speed changes over time.

5. In real life, objects rarely maintain a perfectly constant speed throughout a journey due to traffic, signals, acceleration,
etc. Average speed gives a single representative value for the entire journey, simplifying calculations.

6. The pendulum stops after a while due to air resistance and friction at the pivot point, which gradually reduce its energy
until it comes to rest at the mean position.

F. Answer in Detail
1. A simple pendulum consists of a small heavy weight (bob) tied to a string fixed at a rigid support. When the bob is
pulled to one side and released, it swings back and forth. This to-and-fro motion is called oscillation. The time for one
complete oscillation is called the time period. The time period depends on the length of the string — a longer string gives
a longer time period.

2. Speed = Distance / Time

Distance = Speed × Time
Time = Distance / Speed
Example: A car travels 120 km in 2 hours. Speed = 120/2 = 60 km/h.
G. Solve the Numericals

1. Distance1 = 40 km at 20 km/h
40
Time1 = = 2 h
20
Distance2 = 20 km at 10 km/h
20
Time2 = 10 = 2 h
Total distance = 60 km
Total time = 4 h
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 60
Average speed = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 4 = 15 km/h

2. Relative speed of the faster car over slower = 75 – 60 = 15 km/h.

Distance 30
Time to be 30 km ahead = Average Speed = 15 = 2 hours

120 𝑚
3. Speed = 6𝑠
= 20 m/s
3600
Convert to km/h: 20 × = 72 km/h
1000

4. Total distance = 180 + 90 = 270 km

Total time = 3 h + 0.5 h (halt) + 1.5 h = 5 h
270
Average speed (including halt) = 5 = 54 km/h

5. Speed of bus 1 = 150/2.5 = 60 km/h

Speed of bus 2 = 150/3 = 50 km/h.
Bus 1 is faster by 10 km/h.

6. Let distance to school = d km

Time going = d/4 h
Time returning = d/6 h
𝑑 𝑑 3𝑑 2𝑑 5𝑑
Total time = + = + =
4 6 12 12 12
Given total time = 2.5 h
5𝑑
So, 12 = 2.5
d = 6 km.
500
7. Time for Manu = 4
= 125 s
500
Time for Bhrigu = 5
= 100 s
(a) Bhrigu wins.
(b) Bhrigu wins by 125 − 100 = 25 seconds.

H. Assertion and Reason

1. (d) — Assertion is incorrect, but Reason is correct.
Explanation: A swing moves back and forth in a circular/oscillatory path (not linear motion). The Reason correctly states
it moves in a circular path.

2. (a) Both A and R are correct, and R correctly explains A.

Explanation: A longer pendulum indeed has a greater time period, and this is because the time period depends on the
length of the string — R directly explains A.

3. (d) Assertion is incorrect, but Reason is correct.

Explanation: A car at varying speed shows non-uniform linear motion, not uniform. The Reason correctly defines uniform
motion as having constant speed.

4. (b) — Both A and R are correct, but R does NOT correctly explain A.
Explanation: Time and motion are indeed connected, but time can be measured even without visible motion (e.g., atomic
vibrations measure time). So R doesn't fully/correctly explain A.

5. (a) — Both A and R are correct, and R correctly explains A.

Explanation: As we learned in the chapter, achieving a perfectly constant speed in real life is virtually impossible.
Therefore, uniform linear motion remains only an ideal concept. Since R establishes this fact, it successfully supports and
justifies why A holds true.

Olympiad
1. (a) 2 hours
Explanation: Combined speed = 16 + 14 = 30 km/h.
Distance = 60 km
60
Time = 30 = 2 hours.

HOTS — High Order Thinking Skills

1. A long swing has a longer string, which increases its time period. The gravitational pull acts over a longer arc, so the
bob takes more time to complete one oscillation compared to a short swing.

2. If the mass of the bob is doubled but the length is halved, the time period decreases. Time period depends only on the
length of the string, not the mass. A shorter string means a shorter time period.

3. Traffic signals, slowing down, speeding up, stopping at signals, and congestion cause the vehicle's speed to keep
changing. So, it is difficult to maintain a constant (uniform) speed in traffic.

Picture Based Assessment

Picture 1 (Simple pendulum): A simple pendulum with a bob on a string. It shows periodic and oscillatory motion. The
time period depends on the length of the string.

Picture 2 (Speedometer): A speedometer measures the instantaneous speed of a vehicle in km/h. The needle shows the
current speed at that moment.

Value and Life Skill Based

Understanding the relationship between speed, time, and distance helps us make responsible decisions. If we know our
speed and the distance to travel, we can plan our time and avoid the need to rush or overspeed. Pedestrians and cyclists
should follow traffic rules, use crossings, and stay alert. To spread awareness, we can create posters, share facts about
stopping distances at high speeds, and demonstrate how reaction time increases with speed.

Case Study Based Assessment

1. Time = Distance / Speed = 90 / 60 = 1.5 hours
2. After breakfast break: they covered remaining 90 km at 90 km/h. Time = 90/90 = 1 hour.
3. Total travel time (excluding break) = 1.5 + 1 = 2.5 hours.
4. Yes, Bhrigu's father was right to reduce speed. Safety is more important than saving a few minutes. Over speeding
increases accident risk, especially on unfamiliar roads. The speed limit signs are placed to ensure safety for all road users.
5. Key message: Always follow speed limits and prioritize safety over reaching the destination faster. Speed thrills but
kills.

