NAME :SOHA MAQSOOD

COURSE CODE :8610

SUBJECT :HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
TUTOR NAME : ABID HUSSAIN
REGISTRATION# 21PSP00970@[Link]
SEMESTER : SPRING 2022
PROGRAMME : B. ED ( 1.5YEAR)
SUBMISSION DATE :24 - 09-2022

[Link].2
QUESTION NO 1

Emotional development is important for children even before going to school.

Discuss emotional characteristics of preschool children.
ANSWER
Definition :
“Emotional development is the beginning of a child's experience, understanding, expression, and
management of emotions from birth to late adolescence. It also includes how growth and
changes in these processes related to emotions take place.”
Emotional development is a complex task that begins in infancy and continues into adulthood.
The first emotions that can be recognised in babies include joy, anger, sadness and fear. As
children’s sense of self develops, more complex emotions like shyness, surprise, elation,
embarrassment, shame, guilt, pride and empathy emerge. School aged children and young people
are still learning to identify emotions, to understand why they happen, and how to manage them
appropriately.
Social-emotional development provides the basis for how we feel about ourselves and how we
experience others. This foundation starts from the day we are born and continues to develop
throughout our lifespan. The quality of the relationships a child develops with his mother or
primary caregivers has the greatest influence on his later socio- emotional development. In
previous unit you have studied attachment theories which present and support this idea.
Positive and nurturing early experiences and relationships have a significant impact on a child’s
social-emotional development. They also influence how the young child’s brain develops. An
attachment relationship is adorable one. It develops during the first few years of the child’s life.
It is built upon repeated interactions between the infant and the primary caregiver (can be a
mother or any other person). These interactions mainly involve efforts by the infant to achieve
physical and emotional intimacy and the caregiver’s reactions to these efforts. They have a long-
lasting influence on how the child feels about himself, how he thinks and interacts with his
world, and what does he expect from [Link]’s responses to the different feelings they
experience every day have a major impact on their choices, their behaviour, and how well they
handle and enjoy life.
Emotional development involves:
1. Understanding how and why emotions appear
[Link] one’s own feelings and those of others,
[Link] effective ways of managing them.
As children grow and are open to different situations their emotional lives also become
more complex. Developing skills for managing a variety of emotions is therefore very important
for their emotional health. Parents, family members or other care givers have an important role to
play in supporting children’s emotional development. They do this through answering effectively
to children’s emotions, through providing examples of how they manage feelings, and through
talking with children about feelings and how to manage them. Similarly, the teachers can provide
significant care for children’s emotional development.

Emotional expression includes several components:

● physical responses (like heart rate, breathing and hormone levels)
● behavioural displays of emotion
● feelings that children and young people recognise and learn to name
● thoughts and judgments associated with feelings
● action signals (for example, a desire to approach, escape or fight).

Influences on emotional expression include:

