04 - Wireless Local Area Network
Q.1] Explain problems such as Hidden Station, Exposed Station, Near Terminal and Far
Terminal with possible solutions for the same. (10 Marks)
In wireless networks, medium access is challenging because nodes cannot always sense every
other node's activity due to limited transmission ranges. This leads to several classic problems.
Hidden Terminal: The Hidden Terminal problem occurs when two nodes (A and C) are outside
each other's range but are both within the range of a common node (B).
● If Node A is transmitting to Node B. Node C wants to send data to B as well. C senses the
carrier, but since it is out of range of A, it detects the medium as "idle." C starts transmitting,
causing a collision at Node B.
● Increased collision probability at the receiver, packet loss, and wasted bandwidth.
● A sends a Request to Send (RTS). B responds with a Clear to Send (CTS). Since C is in
range of B, it hears the CTS and knows to remain silent, even though it cannot hear A.
○ Increased Sensing Range: Ensuring the carrier sensing range is significantly larger
than the transmission range.
Exposed Terminal: The Exposed Terminal problem occurs when a node is unnecessarily
prevented from transmitting because it hears a neighbor’s transmission, even though its own
transmission would not cause interference.
● If Node B is sending data to Node A. Node C wants to send data to a distant node D. C
senses the medium, hears B’s signal, and concludes the carrier is busy. C waits, even though
a transmission from C to D would not interfere with the reception at A.
● Under-utilization of bandwidth and unnecessary delays.
● If Node C hears the RTS from B but does not hear the CTS from A, it realizes that while B is
transmitting, the intended receiver (A) is out of C's interference range. C can then safely
proceed with its transmission to D.
Near and Far Terminal (Near-Far Effect): This problem is common in cellular networks
where multiple terminals communicate with a single base station.
● If two nodes (Near Terminal and Far Terminal) transmit at the same power, the signal from
the "Near" node arrives at the base station with much higher strength than the "Far" node due
to path loss. The strong signal "drowns out" the weaker one.
● The Far Terminal is effectively blocked or "captured" by the Near Terminal, leading to severe
unfairness and inability for distant nodes to communicate.
● The base station identifies the signal strengths and instructs the Near Terminal to reduce its
transmission power and the Far Terminal to increase its power. This ensures all signals arrive
at the base station with roughly equal strength (CDMA approach).
○ TDMA/FDMA: Assigning different time slots or frequencies to the nodes so they do
not compete for the same physical resource simultaneously.
Q.2] Write a note on Bluetooth Protocol Stack. (5 Marks)
The Bluetooth Protocol Stack is a layered architecture designed to allow diverse devices to
communicate over a short-range radio link. Unlike the OSI model, the Bluetooth stack is
specifically optimized for low power and ad-hoc networking.
Core Protocols (Transport Layers): These layers handle the physical radio transmission and
initial link management.
● Radio (RF) Layer: Defines the physical characteristics of the air interface. It operates in the
2.4 GHz ISM band and uses Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) to minimize
interference.
● Baseband Layer: Acts as the digital core (equivalent to the MAC layer). It manages
physical links: SCO (Synchronous Connection-Oriented) for voice and ACL (Asynchronous
Connection-Less) for data.
● Link Manager Protocol (LMP): Responsible for the setup and control of links between
devices. It handles security functions like authentication, pairing, and encryption.
Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP): L2CAP is often called the "heart"
of the stack as it sits between the lower core layers and higher applications.
● Segmentation and Reassembly: It breaks large data packets into smaller segments for the
baseband and reassembles them at the receiver.
● Multiplexing: It allows multiple high-level protocols (like RFCOMM or SDP) to share a
single physical link.
● QoS: It manages the quality of service, ensuring the necessary bandwidth and latency for
different data types.
Host Controller Interface (HCI): The HCI provides a standardized interface between the
Bluetooth hardware (the radio module) and the host processor (the software/PC). It allows a
single software stack to work with different Bluetooth hardware.
Middleware & High-Level Protocols
These layers provide specialized services for applications:
● RFCOMM: A "cable replacement" protocol that emulates RS-232 serial ports. This allows
legacy serial-based applications to run over Bluetooth without modification.
● Service Discovery Protocol (SDP): Used by a device to "find" what services another device
offers (e.g., discovering if a device is a printer, a headset, or a file server).
● OBEX (Object Exchange): A session-layer protocol used for exchanging files, images, and
electronic business cards.