Chapter 9: Life Processes in Animals

A. Choose the Most Appropriate Answer
1. (b) Breathing
Explanation: Breathing is the physical process of inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide.
2. (c) Large intestine
Explanation: The large intestine absorbs water from undigested food.
3. (c) Gizzard
Explanation: Birds use the gizzard, a strong muscular organ, to grind food since they do not have teeth.
4. (c) Alveoli
Explanation: Gaseous exchange (oxygen and carbon dioxide) occurs in the tiny air sacs called alveoli.
5. (a) Earthworm
Explanation: Earthworms breathe through their moist skin.

B. Fill in the Blanks

1. digestion
2. Gall bladder
3. egestion
4. cud
5. amylase
6. heart

C. True or False
1. F — Correction: Liver helps in digestion by producing bile, not insulin. Insulin is produced by the pancreas.
2. F — Correction: Breathing and respiration are different. Breathing is a physical process (inhaling/exhaling), while
respiration is a chemical process inside cells that releases energy.
3. T
4. F — Correction: Alveoli are present in the lungs, not the small intestine.
5. F — Correction: The stomach is NOT responsible for all digestion. Digestion begins in the mouth and continues mainly
in the small intestine.

D. Answer in One Word (VSA)

1. Heart
2. Oxygen
3. Oesophagus
4. Mitochondria
5. Glucose
6. Excretory system

E. Answer in Brief

1. Breathing: Physical process of taking in oxygen and giving out carbon dioxide through lungs. Takes place in lungs. No
energy is released. Respiration: Chemical process in cells where glucose is broken down using oxygen to release energy.
Takes place in cells. Energy is released.

2. Villi are tiny, finger-like projections on the inner lining of the small intestine. They greatly increase the surface area for
absorption of digested nutrients into the bloodstream.

3. Peristalsis is a series of involuntary, wave-like muscular contractions that move food through the digestive tract (mainly
in the oesophagus and intestines).

4. Rumination is the process in which herbivores like cows swallow food quickly, then bring it back to the mouth to chew
again. Animals that do this are called ruminants.
Two ruminants: cow and buffalo.
5. Birds have a gizzard, a strong muscular organ that contains small stones or grit. It grinds the food into smaller pieces
since birds do not have teeth.
6. Word equation for cellular respiration:
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy

F. Answer in Detail
1. The human respiratory system consists of nostrils (nasal cavity), trachea (windpipe), bronchi, bronchioles, and lungs.
Air enters through nostrils, passes through the trachea, which branches into bronchi and then bronchioles. At the end of
bronchioles are alveoli — tiny air sacs surrounded by blood vessels where gaseous exchange occurs. Oxygen passes into
the blood and carbon dioxide passes out. The diaphragm and rib muscles control breathing. [Draw and label diagram with:
Nasal cavity, Trachea, Bronchus, Lungs, Alveoli, Diaphragm]

2. Ruminants (cows, buffaloes) have a four-chambered stomach: rumen, reticulum, omasum, abomasum. They swallow
food quickly into the rumen where microbes break down cellulose. The partially digested food (cud) is brought back to
the mouth for further chewing. After rechewing, food passes to omasum (water absorption) and abomasum (enzyme
digestion). Nutrients are absorbed in the intestines and waste is expelled.

3. In the large intestine, absorption of water and salts from undigested food occurs, making the semi-solid waste called
faeces/stool. This process is important to prevent dehydration. Helpful bacteria (gut flora) break down remaining fibres
and produce vitamins. Faeces are stored in the rectum and expelled through the anus in a process called egestion.

4. Role of digestive juices: (i) Saliva: Contains amylase enzyme — breaks down starch to sugars. (ii) Gastric juice (HCl +
pepsin): HCl kills germs and activates pepsin; pepsin breaks proteins. (iii) Bile juice: From liver, stored in gall bladder;
emulsifies (breaks) large fat molecules. (iv) Pancreatic juice: Breaks carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into simpler
molecules. (v) Intestinal juice: Completes digestion of all food components.

5. Alveoli are tiny air sacs in the lungs surrounded by a network of blood capillaries. When we inhale, oxygen-rich air
reaches alveoli. Oxygen diffuses through the thin walls of alveoli into the blood. At the same time, carbon dioxide (a
waste gas) moves from blood into alveoli. This CO2 is then exhaled out. This exchange is called gaseous exchange.

6. Bird Digestion: Birds swallow food whole (no teeth). Food is stored in the crop where it softens. It moves to the
stomach where enzymes begin to break it down. Then it enters the gizzard — a muscular organ with small stones —
which grinds food into smaller pieces. Digested food moves to the small intestine where nutrients are absorbed.
Undigested waste exits through the cloaca.

7. During respiration, glucose from digested food combines with oxygen (from breathing) inside the cells in a process
called cellular respiration. This chemical reaction releases energy used for all body activities — walking, talking,
thinking, etc. Carbon dioxide and water are produced as by-products.
Equation: Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy.