● values and beliefs about appropriate and inappropriate ways of expressing emotions that
children and young people learn from families and educators
● how effectively children and young people’s emotional needs are usually met
● children and young people’s temperaments
● cultural norms
● emotional behaviours that children and young people have learned through observation or
experience
● the extent to which families are under various kinds of stress.
The rate of emotional development in children and young people can vary from person to person.
Some children may show a high level of emotional skill development while quite young,
whereas others take longer to develop the capacity to manage their emotions well into
adolescence.
INSTANT GRATIFICATION
Toddlers and preschoolers are ruled by their emotions and don’t have much, if any, impulse
control. And if there is one thing they don’t like, it’s being delayed gratification.
This, combined with their struggle to separate feelings from actions, means they’ll want to
immediately express an emotion or gratify a desire. They will cry immediately when sad and
when they feel they want something they will try to take it right away.
Keep this in mind as you try your best to teach them appropriate ways to show what they’re
feeling as well as sharing and turn-taking skills.
Feeling for others
Sympathy and empathy begin to develop at a young age too. After seeing a friend or sibling get
hurt, your child may try to comfort them, offering kind words or a reassuring hug or pat on the
back. As children become more aware of their emotions and how to control them, they
also become more aware of the feelings of those around them. This can be an especially happy
thing to see blossom in your child.
Separation anxiety
Three-year-olds are generally less interested in playing with other children, and have a greater
capacity to be affected by separation anxiety; they’ll be more interested in staying with their
parents or primary caregivers. Generally, four-year-olds will have an easier time with this and
any separation anxiety will be more short-lived.
Though your 3-year-old is beginning to understand the emotions they are feeling, they still have
very little control over them. If they find something funny, they'll laugh hysterically. If
something makes them feel sad or angry, they'll burst into tears.
At this age, your preschooler still hasn't developed much impulse control. If they feel something,
they are likely to act on it. This may mean snatching a toy away from another child if they want
to play with it, or getting upset when they want a snack after being told they have to wait until
dinnertime. Delayed gratification means nothing to them -- they want it, and want it now.
Three- and 4-year-old children may use hitting, biting, or pushing as a way to solve conflicts.
They simply don't understand the difference between appropriate and inappropriate interactions
yet. It's your job to teach your child that there are right and wrong ways to express emotions and
resolve problems with others.
As your child gets older, they'll begin to see a connection between emotional outbursts and
negative consequences. Throwing a tantrum may result in a "time out" or a favorite toy being
taken away. These consequences are helping your 4-year-old understand a tantrum isn't an
acceptable way to show emotion.
Your 4-year-old is also a budding comedian. They are starting to develop a sense of humor, and
love being silly and making people laugh. Don't be surprised if you hear them calling their friend
a "poo-poo head" and then laughing hysterically; 4-year-olds find potty talk highly entertaining.
Around age 3, children begin to develop a vivid imagination. At this age, your preschooler will
begin to spend a great deal of time in a fantasy world of their own creation. Their dolls and
stuffed animals all have names and personalities. They may chat with imaginary friends. Parents
sometimes worry that imaginary friends are a sign of loneliness or isolation, but in fact they're
just the opposite. Children use this type of fantasy play to learn how to interact with real people.
It's practice for the "real world." At an age when your child has very little control over their own
life, their fantasy world is their own creation. They're in charge. Around the same time your
preschooler begins to talk to an imaginary friend, they may also develop a fear of the monster
living under their bed. These types of fears are common. They are also quite serious to them, so
don't make a joke out of it. The best thing you can do is reassure your child that they are safe and
nothing is going to hurt them.
As your child gets older, fantasy play will continue to be an important part of their life, but
they'll get better at understanding the difference between fantasy and reality. their fantasies will
get more elaborate and sophisticated, and don't be surprised if they sometimes involve violence.
Don't let games of shoot-'em-up bother you; it's totally normal for children to be fascinated with
weapons and violence at this age, and it's not a sign that they'll be violent when they're older.
The older your preschooler gets, the more they'll crave independence. It may sound like a
contradiction, but the best way to nurture your preschooler's independence and self-confidence is
to keep their life fairly structured. Give them choices, but don't give them endless choices. Let
them choose between two outfits to wear, or ask them if they want a turkey sandwich or
macaroni and cheese for lunch. When they ask to do something you know isn't a good idea, hold
firm. Being allowed choices within a structured framework will help to boost their self-
confidence while at the same time letting them know they are safe and secure.
EMOTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS AT PRESCHOOL LEVEL
Emotions of preschool children are largely on surface.
Children at this level exhibit following characteristics:
1. Children laugh when adults laugh or on an odd event. It shows expansion of humor.
2. Less negativism
3. Commencement of phobias and fears that may prolong to age five
4. At four years intentional lying may begin

Activities for Social and Emotional Development at Preschool level

Following section presents some classroom activities a teacher can use to develop socio-
emotional skills. You can get the idea and design your own innovative activities according to the
level of learners and accessible sources.
I Can Help
It will be difficult for children of preschool age to fully grasp emotional concepts, especially
complex emotions. Therefore teacher should focus on basic emotions such as happy, sad, angry,
and hurt.
Materials:
• Large pieces of chart paper/poster board
• Markers
What to do:
1. Draw a happy face on top of the chart paper and ask the child what he sees and what it means.
2. Ask him to tell things that make him happy.
3. Ask what he can do to feel happy.
4. Draw an unhappy face and repeat the process. Also ask the child what he can do if he sees a
friend who is unhappy.
5. Draw an angry faces well as someone who is upset.
Variation:
Talking about emotions with a child can be made easier by using books. Find out some books in
Urdu language or in mother tongue, which are written and designed for children of this age.
REFERENCES :
[Link] E. Shapiro (2004).101 Ways to Teach Children Social Skills. Printed in the
United States of America.
[Link], S. and Weissberg, R. (2003). In M. Bloom & T. P. Gullotta (Eds.), A
blueprint for the promotion of pro-social behavior in early childhood. New York:
Kluwer/Academic Publishers.
[Link], M. T., Kusch, C., & Mihalic, S. F. (1998). Blueprints for violence
prevention, book 10: Promoting alternative thinking strategies (PATHS). Boulder, CO:
Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence.