● TCS (Telephony Control Specification): Defines the signaling for voice calls and group
management between Bluetooth devices.
Q.3] Explain the Protocol Architecture of IEEE 802.11 with a diagram. (10 Marks)
The IEEE 802.11 standard defines the network architecture and the protocols for the Physical
and MAC layers of a Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN). It is designed to handle mobile
stations while integrating seamlessly with wired Ethernet networks.
Key Components of 802.11 Architecture
● Station (STA): Any device that contains an IEEE 802.11 conformant MAC and Physical
layer interface.
○ Client STA: Laptops, smartphones, and printers.
○ Access Point (AP): A specialized station that acts as a bridge between the wireless
medium and a wired distribution system.
● Distribution System (DS): The backbone network (usually wired Ethernet) used to
interconnect multiple BSSs to form a larger network.
● Portal: A logical point where data enters or exits the 802.11 network to a non-802.11
network (like the Internet or a traditional wired LAN).
Basic Service Set (BSS): The BSS is the fundamental building block of an 802.11 architecture.
It consists of a group of stations that communicate with each other.
● Infrastructure BSS:
○ Stations communicate via an Access Point (AP).
○ Even if two stations are sitting next to each other, their frames must first go to the AP,
which then forwards them to the destination.
● Independent BSS (Ad-hoc Network):
○ Stations communicate directly in a peer-to-peer fashion.
○ There is no central AP and no connection to a wired distribution system.
○ It is typically used for short-term, spontaneous connections (e.g., file sharing between
two laptops).
Extended Service Set (ESS): When a single BSS does not provide enough coverage, multiple
BSSs are connected via a Distribution System (DS) to form an Extended Service Set (ESS).
● Roaming: An ESS allows a mobile station to move from one BSS to another without losing
its network connection.
● Transparency: To the outside world (beyond the Portal), the entire ESS appears as a single
logical network. The movement of stations within the ESS is hidden from higher-layer
protocols.
Connection Services: Before a station can transmit data through an AP, it must complete two
critical steps:
● Authentication: The station proves its identity to the AP (using passwords or certificates) to
ensure it is authorized to join the network.
● Association: Once authenticated, the station "associates" with the AP. This allows the
Distribution System to know exactly which AP to use when sending data back to that specific
station.
Q.5] Compare Infrastructure Based Network and Ad-hoc Network. (5 Marks)
Feature Infrastructure Network Ad-hoc Network
Requires a central Access Point (AP) No central entity; operates on a
Central Entity
or Base Station. peer-to-peer basis.
Spontaneous, dynamic, and
Configuration Fixed, pre-planned, and permanent.
temporary.
Nodes must send data to the AP, Nodes connect and send data
Communication
which then forwards it. directly to each other.
Limited to the range of the AP (unless High; the network moves as the
Mobility
roaming is set up). nodes move.
High; can be expanded by adding Low; performance drops as more
Scalability
more APs. nodes join.
High; centralized security and Low; harder to monitor and secure
Security
firewalls. individual nodes.
High (due to wiring and hardware Low (uses existing hardware on
Cost
setup). devices).
Home Wi-Fi, Office LANs, Cellular Bluetooth file sharing, Military,
Applications
(GSM). Disaster Relief.
Q.6] Write a note on HIPERLAN. (5 Marks)
HIPERLAN (High Performance Radio Local Area Network) is a family of wireless
communication standards developed by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute
(ETSI). Published in 1996, it was designed as a high-speed European alternative to the IEEE
802.11 (Wi-Fi) standards, focusing on multimedia support and time-sensitive data.
Key Characteristics
● It operates in the 5 GHz range, offering higher bandwidth and less congestion compared
to the 2.4 GHz band used by early Wi-Fi.
● HIPERLAN/1 supports up to 23.5 Mbps, while the later HIPERLAN/2 reaches up to 54
Mbps.
● Offers high speeds at short distances (<50 m) and scales down to 1 Mbps for longer
distances (up to 800 m).
● Built from the ground up to support isochronous traffic (voice and video) with very low
latency.
Versions of HIPERLAN
Feature HiperLAN/1 HiperLAN/2
Primarily Infrastructure (Access
Topology Primarily Ad-hoc (Peer-to-Peer).
Points).
Connection Connectionless. Connection-oriented.
Access Method EY-NPMA. TDMA / TDD.
Connection to ATM and Ethernet
Focus High-speed local data.
backbones.