G. Assertion and Reason

1. (c) — A is correct (lungs are important for breathing/respiration), but R is incorrect lungs do not pump blood — the
heart does that).
2. (c) — A is correct (villi increase surface area for absorption), but R is incorrect (villi are in the small intestine, not the
stomach).
3. (b) — Both A and R are correct. Saliva does help in digestion. However, R is not fully correct — saliva contains
amylase that breaks carbohydrates (starch), not proteins.
4. (b) — Both A and R are correct. Ruminants do chew their food multiple times, and their digestion does involve
multiple steps. But R does not fully explain why A is stated — ruminants actually chew food twice (not once).
5. (a) — Both A and R are correct and R correctly explains A. Birds have gizzard for grinding and it contains grit/stones
for this purpose.

Olympiad
1. (d) Glucose
Explanation: In cellular respiration, glucose is the primary molecule broken down with oxygen to release energy.
2. (c) Diaphragm
Explanation: The diaphragm is the large dome-shaped muscle at the base of the chest cavity.

HOTS — High Order Thinking Skills

1. If lungs stopped for a minute, oxygen supply to the blood would stop. No oxygen would reach cells, so cellular
respiration would halt. Energy production would stop. Carbon dioxide would build up in the blood, making it acidic.
Brain cells, which are most sensitive, would begin to die within minutes. The heart would slow down and other organs
would start failing due to lack of oxygen.

2. A fish living on land would need to develop lungs (or lung-like organs) to absorb oxygen from air instead of dissolved
oxygen from water. It would also need a stronger skeletal system to support its body against gravity, a moist skin or
mucus layer to prevent drying out, and modified gills or new air-breathing structures. It would need limbs or fins adapted
for movement on land.

3. At high altitudes, the air is thinner and contains less oxygen per breath. To compensate, mountain climbers breathe
faster and more deeply to take in enough oxygen. Over time, the body adapts by producing more red blood cells to carry
more oxygen. Heart rate also increases to pump blood faster to the muscles and brain.

Picture Based Assessment

Nasal Cavity
Pharynx
Oral Cavity
Larynx
Trachea

Right lung Bronchi

Bronchus
Diaphragm

Main functions: (1) Nasal cavity — filters, warms, and moistens incoming air.
(2) Lungs — site of gaseous exchange; oxygen absorbed, carbon dioxide released.
(3) Diaphragm — controls breathing movements by contracting and relaxing.

Value and Life Skill Based

Smoking introduces harmful chemicals (like nicotine, tar, carbon monoxide) into the lungs. These damage the alveoli,
reducing the surface area for gaseous exchange. The lungs' ability to absorb oxygen decreases, leading to diseases like
chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and lung cancer. Choosing not to smoke protects the lungs and overall health, avoids
addiction, reduces the risk of heart disease, saves money, and sets a positive example for others.

Case Study Based Assessment

1. The main function of the digestive system is to break down food into simple, absorbable nutrients that can be used by
cells for energy, growth, and repair.
2. Ravi overate junk food which is high in fat and low in fibre. The digestive system needed extra time and effort to break
down the large amount of food. The stomach produced excess acid. The body was overwhelmed, causing discomfort,
bloating, and heaviness.
3. Organs involved: Mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, pancreas, gall bladder. Role of two
organs: (i) Stomach: Churns food with HCl and pepsin; breaks down proteins. (ii) Small intestine: Main site of digestion
and absorption; bile and pancreatic juices complete digestion; villi absorb nutrients into blood.

4. Advice to Ravi: Eat balanced, smaller meals; avoid junk food; chew food properly and slowly; drink enough water; eat
fibre-rich foods like fruits and vegetables; maintain regular meal timings; exercise regularly.

5. Mouth: Mechanical chewing + amylase in saliva breaks starch. → Oesophagus: Food passes down by peristalsis. →
Stomach: HCl and pepsin digest proteins; food becomes chyme. → Small intestine (duodenum): Bile emulsifies fats;
pancreatic juice breaks carbohydrates, proteins, fats; nutrients absorbed through villi. → Large intestine: Water and salts
absorbed; stool formed. → Rectum and Anus: Faeces stored and expelled.

Chapter 10: Life Processes in Plants

A. Choose the Most Appropriate Answer
1. (c) Chlorophyll
Explanation: Chlorophyll is the green pigment in plants responsible for absorbing sunlight for photosynthesis.
2. (c) Starch
Explanation: The food prepared by plants through photosynthesis is stored as starch.
3. (d) Transpiration
Explanation: Transpiration is the process by which plants lose water through stomata.
4. (c) Stomata
Explanation: Stomata are tiny pores on leaves that help in exchange of gases during photosynthesis.
5. (d) Germination
Explanation: The process by which a seed grows into a new plant is called germination.
6. (d) Water and minerals
Explanation: Xylem carries water and minerals from the roots to other parts of the plant.

B. Fill in the Blanks

1. chlorophyll
2. Photosynthesis
3. stomata
4. vascular
5. Guard cells
6. light
7. stomata

C. True or False
1. T
2. F — Correction: Xylem carries water and minerals; phloem carries food from leaves to other parts.
3. F — Correction: Plants use carbon dioxide (CO2) for photosynthesis, not oxygen. Oxygen is released as a by-product.
4. T
5. T
6. F — Correction: Plants do not selectively absorb only CO2; they absorb air through stomata and use CO2 for
photosynthesis while other gases are diffused out.