QUESTION NO 2
What is the role of community in moral development of a child?
ANSWER
Definition :
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Moral development relates to an individual’s sense of right and wrong. It focuses on the
beginning, understanding and change of morality from infancy through old age. According
to one definition, morality refers to “a set of principles or ideals that help the individual to
distinguish right from wrong and to act on this distinction” (Shaffer, 1993).
Role of Community in Moral development :
Community is essential to quality outcomes of children. A community provides an important
relationship environment; promotes belonging, a sense of identity and learning; supports active
participation in the world and continuity of learning; and connects children and families to
supportive relationship and resource networks.
Young children develop in an environment of relationships, with a child’s community providing
a vital relationship context for their learning and development. This is particularly important
during the early years when the foundations of brain architecture are being built. From birth,
positive, responsive, consistent and secure relationships with others provide a supportive,
growth-promoting environment for children’s development, wellbeing and learning.
Children’s academic, social-emotional and mental health outcomes are built on this foundation.
A child’s relationship environment begins in the family, but then extends to adults and peers
outside of the family who have important roles in their life. Educators and other education and
care staff are a significant part of many children’s relationship environment. Communities that
foster positive interactions and relationships between children, peers and adults strengthen
children’s outcomes.
Community is essential to quality outcomes of children. A community provides an important
relationship environment; promotes belonging, a sense of identity and learning; supports active
participation in the world and continuity of learning; and connects children and families to
supportive relationship and resource networks.
When children have a sense of belonging and feel safe, secure and supported, they have the
confidence to play, explore and learn. A service that is strongly connected to the people and
place of its community is welcoming, inclusive, connected to the culture and context of
children’s families, while nurturing respectful and reciprocal relationships with children’s
families. Connection to community creates a responsive, safe and stable education and care
environment which, in turn, promotes children’s belonging and learning.
Children’s understanding of their self is developed through relationships and in the context of
their families and communities. ‘Relationships engage children in the human community in ways
that help them define who they are, what they can become, and how and why they are important
to other people’ (Center on the Developing Child, 2004, p. 1). Identity is a strong foundation for
children’s social and emotional development as well as their sense of agency.
Having everyday experiences and participating with the people and places of a community
enables children to observe, engage, understand and actively contribute to their expanding world.
This supports children to live interdependently with others, be decision-makers and have
influence. The ability to participate in different communities – a central element of citizenship –
helps young children to respond to diversity and become socially responsible.
Moral behaviour:
Moral behaviour means behaviour in conformity with the moral code of the social group. The
term ‘Moral’ comes from the Latin word ‘mores’ meaning manners, customs and folkways.
Moral behaviour not only conforms to social standards but also it is carried out voluntarily. It is
always a companied by a feeling of responsibility for one’s acts. It involves giving primary
consideration to the welfare of the group and considering personal gain or desires as having
secondary importance.

Moral concepts:
Moral concepts are the rules of behaviour to which the members of a culture become accustomed
and which determine the expected behaviour patterns of all group members.
Stages of Moral Development:

A-moral stage:
This stage lasts from birth to two years. The new born baby has no idea of good or bad, or right
and wrong. He is moved solely by his urges and wants. He is unaware of the effects his act has
on others.

Self-centered stage:
This stage usually goes up to six years. Some individuals may remain fixated at this stage even
much later. At this stage the person learns to distinguish between self-interest and group interest
but he is not prepared to sacrifice his own interest. A self-centred act is done more with a view to
satisfy one’s impulses or desires than to disregard a moral rule.

Conforming conventional stage:

During this stage motive or activity of the child is not self-approval but group approval. At this
stage a child may ignore his own impulses and act only in the manner which is normal in his
group. Conformity to norms of the social group is fairly common at the late childhood stage. By
doing so he learns many right things.

Irrational conscientious stage:

Conscience is a term which is used for internal self-criticism which makes a person reject an act
because it conflicts with his ideals even though it may attain his external goals. Behaviour is
irrational conscientious when an individual acts in the light of the values which are held
emotionally rather than rationally.
For example, always speak the truth even if it results in somebody being hanged or found out
by a mob and lynched. Almost all adolescents pass through this stage of holding on to social
values or emotional basis before they attain the highest level of moral development.

Rational altruistic stage:

That highest level is the rational altruistic stage. Here the values are not found in emotional
conditioning but in rational judgment. In other words the person acquires values and ideals at
rational and not at emotional basis. That is the values are put above or below in a hierarchy in
relation to their consequences for the welfare of others. At this level a person adheres neither to
the group norm nor to abstract ‘law’ or morality. But he acts and decides on the basis of
reasoning and the best consideration for others.
Society cannot work in a proper way in the absence of ethical and moral principles on
what is right and what is [Link] education starts from early childhood and continues
during childhood and adolescence. Impact of moral development will be reflected through
individual’s personality, behavior and attitudes. The quality of inter personal relations depends
on the quality of manners and behaviors people act upon. Starting from individual level, morality
spreads out to society and is an important element for peace and unity. Thus, teaching positive
values such as honesty, courage, responsibility, compassion, integrity, self-discipline, self-
reliance, kindness, friendliness, tolerance, respect, love, justice and mercy becomes essential.
REFERENCES :
[Link], Michael W. (2001). Simply Psychology. Hove, UK: Psychology Press Ltd.
Santrock
[Link], John W. (2011). Educational psychology /5th ed.
QUESTION NO 3
Language needs of community to be developed. Discuss?
ANSWER
Definition :
“Language is a system of communication used by many of us to communicate our
feelings, information and expression to our fellow beings. Language is a system of
communication based upon symbols, words, phrases and sentences. It is language that
differentiates humans from non human creatures.”
A speech community is a group of people who share rules for conducting and interpreting at least
one variety of a language or dialect. The term can be applied to a neighborhood, a city, a region
or a nation. We all belong to at least one speech community. The earliest speech community we
belong to is the one we share with our primary caregivers (usually our parents) and is the basis
for some of the most intimate and long term relationships we form across our life. The rules and
norms of this speech community show up in a dialect referred to as the vernacular, the most basic
variety or dialect of language we command. Our vernacular speech is least susceptible to
monitoring and least likely to change across our lifetime.
Most of us were immersed in language from our first awareness of the world around us. Since
infants can hear the sound of their mother’s voice and the noises and interactions in her
environment in the womb, we probably hear our first sounds before we take our first breath.
Fairly early in our development, we target in our babbling those sounds that form the phonology
of our language or dialect. In interaction with us, our mother adjusts her speech to reflect the
phonology, morphology, semantic and syntactic relationships that we are learning. Indeed, our
vernacular speech forms the very basis of all future linguistic interaction and development.
Across our lifetime we will participate in, construct, engage in, and possibly abandon many
speech communities. No other will be as primary.
When we enter school we bring more than the pronunciation patterns, lexicon, syntactic
structures, semantic and interpretive frameworks of the language variation or dialect we speak.
We have begun to learn to whom we should say what and when. Furthermore, we have learned
rules of conversation and linguistic interaction. We have learned to identify whose turn it is to
speak, how to get the floor ourselves, and when a person’s turn is over. All of these linguistic
skills support us in our first steps toward the development of literacy. When the patterns of the
speech communities we join at school are not that much different from the discourse patterns of
the speech community (or communities) we participate in with our parents, literary development
is more natural and easier.
When the linguistic heritage we bring to school contrasts sharply with the norms of the speech
community of the school, it creates difficulties not just for speaking but for participating. If our
linguistic heritage is viewed as problematic, divergent, or substandard, we may think of
ourselves as problems. We may feel shame for who we are and the community we come from. If
how we speak, gain access to participation, interpret behavior, or respond politely is
misunderstood by the school as laziness, recalcitrance, disrespectfulness, or stupidity, our entire
educational future and our ability to achieve our intellectual potential may be called into
question.
Linguistic heritage that is suspect usually comes from those who either speak a different
language or use dialects judged to be non-standard. John Ogbu points out that just because
people speak a different language or dialect does not mean they will not do well in learning a
new language and in achieving success in a new culture. But in the United States as well as other
countries in the world, some groups do better in this process than others. Some point to cultural
patterns to account for differences in successful participation.
[Link] language development: Children at first express only words and afterward join
them together, at first into sentences comprising of two-word and later into sentences comprising
of three-word. It is a style of right time learning of language in which children use language for
the most part to label objects. This style is useful to young children because this way extends
their understanding of vocabulary.
2. Expressive language development: Kids first utter sounds like babbles that copy the rhythm
and beat speech. Most kids utilize a blend of these styles. Another commonly known style
involved in language learning is expressive style. In this style little children apply language to
discuss their specific emotions and requirements.
This term refers to the linguistic resources which learners need in order successfully to cope with
the forms of communication in which they are going to be involved in the short or medium term.
These needs (and hence these communication situations) are identified as part of a specific
process which consists of gathering together the information required to assess what uses will
actually be made of the language learnt and thereby determine what types of content should be
taught on a priority basis. This process necessarily is the starting point for the development
of language programmes intended for learners like adults who are not covered by school
education. It is particularly relevant for adult migrants who have to cope in a pressing manner,
from the moment of their arrival and on a daily basis, with exchanges in a language of which
they have limited or no knowledge. It must lead to the development of tailor-made courses,
which are the only means of meeting the expectations of the relevant groups. However, it should
not be reduced to a technique for specialists, as the needs cannot be defined without input from
those concerned or indeed on their behalf. In order to specify the language needs of a particular
group which is regarded as homogeneous on the basis of certain aspects, use is made of data such
as information questionnaires for learners, interviews with them and with native speakers in
contact with them, samples of their spoken and written production and observations of language
activities which take place in the context(s) concerned... This approach is particularly vital if the
needs to be identified concern professional activities: what competences for a given job or
professional assignment? The information is gathered by means of external observations (which
may be described as "objective") or through the feelings of those concerned (subjective analysis),
the two being complementary. Several players are involved in the process of developing courses
for adults and adult migrants and they do not necessarily have the same views about the aims or
the methods of the teaching. If the promoters of a language course are business managers, they
may wish to obtain immediate, practical results; for their part, teachers may give precedence to
the teaching methodologies which they believe are effective (communicative approach, task-
based approach...); while learners often approach their needs from the angle of their previous
experience of education/learning and their educational culture. These varied expectations
involving that many different interpretations of the language needs which have to be satisfied
require negotiation so that the objective and subjective needs are harmonised. Adult migrants
must not be excluded from the relevant exchanges.

