UNIT I — TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY

23EC503 — Transmission Lines and RF Systems | B.E. ECE, Semester V

1.1 Introduction
A transmission line is a system of conductors that guides electrical energy/signals from a source (generator) to a
load (receiver) with minimum loss and distortion. At low frequencies a line behaves like a simple pair of wires,
but at high frequencies the line parameters (resistance, inductance, capacitance, conductance) are distributed
uniformly along its length, and the line must be analysed using distributed-parameter (field) theory rather than
lumped-circuit theory.

1.2 Types of Transmission Lines

• Open-wire line (two-wire line) — two parallel conductors separated by air; used for power and low-
frequency telephone lines.
• Twisted pair — two insulated conductors twisted together; reduces interference; used in telephony and
LAN cables.
• Coaxial cable — a central conductor surrounded by a dielectric and an outer conductor (shield); used for
RF/TV signals because it confines the field and has low radiation loss.
• Waveguides — hollow conducting pipes (rectangular/circular) used at microwave frequencies where
ordinary lines have excessive loss.
• Strip line / Microstrip — planar transmission lines used in microwave integrated circuits and PCBs.

1.3 Primary and Secondary Constants

Primary constants are the four distributed electrical parameters defined per unit length of the line:

Symbol Name Unit Physical meaning

R Resistance Ω/km Series loss due to
conductor resistance
(skin effect at HF)
L Inductance H/km Series magnetic flux
linkage of the
conductors
C Capacitance F/km Shunt capacitance
between the two
conductors
G Conductance S/km (mho/km) Shunt
leakage/dielectric loss
between conductors

Secondary constants are derived from the primary constants and describe the wave-propagation behaviour of
the line:

(a) Characteristic Impedance (Z0)

 Z0 = √[ (R + jωL) / (G + jωC) ] Ohms
Z0 is the impedance seen looking into an infinitely long line; it is independent of line length and depends only on
the per-unit-length constants and frequency. For a lossless line (R = G = 0): Z0 = √(L/C), a real, frequency-
independent quantity.

(b) Propagation Constant (γ)

γ = α + jβ = √[ (R + jωL)(G + jωC) ]
• α (attenuation constant, Np/m or dB/m): governs the exponential decay of voltage/current amplitude
along the line.
• β (phase constant, rad/m): governs the rate of change of phase along the line; β = 2π/λ.
The voltage and current at a distance x from the sending end of an infinite/matched line vary as V(x) = V0
e^(−γx) = V0 e^(−αx) e^(−jβx).

1.4 General Solution of a Transmission Line

Consider a small element of line of length dx with series impedance (R + jωL)dx and shunt admittance (G +
jωC)dx. Applying Kirchhoff's laws to this element gives two coupled first-order differential equations:

−dV/dx = (R + jωL) I and −dI/dx = (G + jωC) V

Differentiating and combining these gives the second-order wave equations:

d²V/dx² = γ² V d²I/dx² = γ² I
whose general solutions represent a wave travelling toward the load (incident) and a wave travelling back
toward the source (reflected):

V(x) = A e^(−γx) + B e^(+γx) I(x) = (A/Z0) e^(−γx) − (B/Z0) e^(+γx)

Constants A and B are evaluated from the boundary (terminal) conditions, e.g. known sending-end
voltage/current or known load impedance.

1.5 Infinite Line Concept

An infinite line is one whose length is theoretically infinite, so that no wave ever returns from the far end —
there is no reflected wave, and the input impedance of the line equals its characteristic impedance Z0 regardless
of frequency. A finite line terminated in an impedance ZR = Z0 behaves exactly like an infinite line (it is said to be
'correctly terminated' or matched); all the incident power is absorbed by the load and there is no reflection.

1.6 Waveform Distortion

When a complex (non-sinusoidal) signal travels along a practical line, its waveform may change shape on arrival
at the receiving end. Two kinds of distortion occur:

(a) Frequency Distortion

Occurs because the attenuation constant α is a function of frequency; different frequency components of the
signal are attenuated by different amounts, changing the relative amplitudes of the harmonics.
(b) Phase / Delay Distortion
Occurs because the phase velocity (vp = ω/β) is not the same for all frequencies, so different frequency
components arrive with different time delays, smearing/distorting the resultant waveform. This is also called
delay distortion.

1.7 Distortionless Line — Condition

A line is said to be distortionless if α and the velocity of propagation are both independent of frequency, so that
every frequency component is attenuated equally and delayed equally. This requires:

R/L = G/C (the distortionless-line condition)

Under this condition: α = √(RG) (constant, independent of ω), and β = ω√(LC) (linear in ω, giving constant
velocity vp = 1/√(LC) and Z0 = √(L/C), purely resistive).