D. Answer in One Word (VSA)

1. Photosynthesis
2. Oxygen
3. Phloem
4. Chloroplast
5. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
6. Transpiration
E. Answer in Brief

1. Seed germination is the process by which a seed absorbs water, its seed coat ruptures, and it grows into a seedling under
suitable conditions of water, warmth, and air.

2. Green leaves are called the kitchen of the plant because they contain chlorophyll and are the site where photosynthesis
takes place — the process by which plants prepare their food using sunlight, water, and CO2.

3. Transpiration is the process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation through stomata into the
atmosphere. It helps the plant by: creating a 'pull' that draws water up from roots; cooling the plant surface; and helping in
mineral absorption from the soil.

4. Two conducting (vascular) tissues in plants:

(i) Xylem: Carries water and minerals absorbed by roots to other parts of the plant. Flow is one-directional (upward).
(ii) Phloem: Carries food (glucose) prepared in leaves to all other parts of the plant. Flow is bidirectional.

5. Photosynthesis:

(Sunlight/Chlorophyll)
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2.

Respiration:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy

6. De-starching means removing all existing starch from the leaves by keeping the plant in the dark for 24-48 hours. This
ensures that when the experiment is performed, any starch detected after exposure to sunlight is newly made during the
experiment, giving accurate and reliable results.

F. Answer in Detail

1. Stomata are tiny pores on the lower surface of leaves surrounded by bean-shaped guard cells. Guard cells control the
opening and closing of stomata. During photosynthesis, stomata open to allow CO2 to enter and O2 to exit. They also
release water vapour in transpiration, which creates a pull for water to move up through xylem.

Photosynthesis Transpiration

2. Three essential conditions for photosynthesis and their roles:

(i) Sunlight: Provides the energy needed to drive the photochemical reaction. Chlorophyll absorbs this light energy.
(ii) Carbon dioxide: Raw material absorbed through stomata; provides carbon atoms to make glucose.
(iii) Water: Absorbed by roots via xylem; activates the photoreaction and provides hydrogen atoms for glucose formation.

3. The process of photosynthesis:

Roots absorb water and minerals from soil → Water moves up through xylem to leaves → Leaves absorb CO2 through
stomata → Chlorophyll in chloroplasts absorbs sunlight → A photochemical reaction converts CO2 and H2O into glucose
(C6H12O6) and oxygen → Glucose is used for energy and stored as starch; oxygen is released.
4. Plants get water through xylem tissues. Roots absorb water from soil, which travels through root cells into xylem
vessels. Xylem transports water upward to leaves and all parts through transpiration pull. Plants get food (glucose) from
leaves where it is made by photosynthesis. This food is transported downward (and sideways) to roots, stems, and fruits
through phloem tissues in two-way flow.

5. Plants respire 24 hours (day and night). During the day, photosynthesis dominates and the oxygen produced is more
than what is used in respiration. At night, only respiration occurs. Respiration takes place in all living cells of the plant
(including roots, stems, leaves) and does not depend on sunlight, so it continues round the clock.

6. (a) When a burning matchstick is brought near O2 gas, the flame rises (flares up), confirming presence of oxygen.
(b) When KOH is introduced, it absorbs all CO2 from the atmosphere, making the air CO2-free; photosynthesis cannot
occur without CO2.
(c) When iodine solution is added to starch, the colour turns blue-black, confirming presence of starch.

G. Assertion and Reason

1. (b) — Both A and R are correct. Only green plants photosynthesize. R is also correct.
Explanation: Chlorophyll is present in green leaves. However, R does not fully explain A because some non-green plants
with chloroplasts can also photosynthesize.
2. (a) — Both A and R are correct and R correctly explains A.
Explanation: Plants do not use oxygen for photosynthesis; they release it as a by-product.
3. (a) — Both A and R are correct and R correctly explains A.
Explanation: Water evaporation from leaf surface during transpiration cools the plant.
4. (d) — A is incorrect (xylem carries water and minerals, not food.
Explanation: Phloem carries food). R is incorrect too (phloem carries food, not water and minerals).
5. (a) — Both A and R are correct and R correctly explains A.
Explanation: Plants need air (specifically CO2) to make food by photosynthesis.

Olympiad
1. (c) Because stomata close in the absence of sunlight.
Explanation: Stomata open in light to allow gas exchange and transpiration. At night, in the absence of sunlight, stomata
close, so transpiration does not occur.

HOTS — High Order Thinking Skills

1. A variegated leaf has green patches (with chlorophyll) and non-green/white patches (without chlorophyll). Only the
green patches will turn blue-black after the starch test because only they contain chlorophyll to carry out photosynthesis
and produce starch. The non-green patches will remain unchanged (no blue-black colour) as they lack chlorophyll.
2. No, plants cannot prepare food during the night. Photosynthesis requires sunlight as an energy source. Without sunlight,
chlorophyll cannot absorb energy to drive the photochemical reaction, so glucose cannot be made. At night, plants only
respire (they break down stored food for energy) but do not photosynthesize.

