Biology
Levels Of Organization:
Cells:
The cells in your body need tobe able to divide to help your
body grow and repair itself
Cells grow and divide over and over again
New cells are produced by the division of existing cells
Basic unit of structure and function in living organisms.
May serve a specific function within an organism
Example: In humans: RBCs, nerve cells…etc
Specialised Cells - In Animals
Specialised cells are those which have
developed certain characteristics in order to
perform particular functions. These differences
are controlled by genes in the nucleus
Cells specialise by undergoing differentiation:
this is a process by which cells develop the
structure and characteristics needed to be able
to carry out their functions
Ciliated cells:
Extensions of the cytoplasm at the surface of
the cell form cilia/ thin hairy projections.
They are found along with goblet cells (cells that
secret mucus) in the air passages in the lungs
(trachea and bronchi)
They are also found in the oviducts in the female
reproductive system.
Cilia beat back and forth to
create a current in the fluid next
to the cell surfaces.
In the airways, cilia move the
mucus that traps dust and
pathogens up to the throat to be
swallowed and killed by the acid
in the stomach.
Specialised Cells - In Animals
In the oviducts, cilia move the egg from the ovary
to the uterus.
Neurons(Nerve Cells):
They have thin extensions of the cytoplasm like
wires. They are able to transmit information in
the form of electrical impulses around the body.
They have:
Long fiber called axon.
A fatty sheath which gives electrical insulation.
Many branched endings which can connect with
other many cells.
Red Blood Cells:
Contain the protein haemoglobin that carries
oxygen from lungs to all body cells.
The cells have no nucleus, leaving more space for
haemoglobin- to have higher surface area to
carry more heamoglobin to bind to more oxygen.
Specialised Cells - In Animals
They are very flexible / small in size (they can be
squeezed through even the narrowest of blood
vessels).
They are shaped like biconcave which provides a
large surface area compared with their volume,
which makes for efficient absorption of oxygen.
Since they don’t have mitochondria, they don’t
actively move.
Sperm Cells:
It is very small 40- 60 micrometer
The head of the sperm carries genetic
information from the male parent to the female
parent/ fertilizes the egg cell/ fuse with the egg
cell to form the zygote.
Produces in testes in huge numbers
(300,000000) per ejaculation.
They are haploid (have only one set of
chromosomes)
Specialised Cells - In Animals
Structure:
Head:
Contains nucleus carrying Genes from the father.
Produces an enzyme that helps it to penetrate
the egg membrane.
Streamlined shape which helps in faster
swimming and the penetration of the egg.
No cytoplasm.
Middle Part:
Full of mitochondria to produce enough energy
for movement.
Tail (flagellum)
For swimming to the egg cell.
Specialised Cells - In Animals
Egg Cells:
Are much bigger than sperm cells.
They are haploid (have one set of DNA)
Fertilized by the sperm cell.
Produced in the ovaries (once per month)
They can’t move, but cilia in the cells lining the
oviduct push them towards the uterus.
They contain a large store of food in the
cytoplasm.
Genes of the mother are found inside the nucleus
of the egg.
The size is 0.1 mm (100 micrometer)
Specialised Cells - In Animals
Palisade Cell:
Palisade mesophyll cells are plant cells with
numerous chloroplasts in the cytoplasm.
The chloroplasts trap light energy for
photosynthesis.
Palisade cells have a cell wall made up of tough
cellulose, which strengthens the cell.
They are columnar in shape.
In the cytoplasm there is a large vacuole, which is
filled with cell sap.
Starch grains are found in the cytoplasm.
These are formed by photosynthesis and are a
temporary store of energy.
Specialised Cells - In Animals
Root Hair Cell:
Have finger like projection, with very thin cell wall
that increases the surface area for more water
and mineral intake.
Walls are thin for ensure that water moves
quickly.
Have large number of mitochondria which
releases energy from glucose during respiration
in order to provide energy needed for active
transport of mineral ions.
A concentrated vacuole to help absorbing water
by osmosis.
Covered with sticky material to slide easily
between particles.
It has no chloroplast.
Xylem Vessels:
Are cylindrical and hollow.
They are dead cells, no nucleus, no cytoplasm so
water can pass freely.
Specialised Cells - In Animals
No end walls so that a continuous column of
water running through them.
They run from roots up to stem and leaves
They are arranged into columns like pipes.
The cell walls are thickened with bands or spirals
of cellulose and a waterproof material called
lignin.
These cells allow water and ions to move from
the roots to the rest of the plant.
They also help to support the stem and leaves.