1. Developing a shared language builds community.

Any sociologist could tell you shared language often forms the basis of a community. When
everyone uses the same vocabulary, the community becomes more close-knit and there is a
greater sense of camaraderie. You can shape community behavior with positive language.

2. Understanding the language of your community makes users feel like they’re on
the inside.
Everyone likes to feel important or in the know. Once again, knowledge of a community
language helps people feel like they are an integral part of the group, fostering a stronger sense
of member or customer loyalty.

3. The words that we use to refer to people change how we treat those people.
Using the right words will help to reinforce the community objective, while the wrong words
will obscure the purpose of the community.
REFERENCES :

[Link]-Gleason, J. (1997). The Development of Language. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

[Link], B. S. (1998). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, the Classification of
Educational Goals – Handbook I: Cognitive Domain New York: McKay.

QUESTION NO 4
Discuss general characteristics of learning.
ANSWER
Definition :
“Learning means to bring changes in the behaviour of the organism. It is very difficult to
give universally acceptable definition of learning because various theories developed by
psychologists attempt to define the term from different angle.”

General Characteristics of Learning

The following are the general characteristics of learning:

(1) Learning is Adjustment:

Learning involves adjustment of the individual to his environment. The individual must learn to
adjust himself to the changes that take place around him.
(2) Learning is Growth:
Learning must result in the growth of the child. An immature child is developed into a mature
person through the process of learning.

(3) Learning is Organizing Experience: Learning is not like adding one experience
to the other it is rather, organizing the new experience with the old ones, thus giving rise to a
new form of behaviour. Thus, learning involves the proper organizing of experiences in manner.

(4) Learning is Purposeful:

The more intense the purpose of the individual, the more rapid the learning. Lack of purpose in
learning will hamper learning. Thus, purposeful learning is always more rapid and permanent.

(5) Learning is Active:

Better learning will take place only if the learner is actively engaged in the learning process.
Thus, active participation of the pupils is essential in the learning process.

(6) Learning is intelligent and Creative:

Learning involves an intelligent interpretation of the situation, and some selectivity in the
response. This necessarily involves intelligent and creative thinking.

(7) Learning Affects the Conduct of Learners:

Learning affects individuals to adjust
himself to the environment. This is brought about through some sort of change and
modification of one’s behavior. Thus the behaviour or conduct of the individual
undergoes change on account of learning.

(8) Learning is the Product of the Environment:

Learning is essentially an adaptation and adjustment to the environment.
Thus, environment has a great influence upon learning; learning cannot be divorced from the
environment.
The process of learning is continuous which starts right from the time of birth of an individual
and continues till the death. We all are engaged in the learning endeavours in order to develop
our adaptive capabilities as per the requirements of the changing environment. For a learning to
occur, two things are important: 1. The presence of a stimulus in the environment and 2. The
innate dispositions like emotional and instinctual dispositions. A person keeps on learning across
all the stages of life, by constructing or reconstructing experiences under the influence of
emotional and instinctual dispositions.
Psychologists in general define Learning as relatively permanent behavioural modifications
which take place as a result of experience. This definition of learning stresses on three important
elements of learning:
● Learning involves a behavioural change which can be better or worse.
● This behavioural change should take place as a result of practice and experience. Changes
resulting from maturity or growth cannot be considered as learning
● This behavioural change must be relatively permanent and last for a relatively long time
enough.
Learning is the process by which one acquires, ingests, and stores or accepts information. The
main characteristic of learning that; it is a process of obtaining knowledge to change human
behavior through interaction, practice, and experience.
Characteristics of learning are;
● Learning involves change.
● All learning involves activities.
● Learning Requires Interaction.
● Constitute Learning.
● Learning is a Lifelong Process.
● Learning Occurs Randomly Throughout Life.
● Learning Involves Problems Solving.
● Learning is the Process of Acquiring Information.
● Learning Involves far more than Thinking.
● Experience is Necessary for Learning.
General Characteristics of Learning
The following are the general characteristics of learning:
(1) Learning is Adjustment: Learning involves adjustment of the individual to his
environment. The individual must learn to adjust himself to the changes that take
place around him.
(2) Learning is Growth: Learning must result in the growth of the child. An immature child is
developed into a mature person through the process of learning.
(3) Learning is Organizing Experience: Learning is not like adding one experience
to the other it is rather, organizing the new experience with the old ones, thus
giving rise to a new form of behaviour. Thus, learning involves the proper
organizing of experiences in manner.
(4) Learning is Purposeful: The more intense the purpose of the individual, the more rapid the
learning. Lack of purpose in learning will hamper learning. Thus,
purposeful learning is always more rapid and permanent.
(5) Learning is Active. Better learning will take place only if the learner is actively
engaged in the learning process. Thus, active participation of the pupils is essential
in the learning process.
(6) Learning is intelligent and Creative: Learning involves an intelligent interpretation of the
situation, and some selectivity in the response. This necessarily involves intelligent and creative
thinking.
(7) Learning Affects the Conduct of Learners: Learning affects individuals to adjust himself
to the environment. This is brought about through some sort of change and modification of one’s
behavior. Thus the behaviour or conduct of the individual
undergoes change on account of learning.
(8) Learning is the Product of the Environment: Learning is essentially an
adaptation and adjustment to the environment. Thus, environment has a great influence upon
learning; learning cannot be divorced from the environment.
Learning involves change.
It is a reconstruction, combined thinking, skill, information and appropriation in a single unity
process.
For example, when a child learns to read they can retain this knowledge and behavior for the rest
of their lives. It is not always reflected in performance. The change from the learning may not be
clear until a situation arises in which the new behavior can occur.