Picture Based Assessment

a. The experiment demonstrates that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis. The plant kept in a dark room cannot
photosynthesize (no starch formed), while the plant in sunlight can make starch.

b. When the starch test is performed on the black-striped leaf, only the portion exposed to sunlight (not covered by black
paper) will turn blue-black, confirming starch is present only where light was available. The covered portion will show no
colour change.

Value and Life Skill Based

Trees are vital because they absorb CO2 and release oxygen through photosynthesis, maintaining the oxygen level in the
atmosphere. They also absorb harmful pollutants, provide shade, prevent soil erosion, support biodiversity, and help
regulate climate. Cutting trees reduces the oxygen supply, increases CO2 levels, and disturbs ecological balance.
Photosynthesis is the foundation of all food chains on Earth. We must protect trees and plant more to balance nature.

Case Study Based Assessment

1. The two main reasons: lack of water and lack of sunlight.
2. Two essential elements for photosynthesis: sunlight and carbon dioxide (also water and chlorophyll are needed).
3. Mrs. Sharma mentioned transpiration because it is linked to water movement in plants. Transpiration creates a suction
force that pulls water from roots to leaves. If transpiration is not happening properly, water and nutrients cannot reach all
parts of the plant, affecting growth and photosynthesis.
4. Money plant — it can survive in low-light conditions as mentioned in the case study.
5. Bhrigu and Manu demonstrated care for nature, teamwork, responsibility, problem-solving, and concern for the
environment. They took action to restore the garden, showing that young people can make a positive difference through
science and effort.

Chapter 11: Light: Shadows and Reflections

A. Choose the Most Appropriate Answer.
1. (a) Luminous objects
Explanation: Objects that produce their own light are called luminous objects.
2. (c) Both a and b
Explanation: Both stars and fireflies are natural sources of light.
3. (b) Light traveling from one place to another
Explanation: Propagation of light refers to the movement of light waves from one place to another.
4. (d) Light is blocked by an opaque object
Explanation: A shadow forms when an opaque object blocks the path of light.
5. (b) Virtual and erect
Explanation: The image in a plane mirror is virtual (cannot be captured on screen) and erect (upright).

B. Fill in the Blanks

1. Light passing completely through a material means the material is transparent.
2. When light is blocked completely by an object, a shadow is formed.
3. The distance of the object from a plane mirror is equal to the distance of the image from the mirror.
4. The imaginary perpendicular line to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence is called the normal.
5. The ray of light reflected from a surface is called the reflected ray.
6. The principle on which a periscope works is reflection of light.

C. True or False
1. F — Correction: Shadows cannot be formed by transparent objects as light passes through them completely.
2. T
3. T
4. T
5. F — Correction: An opaque object does NOT allow any light to pass through it.

D. Answer in Brief

1. Luminous objects: Objects that produce their own light.

Examples: Sun, candle flame.
Non-luminous objects: Objects that do not produce their own light but reflect light from luminous objects.
Examples: Moon, wall.

2. Reflection of light is the bouncing back of light rays when they hit a smooth, shiny, opaque surface.
Example: Seeing our image in a mirror.

3. Incident ray: The ray of light that falls on the reflecting surface.
Reflected ray: The ray that bounces back from the surface after reflection.
Normal: An imaginary perpendicular line drawn at the point where the incident ray hits the reflecting surface.

4. Properties of image in plane mirror:

(i) Virtual — cannot be obtained on a screen.
(ii) Erect — upright, not inverted upside-down.
(iii) Same size as the object.
(iv) Distance of image from mirror = distance of object from mirror.
(v) Laterally inverted — left and right are swapped.

5. Lateral inversion is the left-right reversal of an image formed in a plane mirror. Example: When you raise your right
hand, your image in the mirror appears to raise its left hand.

E. Answer in Detail

1. Transparent materials: Allow light to pass through completely.

Example: clear glass, water.
Translucent materials: Allow light to pass through partially (objects appear blurry).
Example: butter paper, frosted glass.
Opaque materials: Do not allow light to pass through at all.
Example: wood, stone, metal.

2. Size of shadow: The size depends on the distance between the light source and the object. When the object is closer to
the light source, the shadow is larger. When the object is moved farther from the light source (closer to the screen), the
shadow becomes smaller. Shape of shadow: The shape of the shadow changes with the angle of light. When light falls
from different angles, the 2D outline of the object changes, producing shadows of different shapes.

3. Image formation in plane mirror: Light rays from an object fall on the plane mirror. These rays reflect off the mirror
following the law of reflection (angle of incidence = angle of reflection). The reflected rays appear to come from a point
behind the mirror. This point is where the virtual image forms. Properties: Virtual, erect, same size, laterally inverted, and
same distance behind mirror as object is in front.

4. When three coloured lights (red, green, blue) fall on an object placed between them and a white screen, the object
blocks one or more lights, creating coloured shadows. Yellow shadow: when blue light is blocked (red + green = yellow).
Magenta shadow: when green light is blocked (red + blue = magenta). Cyan shadow: when red light is blocked (blue +
green = cyan). The colour of the shadow depends on which light is blocked and which lights still reach the screen.
5. Reflection helps us see objects that are not light sources. When light from a luminous source (like the Sun or a bulb)
falls on an object, some light bounces off (reflects) from the object's surface. This reflected light travels to our eyes,
allowing us to see the object. Without reflection, we could only see objects that emit their own light.