1.8 Campbell's Equation

Campbell's equation relates the propagation constant of a loaded line (a line into which lumped inductors are
periodically inserted) to the line parameters and the loading interval. For a line of section length s with a lumped
loading inductance Lc inserted every section, Campbell's equation is:

cosh(γ's) = cosh(γs) + (Zc · γ / 2) · sinh(γs)

where γ' is the propagation constant of the loaded line, γ and Z0 those of the unloaded line, and Zc = jωLc is the
impedance of the loading coil. It allows the designer to predict the cut-off frequency and attenuation behaviour
introduced by periodic loading.

1.9 Loading of Lines

Loading means deliberately adding extra inductance (or sometimes capacitance) to a line to satisfy or approach
the distortionless condition R/L = G/C, thereby reducing attenuation and distortion — historically very important
for long telephone lines.

Types of Loading
• Continuous loading — a magnetic material (e.g., iron tape/wire) is wound continuously around the
conductor to raise L uniformly along the entire length.
• Lumped/Coil loading — discrete loading coils (inductors) are inserted in series with the line at regular,
equally-spaced intervals (most common method, used in telephone cables).
• Patch loading — loading is applied only over certain sections (patches) of the line rather than uniformly
throughout its length.
Effect of loading: increases L, reduces α, brings the line closer to the distortionless condition, but a loaded line
behaves like a low-pass filter and has a cut-off frequency beyond which transmission is poor — hence loading is
suited for voice-frequency lines, not for very high frequencies.

1.10 Input Impedance of a Line

The input impedance Zin looking into a line of length l, characteristic impedance Z0, terminated in load
impedance ZR, is given by the general transmission-line equation:

Zin = Z0 · [ZR cosh(γl) + Z0 sinh(γl)] / [Z0 cosh(γl) + ZR sinh(γl)]

(a) Open-Circuited Line (ZR → ∞)

Zoc = Z0 coth(γl)

(b) Short-Circuited Line (ZR = 0)

Zsc = Z0 tanh(γl)
Multiplying the two: Z0 = √(Zoc · Zsc) and tanh(γl) = √(Zsc/Zoc) — this is the basis of the experimental
measurement of Z0 and γ of an unknown line using open- and short-circuit tests.

1.11 Voltage, Current and Power on a Line

For a line of length l driven by sending-end voltage VS and current IS, the voltage and current at any point can be
expressed in terms of hyperbolic functions of γx, and the input power delivered to the line is:

Pin = VS IS cos(θ) (θ = phase angle between VS and IS = angle of Zin)

The power delivered to the load PR is obtained from the receiving-end voltage and current: PR = VR IR cos(φ),
where φ is the phase angle of the load impedance ZR.

1.12 Efficiency of Transmission

η = (Power delivered to load / Power sent into line) × 100% = (PR / PS) × 100%
Transmission efficiency is reduced by I²R conductor loss and dielectric (leakage) loss represented by G; for a
matched, low-loss line operating near the distortionless condition, efficiency approaches its maximum value.

1.13 Reflection Loss

When the load impedance ZR is not equal to Z0, part of the incident wave is reflected back toward the source
instead of being absorbed by the load. The reflection coefficient is defined as:

Γ = (ZR − Z0) / (ZR + Z0)

Reflection loss (in dB) is the loss in delivered power that occurs purely because of this impedance mismatch
(compared with the matched condition), and is expressed as:

Reflection Loss (dB) = 20 log10 [ (Z0 + ZR) / (2√(Z0 ZR)) ] (for real Z0, ZR)
Reflection loss is zero when ZR = Z0 (perfectly matched line) and increases as the mismatch increases; it is one of
the major causes of inefficiency and standing waves on a line, motivating the impedance-matching techniques
studied in Unit III.

Key Formula Summary

Quantity Formula
Characteristic Impedance Z0 = √[(R+jωL)/(G+jωC)]
Propagation Constant γ = α + jβ = √[(R+jωL)(G+jωC)]
Distortionless condition R/L = G/C
 Open-circuit input impedance Zoc = Z0 coth(γl)
Short-circuit input impedance Zsc = Z0 tanh(γl)
Z0 from OC/SC test Z0 = √(Zoc·Zsc)
Reflection coefficient Γ = (ZR−Z0)/(ZR+Z0)
Efficiency η = (PR/PS) × 100%

Expected Outcome (CO1)

On completing this unit, the student should be able to develop and analyse a transmission-line model — derive
its primary/secondary constants, the general wave solution, and the conditions for distortionless transmission,
and compute input impedance, power and efficiency for open-, short- and loaded-line conditions.