All learning involves activities

These activities involve either physical or mental activity. They may be simple mental activities
of complex, involving various muscles, bones, etc.

Learning Requires Interaction

At the time of learning, the individual is constantly interacting with and influenced by the
environment. This experience makes him change or modify his behavior to deal effectively with
it.

Constitute Learning
To constitute learning, the change should be permanent. Temporary changes may be only
reflective and fail to represent any learning.

Learning is a Lifelong Process

Learning is a lifelong process of gaining and using the information presented to a person. It is not
static.
A person never stops acquiring new information. It keeps a person’s mind active and aware but
also conscious of the world around them.
Learning Occurs Randomly Throughout Life
Some learning occurs randomly throughout life, from new experiences, gaining information and
from our, perceptions, for example: reading a newspaper or watching a news broadcast, talking
with a friend or colleague, chance meetings, and unexpected experiences.

Learning Involves Problems Solving

Learning involves problem-solving i.e. understanding and discovering relations between
different contents in a situation.
Learning is the Process of Acquiring Information

Learning is the process of acquiring information, knowledge, wisdom, and skills.

It occurs as a result of interaction with the person’s environment.
Learning Involves far more than Thinking
Learning involves far more than thinking: it involves the whole personality – senses, feelings,
intuition, beliefs, values, and will. If we do not have the will to learn, we cannot learn and if we
have learned, we are changed in some way. If the learning makes no difference it can have very
little significance.