6. A kaleidoscope was invented by David Brewster in 1816. It works on the principle of multiple reflection of light. Three
rectangular mirrors are arranged in a triangle inside a tube. One end has colourful beads or glass pieces. When you look
through the eyepiece and rotate the tube, the mirrors reflect the coloured pieces multiple times, creating beautiful,
symmetrical, changing patterns.

7. Shadows are darkest with opaque objects because they block all light completely, creating a fully dark area (umbra)
behind them. Translucent objects allow some light to pass through, creating a lighter, less defined shadow. Transparent
objects allow almost all light to pass through, so no significant shadow is formed.

F. Assertion and Reason

1. (c) — A is correct (Moon is non-luminous; it reflects sunlight). R is incorrect (Moon does NOT produce its own light).
2. (b) — Both A and R are correct. Light does travel in a straight line, and shadows do have a definite shape. However, R
(definite shape of shadows) is a result of straight-line travel of light, but does not directly explain the straight-line property
itself.
3. (b) — Both A and R are correct. Translucent objects do form (lighter/partial) shadows. R is correct that they allow
some light to pass. But R does not fully explain why translucent objects form shadows (because they still block some
light).
4. (a) — Both A and R are correct and R correctly explains A. In a plane mirror, the image is laterally inverted, meaning
left and right sides are swapped.

Olympiad
1. (b) Because sunlight is scattered in all directions, making light diffuse and soft — clouds scatter and diffuse sunlight, so
no well-defined shadow is formed.
2. (a) Yellow — When green light is blocked, red and blue are not blocked. Red + Blue = Magenta. Wait — when RED is
blocked: blue + green = Cyan. When GREEN is blocked: red + blue = Magenta. When BLUE is blocked: red + green =
Yellow. Question: green is blocked → answer is (c) Magenta.

HOTS — High Order Thinking Skills

1. A periscope uses two plane mirrors placed at 45° angles at the top and bottom of a tube. Light from an object above
enters the top mirror, reflects downward at 90°, hits the bottom mirror, and reflects again into the observer's eyes. This
allows the observer (inside a submarine) to see objects on the surface without being exposed.
2. Important safety precautions: Never look directly at the Sun or a bright torch; avoid doing mirror reflection experiments
aimed at others' eyes; use proper UV-protected glasses during eclipse observation; work in pairs during outdoor shadow
activities; avoid using mirrors or reflective surfaces near roads to prevent distracting drivers.
3. When the light source is small and far away, light rays are almost parallel, producing a well-defined, sharp shadow with
clear edges. When the light source is large and nearby, light rays hit the object from many different angles, creating a
blurry shadow (penumbra around the umbra) with no sharp edges.

Picture Based Assessment

Picture 1 (Solar Eclipse): The Moon comes between the Sun and the Earth, blocking sunlight from reaching part of the
Earth. The dark central shadow is the umbra (total eclipse) and the lighter outer shadow is the penumbra (partial eclipse).
This is an application of shadow formation. It occurs on a new moon day.

Picture 2 (Periscope): A periscope is an optical device that uses two plane mirrors at 45° angles to redirect light,
allowing an observer to see over or around obstacles. It works on the principle of reflection of light. Used in submarines,
by soldiers, etc.

Value and Life Skill Based

(a) Yes, Bhrigu's action is correct. Using a mirror to reflect sunlight is a smart, resourceful, and scientific use of the
principle of reflection of light. It helped everyone see safely without electricity. (b) This situation shows responsible
behaviour (ensuring safety in a crisis), caring for others, and quick thinking. Bhrigu applied scientific knowledge to solve
a real-life problem, which reflects innovation, empathy, and a concern for community well-being.

Case Study Based Assessment

1. The principle common to both models is that light travels in a straight line.
2. In a pinhole camera, light from an object passes through a tiny pinhole (aperture). Light rays from the top of the object
travel downward through the hole and form the bottom of the image. Rays from the bottom travel upward and form the
top. Because light travels in straight lines and crosses at the pinhole, the image is inverted (upside down).

3. A periscope helps see objects that are not in the direct line of sight. For example, in a submarine, the periscope allows
the crew to see the surface of the water without surfacing. Soldiers use periscopes to see over bunkers or walls without
exposing themselves.

4. In a pinhole camera, the image is real and inverted (upside down). In a mirror, the image is virtual and erect (right-side
up). A pinhole camera forms the image on a screen by letting light pass through a tiny hole; a mirror forms a virtual image
by reflecting light.

5. The students show values of curiosity, scientific thinking, teamwork, creativity, and the ability to apply theoretical
knowledge practically. Working on science projects encourages innovation, patience, and collaborative learning.

Chapter 12: Earth, Moon and the Sun

A. Choose the Most Appropriate Answer
1. (b) West to East
Explanation: The Earth rotates from west to east (anti-clockwise when viewed from the North Pole).
2. (c) Day and night
Explanation: The rotation of the Earth on its own axis causes the occurrence of day and night.
3. (c) 24 hours — The Earth takes approximately 24 hours to complete one rotation on its axis.
4. (c) Earth's revolution and axial tilt
Explanation: Seasons occur due to the Earth's revolution around the Sun combined with the tilt of its axis at 23.5°.
5. (b) 23.5°
Explanation: The Earth's axis is tilted at approximately 23.5° relative to its orbital plane.
6. (b) Earth rotates west to east
Explanation: The Sun appears to rise in the east because the Earth rotates from west to east, so the eastern side faces the
Sun first.