Experience is Necessary for Learning

Some sort of experience is necessary for learning. We can get the experience from direct
observation or from formal approaches to learning such as training, mentoring, coaching and
teaching.
We can get the experience from direct observation or from formal approaches to learning such
as training, mentoring, coaching and teaching.
Learning is more or less the acquisition of a new discourse, a new way of speaking, acting,
interacting, looking at the world, and knowing it.
It will be successful only when the information gained is used and understood.
It is a continuous process followed by an individual that allows for the acquisition of
information, attitudes, and practices, through observation, seeking previous knowledge,
searching out guides, and looking within as well as without. It is a key process in human
behavior.
If we compare the simple ways in which a child feels and behaves, with the complex modes of
adult behavior, his skills, habits, though, sentiments and the like we will know what difference
learning has made to the individual.
Types of Learning
Motor Learning: Our day to day activities like walking, running, driving, etc, must be learnt
for ensuring a good life. These activities to a great extent involve muscular coordination.
Verbal Learning: It is related with the language which we use to communicate and various
other forms of verbal communication such as symbols, words, languages, sounds, figures and
signs.
Concept Learning: This form of learning is associated with higher order cognitive processes
like intelligence, thinking, reasoning, etc, which we learn right from our childhood. Concept
learning involves the processes of abstraction and generalization, which is very useful for
identifying or recognizing things.
Discrimination Learning: Learning which distinguishes between various stimuli with its
appropriate and different responses is regarded as discrimination stimuli.
Learning of Principles: Learning which is based on principles helps in managing the work
most effectively. Principles based learning explains the relationship between various concepts.
Attitude Learning: Attitude shapes our behaviour to a very great extent, as our positive or
negative behaviour is based on our attitudinal predisposition.
REFERENCES :
[Link], E. R. (1935) The Psychology of Learning. New York: Harper.
[Link]. S. B. (1991) Learning, Principles and Application 2nd ed. McGraw Hill, Inc.
[Link]. M. H. & Bunch M.E (1997) Fundamentals and Applications of learning.
Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc. New York.
 QUESTION NO 5
How are individual difference measured?
ANSWER
MEASUREMENT OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Measurement is the assignment of a number to an object or event according to rule. This
may represent something physically as when you step on the scales and note, with dismay
or pleasure the number that indicates your weight. Or it may be more subtle, as when you take a
vocational aptitude test and receive your score in medical or engineering aptitude test. In order to
draw meaningful comparison, measurement, must be meaningful. In order to have meaning, all
measurements must satisfy two basic criteria: they must be reliable and they must be valid.
(a) Reliability: is the indication of the consistency of measurement, e.g: If your weight reads
140Ibs, one days, 240 pound the next day, and 40 pound the days after, your faith in the
precision of the scale would be secretly shaken. The same is true of psychological test. Our
measurements must be consistent over repeated tests of measurement. A good test should yields
roughly the same scores over repeated measurements, as long as that which is being measured
does not change dramatically.
(b) Validity :Measurements must also be valid, validity is an indication of the extent to which a
test measure what it is supposed to measure.
(c) Correlation :In order to give precise statements about reliability and validity, a statistical
technique called correlation may be utilized. It allows scientists to make predictions; correlation
is a statement about the strength of the association between two (or possibly more) variables. If
the correlation between two variables is high, the variables will tend to be very together, that is,
wherever one of the traits is found, chances are good that the other trait will also be found. If we
observe that people with bland hair usually have blue eye then we would say that there is
correlation between the variables hair colour and eye colour. This is not to say that having bland
hair causes one to have blue eyes, but it does allow us to predict, whenever we know that certain
individuals have bland hair, that they are also likelyto have blue eyes. As discussed earlier,
individuals differ in sensitive, affective and psychomotor abilities. They differ almost in every
respect-personality, attitude, interest, intelligence and achievement. Individual differences can be
identified and measured through finer measurement instruments know as psychological test. A
psychological is a pattern of stimuli, selected and organized to elicit responses which reveal
certain psychological characteristics in the person who makes them. The following psychological
tests can be used by the teacher or psychologists to measure difference among individuals.
All animals learn, remember and integrate information in order to reach decisions and behave
appropriately, but how, why and when these cognitive abilities evolve remains uncertain. One
reason for this uncertainty is that research in animal cognition has frequently ignored individual
differences and this precludes our understanding of how natural selection sifts individual
differences leading to evolutionary changes. Instead, the study of cognition in animals has
traditionally taken one of three (non-exclusive) forms. First, particular model species (e.g.
pigeons or rats) have been used to investigate the mechanisms underpinning specific cognitive
processes. This has typically used laboratory paradigms involving prolonged training of batches
of individuals to complete tasks aimed to elucidate fundamental learning principles. Second, the
comparative approach tests species or populations with the same, or purportedly similar, tasks to
understand when in evolutionary history particular cognitive processes may have emerged and
what ecological or social conditions may facilitate these processes. The abilities of a sample of
individuals within a population or species are pooled and considered representative of the whole
grouping. Finally, within a species, the abilities of particular, often highly enculturated, ‘genius’
individuals are explored in great detail in order to establish the presence of, or limits to,
particular cognitive capacities. From these instances of presence or absence, broader patterns of
evolution may be suggested and inferences drawn about the adaptive benefits of possessing such
cognitive abilities for the species, based on its ecology and social behaviour. While progress has
been made in understanding both fine-scale cognitive mechanisms and broad-scale evolutionary
patterns using these methods, it is hard to understand the evolution of cognitive abilities through
natural selection when we no ignore inter- and intra-individual variation in cognitive abilities.
While individual differences have been central to human psychology since the early 20th century
research on non-human animals has, until recently, tended to ignore the variation amongst
individuals. Over the last decade, there has been a growing focus on intraspecific variation in
non-human animals. This is perhaps influenced by
(i) the behavioural ecology approach originating in the 1980s, which explicitly considered
natural selection on individual phenotypes;
(ii) the more recent studies of animal personality, which emphasize individual differences across
correlated suites of behaviours
(iii) the development of statistical (mixed) modelling techniques that permit explicit
consideration of individual differences; and (iv) the development of technology permitting fine-
scale tracking of individuals’ movements and interactions. This special issue draws together
recent theoretical and empirical developments in the emerging field of individual variation in
cognition.
As cognitive abilities cannot be directly observed, they must be inferred through careful
experimentation. Measuring individual cognitive variation poses particular logistical and
analytical challenges because it requires repeated testing of known individuals under
standardized conditions, in a way that allows for noise caused by differences in, for example,
motivation, attention and prior experience to be identified, quantified and/or removed
(experimentally or statistically). Papers in the first section of this special issue explore these
methodological aspects further.
By measuring the cognitive abilities of individuals, we can address otherwise intractable
questions regarding the mechanisms, development and evolution of cognition. Does an
individual’s ability to solve cognitive problems influence its ability to survive and reproduce?
This special issue examines both the causes and consequences of individual variation in
cognitive abilities.
One means of addressing (although not eliminating) confounds is to assess individual
consistency through repeated testing. If we measure an individual once, and it makes more errors
in remembering a rewarded location than a conspecific, this could be because it has ‘worse’
spatial memory or because it happened to be distracted. However, if we measure individuals
repeatedly and we find that some individuals perform consistently better than others, this may be
indicative of a stable phenotypic trait that selection can act upon. It is, therefore, vital that
individuals are tested repeatedly to determine genuine among-individual phenotypic variation.
However, certain confounds may also be consistent over time and so these would also
consistently confound performance. This is an issue that has received a great deal of attention in
the literature on animal personality, yet is only just beginning to be recognized in studies of
animal cognition.
Measures of repeatability provide a way of assessing individual differences by quantifying
among- and within-individual variation. These modest estimates may be due in part to carry-over
effects of learning and memory. For example, if all individuals learn over repeated attempts at
the same task, then this can reduce among-individual variance and thus repeatability. Another
approach is to present individuals with tasks that differ in their physical characteristics but are
designed to measure the same cognitive trait by having the same causal contingencies. Most
studies have conducted only single repeats of tests; it remains to be determined how adding
further repeat variants of a test increases the reliability of the measure of cognitive ability.
Test of General Intelligence
Sometimes these tests are also referred to as tests of mental ability, tests of general ability or
test of scholastic aptitude, these tests measure the psychological traits termed to “intelligence”
which provide the best possible single clue to the understanding of children’s academic
performances. There are various tests of intelligence like standard-binet intelligence test
(revised), Wechsler intelligence scale for children and various culture free and culture fair tests.

Tests of Aptitude
These tests measure the possibilities of success in future performance. One of the most famous
batteries, which measure children’s different aptitudes, is “differential aptitude test battery”
which measures the following abilities.
(i) Verbal Reasoning
(ii) Numerical Ability
(iii) Abstract Reasoning
(iv) Space Relations
(v) Mechanical Reasoning
(vi) Clerical Speed and Accuracy
(vii) Language Usage
Interest Inventories
Strong Vocational Interest Blank, and Kuder’s Preference Record (Vocational) are some of the
interest inventories that can be used to measure differences among individuals in their interest.

Test of Personality
The MMPI, Bells Adjustment Inventory, Projective tests like “Rorschach Ink Blot test.”
Thematic Apperception test, and other questionnaires can be used to measure personality
structure and adjustment, and difficulties of individuals.

Competence-Based Tests
Tests of achievement, mostly teacher-made type, can be used to measure individual differences
in academic achievement. Practically, these tests as are prepared by teachers do not measure
the competence in learning various subjects. The competence-based tests are an improvement
over the traditional tests, and are not difficult to prepare such tests.
Once the teacher knows the learning competencies in various school subjects it becomes easy
for the teacher to prepare such tests. It must be noted that scores obtained by a student in any
one of the tests may not be a sure measure of his standing in the group. Scores on tests are
influenced by a number of factors, internal and external operating at the time of taking the test.
For this purpose scores obtained by one test can be supplemented by scores obtained from
other similar tests.

Multiple-Choice Tests or Essays

What about multiple-choice tests or, as many poorly prepared students like to call them,
“multiple-guess tests?” One of the criticisms of the multiple-choice tests is that it rewards rote
memorization rather than true understanding. This can certainly happen if the test is poorly
designed, but when thoroughly researched and carefully prepared, the multiple choice test can
assess a person’s ability to apply concepts to problem solving situations.
Rather than break up the units of knowledge and isolating the pieces, as the critics typically
charge, a well-designed multiple choice test, such as SAT, demands that the students be able
to understand concepts and bring facts together. Research evidence clearly shows that the SAT
verbal score shares much in common with IQ, the correlation between them being an extremely
high + [Link] Assisted Testing (CAT)The computer age has led to a high tech form of
testing called CAT. (Computer Assisted Testing) Here, the individual sits at a computer
keyboard, and the questions are presented on the screen. The testing becomes personalized
since the testing is interactive with the computer, in effect custom designing the test to each
student’s skill level. For example,
the question may get progressively more difficult until a level is reached. When a student begins
to get the questions wrong, an easier set of questions suddenly appears. This branching of
easier and harder questions called going “up the ladder” or “down the chute” continues until the
students true level of competence to reach.
The Portfolio Approach
Another testing technique, currently gaining in popularity is called the portfolio
approach. Just as an aspiring artist or model carries a portfolio of past work to a
prospective employer, so too does the student who selects examples of his or her best work
over a term or even an entire year of study. It is said that the portfolio approach places more
emphasis on a student’s overall accomplishment than on the ability merely to score well on a
single battery of tests. Typical portfolios include original poetry, plan, short stories, essay and art
projects.

REFERENCES :
[Link] Psychology By: Herbert J. Klausmeir Harper and Row Publishers, New
York 56th Edition, 1985
[Link] Psychology and its Classroom Applications. By: M. Daniel Smith Allyn
and Bacon INC; 470, Altantic AV Boston, Massachusets, 02210, USA 1975