B. Fill in the Blanks

1. 24 hours
2. revolution
3. orbit
4. 23.5
5. Pole
6. solar

C. True or False
1. F — Correction: It is the rotation of the Earth (not revolution) that causes day and night.
2. T
3. F — Correction: The Pole Star does NOT move across the sky; it appears stationary because it lies almost exactly
above the Earth's North Pole.
4. F — Correction: A solar eclipse occurs on a new moon day, not a full moon day.
5. T
6. T
7. T

D. Answer in One Word (VSA)

1. Rotation
2. West to East
3. Pole Star (Polaris)
4. Solar eclipse
5. Penumbra
6. Rotation of the Earth
7. Orion

E. Answer in Brief

1. Rotation: The spinning of the Earth on its own axis. One rotation takes 24 hours and causes day and night.
Revolution: The movement of the Earth around the Sun in a fixed elliptical path (orbit). One revolution takes 365 days
and 6 hours (approximately one year) and is responsible for changing seasons and the visibility of different constellations.

2. The Earth rotates on its axis from west to east. As it rotates, one side faces the Sun (daytime) and the other side is in
darkness (night). As the Earth spins, the day side gradually becomes night and vice versa, causing the cycle of day and
night.

3. The Pole Star (Polaris) appears stationary because it is located almost exactly above the Earth's North Pole, along the
axis of the Earth's rotation. While all other stars appear to circle around it due to Earth's rotation, the Pole Star's position in
the sky remains fixed.

4. Umbra: The dark, inner region of a shadow where the light source is completely blocked. In an eclipse, viewers in the
umbra experience a total eclipse.
Penumbra: The lighter, outer region of a shadow where only part of the light source is blocked. Viewers in the penumbra
experience a partial eclipse.

5. The Earth's axis is tilted at 23.5°. As the Earth revolves around the Sun, different parts of the Earth tilt towards or away
from the Sun at different times of the year. When a hemisphere tilts towards the Sun, it receives more direct sunlight and
experiences summer. When it tilts away, it receives slanted sunlight and experiences winter. This is how the Earth's tilt
causes seasons.

6. Stars appear to move at night because the Earth is rotating on its axis. As the Earth rotates from west to east, stars seem
to move from east to west across the sky. They are not actually moving; it is our planet's rotation that creates this apparent
movement.

7. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon comes between the Sun and the Earth, blocking the Sun's light from reaching
part of the Earth. A solar eclipse occurs on a new moon day. There are three types: total, annular, and partial.

8. As the Earth revolves around the Sun, our position in space changes throughout the year. This means we face different
parts of the universe at night in different months. So, at different times of the year, we can see different constellations in
the night sky.

F. Answer in Detail

1. Northern Hemisphere receives direct sunlight in June (summer solstice) because it tilts towards the Sun. At the same
time, the Southern Hemisphere tilts away from the Sun, receiving slanted sunlight, so it is winter there. In December
(winter solstice), the situation reverses. This is why when it is summer in India (Northern Hemisphere), it is winter in
Australia (Southern Hemisphere) and vice versa.

2. As the Earth revolves around the Sun, it faces different regions of space each month. In summer, Earth is at one
position in its orbit; in winter, Earth has moved to the opposite side. So the stars visible on the horizon after sunset change
from season to season. In summer, we see Scorpius constellation; in winter, we see Orion constellation. Revolution causes
this apparent change in constellations.

3. Solar Eclipse: Occurs when the Moon comes between the Sun and Earth. The Moon's shadow falls on Earth. People in
the umbra see a total solar eclipse; those in the penumbra see a partial solar eclipse. Occurs on new moon day. Types:
Total, Annular, Partial. [Draw diagram showing Sun → Moon → Earth alignment]. Lunar Eclipse: Occurs when Earth
comes between the Sun and the Moon. Earth's shadow falls on the Moon. Occurs on a full moon day when Sun, Earth, and
Moon are in a straight line. [Draw diagram showing Sun → Earth → Moon alignment].
4. The Earth's axis is tilted at 23.5° to the plane of its orbit. As the Earth revolves around the Sun, this tilt means: in June,
Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun → receives direct, intense sunlight → longer days → summer. In
December, Northern Hemisphere tilts away → receives slanted sunlight → shorter days → winter. The March and
September equinoxes are when both hemispheres receive equal sunlight → equal day and night.

5. Equinoxes occur when the Sun is directly above the equator, giving equal day and night (12 hours each) everywhere on
Earth. There are two equinoxes: Spring equinox (March 21) and Autumnal equinox (September 23). Equinoxes mark the
beginning of spring and autumn respectively. They are important for agriculture, calendar systems, and cultural festivals.

6. The Moon always shows the same face to the Earth because the Moon takes the same amount of time to rotate on its
axis (~27 days) as it takes to revolve around the Earth (~27 days). This synchronous rotation means the same side of the
Moon always faces Earth and we never see the far side from Earth.

G. Assertion and Reason

1. (a) — Both A and R are correct and R correctly explains A. Seasons occur because Earth's axis is tilted at 23.5°, which
changes how sunlight falls on different hemispheres during revolution.
2. (c) — A is correct (we do see different stars throughout the year), but R is incorrect (it is Earth's revolution around the
Sun, not the Moon's change of position, that causes this).
3. (d) — A is incorrect (solar eclipse occurs on NEW moon day, not full moon). R is incorrect too (it is the Moon that
comes between Sun and Earth, not the Earth between Sun and Moon — that is a lunar eclipse).
4. (a) — Both A and R are correct and R correctly explains A. Pole Star is fixed because it lies along Earth's rotation axis
above the North Pole.
5. (a) — Both A and R are correct and R correctly explains A. The Sun appears to rise in the east because the Earth rotates
from west to east.
6. (c) — A is incorrect (we cannot see the same constellations every month because revolution changes our viewing
direction). R is correct that Earth rotates on its axis, but rotation does not explain the change of constellations over
months.
7. (a) — Both A and R are correct and R correctly explains A. An equinox occurs when the Sun is directly above the
equator, making day and night equal.
8. (c) — A is correct (a lunar eclipse cannot occur on new moon; it needs full moon). R is correct (Sun, Earth, and Moon
must align in a straight line for lunar eclipse), but R does not explain why A is wrong.

Olympiad

1. (b) Earth rotates west to east — This is the reason the Sun appears to rise in the east and set in the west.

2. (c) June 21 — On Summer Solstice (June 21), the Northern Hemisphere receives the most direct and longest sunlight of
the year.

3. (b) Day and night — Day and night are caused by Earth's rotation, not revolution. If Earth didn't rotate, one side would
always face the Sun (permanent day) and the other side would always be dark (permanent night).

HOTS — High Order Thinking Skills

1. If the Earth's axis were not tilted, there would be no seasons. Every place on Earth would receive the same amount of
sunlight throughout the year. The equatorial regions would remain hot, polar regions cold, and temperate regions would
experience mild, uniform weather all year. Plants, animals, and agricultural patterns that depend on seasonal changes
would be greatly affected.

2. From a space station, as the Earth revolves around the Sun, the view of Earth's illuminated portion would change. In
June, the Northern Hemisphere would appear more illuminated (summer). In December, the Southern Hemisphere would
be more lit. The astronaut would see continents shift position as the Earth rotates. The terminator line (boundary between
day and night) would clearly show Earth's rotation. Day-night cycles would be visible about every 90 minutes from the
ISS orbit.
3. Different parts of the world are in different time zones because the Earth is a sphere rotating on its axis. When it is
midnight in one country, it is daytime in another. Since the New Year begins at midnight local time, countries in the
eastern time zones (like New Zealand, Australia) celebrate New Year first, followed by Asian countries, then European
countries, and finally the Americas.

Picture Based Assessment

The diagram shows a lunar eclipse (partial). The Earth comes between the Sun and the Moon, casting a shadow on the
Moon. The Sun, Earth, and Moon are aligned in a straight line. The Moon falls in Earth's umbra (total lunar eclipse) or
penumbra (partial lunar eclipse). During a lunar eclipse, the Moon appears red (Blood Moon) because Earth's atmosphere
scatters blue light and allows red light to reach the Moon. A lunar eclipse occurs on a full moon day. In Hindu mythology,
the lunar eclipse is associated with the story of Rahu and Ketu, and people observe fasts and rituals during this time.

Value and Life Skill Based

Understanding Earth's revolution and seasonal changes helps us appreciate nature's rhythm by showing how all life on
Earth is interconnected with the planet's movements. Seasons affect when crops grow, when birds migrate, when animals
hibernate, and when festivals are celebrated. This understanding teaches us to: respect and conserve natural cycles;
practice sustainable farming by growing crops in the right season; appreciate cultural festivals tied to seasons (like Diwali,
Baisakhi, harvest festivals); conserve energy by adapting to seasonal changes; and understand climate and weather to plan
our lives responsibly.

Case Study Based Assessment

1. Earth's rotation causes stars to appear to move across the sky at night (they seem to circle the Pole Star). Rotation also
causes shadows to change direction and length throughout the day — shadows are longest in the morning and evening and
shortest at noon when the Sun is highest.

2. As the Earth revolves around the Sun, it faces different directions in space each month. The Sun appears to be in the
direction of different constellations at different times of year. So over a year, the Sun appears to move through different
constellations (the zodiac), causing the apparent movement of the Sun against the background of stars.

3. During summer in the Northern Hemisphere, the Earth's tilted axis points towards the Sun. This means the Sun is at a
higher angle in the sky, the sunlight is more direct and concentrated, and the Sun spends more time above the horizon,
resulting in longer days and shorter nights — and therefore longer, warmer summers.

4. In July, Australia is in the Southern Hemisphere. Since the Southern Hemisphere tilts away from the Sun in June-
August (when it is summer in the Northern Hemisphere), Australia will be experiencing winter in July. Expect cold
temperatures, shorter days, and possibly snow in highland areas.