Tissues:
A group of similar cells is called a tissue.
All the cells in a tissue look the same and they
work together to carry out a shared function.
Specialised Cells - In Animals
Examples of tissue in humans:
Epithelial tissue.
Tissue that lines the stomach made of identical cells
that release enzymes to digest food.
Organs:
An organ is made up of a group of different
tissues that work together to perform specific
functions.
Specialised Cells - In Animals
Examples of organs in humans:
In humans:
The heart is an example of an organ. It is made up
of different tissues such as cardiac muscle,
nervous tissue, fibrous tissue and blood that
work together to pump blood around the body
Examples of organs in plants:
The leaves
A leaf is an organ it is made of different types of cells
to carryout photosynthesis
Specialised Cells - In Animals
Organ Systems:
Consist of a group of organs with related
functions, working together to perform body
functions.
The Circulatory System:
The heart and blood vessels work together as part of
the circulatory system.
Examples of organ systems in humans:
•The digestive system is made up of the esophagus,
stomach, pancreas, liver and intestines.
Specialised Cells - In Animals
The excretory system is made up of the kidneys,
ureters and bladder.
Examples of organ systems in humans:
•The reproductive system in females is the ovaries,
oviducts, uterus and vagina; in males it is the testes,
sperm ducts, prostate gland and penis.
Specialised Cells - In Animals
The excretory system is made up of the kidneys,
ureters and bladder.
Shoot and Root System of the plant:
Specialised Cells - In Animals
Transport System In Plants:
•Vascular bundles make up transport system in
plants- it includes leaves, stems and roots
Specialised Cells - In Animals
Transport System In Plants:
•Vascular bundles make up transport system in
plants- it includes leaves, stems and roots
Reproductive Systems in Plants:
•Flower: it is an organ system for reproduction
(formed of sepal, petals, stamen and carpel)
Organism:
•Entire living organism that carry out all basic life
processes.
Animal Cells:
Plant Cells:
Cells under light microscope:
Plant Cells Animal Cells Bacteria
Eukaryotes Eukaryotes Prokaryote
Have Cell
Have Cell Membrane Have Cell Membrane
Membrane
Have Cytoplasm Have Cytoplasm Have Cytoplasm
Have DNA Have DNA Have DNA
DNA stored in
DNA stored in nucleus DNA floatting in nucleus
nucleus
Has Cell Wall made of Cellulose No Cell Wall Cell Wall made of peptidoglycan
Have Organelles like Ribosomes , ER , Vesicles, Vacuole, Lack Organelles and have
Mitochondria ribosomes
Have chloroplast except root hair
No chloroplast No chlorplast
cells and xylem
Small , Many
1 large vacuole No Vacuoles
vacuole
No plasmid No plasmid Has plasmid
Some have
No flagella flagella e.g. Have Flagella
sperm
Permanent Shape Irregular Shape Various
Has no starch
Has starch grains
grains
Function of Different Cell Structures-
Cell Membrane:
•Forms a barrier between the cell and its
surroundings
•Keep contents of cell inside
•Partially permeable (allows some materials in/ out
but not others)
•Allows simple substances to enter and leave the
cell ex. oxygen, carbon dioxide and water
•It is hard to see it in plant cells as it is pressed
against the cell wall.
Cytoplasm:
•Place where many chemical reactions take place,
e.g., respiration and making proteins for the cell
•Jelly made of 70% water, contains many
substances especially proteins.
•Site of metabolic reactions.
Nucleus:
•Stores the DNA/ genetic material/ chromosomes/ genes.
•Controls all activities in the cell • controls how cells develop
Chloroplast(Plant Cells Only):
•Photosynthesis
•Stores starch
•Contains green pigment called chlorophyll that
absorb sunlight for photosynthesis.
•Starch grains made by photosynthesis found
inside the chloroplast or in the cytoplasm.
•Important: not all plant cells have chloroplast (ex
they are not found in the roots)
Cell Wall(Plant Cells Only):
•Made of cellulose which gives the plant strength,
protection and support.
•Stops cells from bursting when they fill with water
gives shape to cells
•It is freely or fully permeable. Allows water and
dissolved substances to pass through freely.
Large Sap Vacuole(Plant Cells Only):
•A space in the cell surrounded by a membrane
stores solution of salts and sugars called the cell
sap which keeps the cell turgid (a full vacuole
presses outward on the rest of the cell)
•Full of water to maintain shape and 'firmness' of
cell
Mitochondria:
•Release energy during aerobic respiration (oxygen is used
to release energy from glucose)
•Power house of the cell.
•Mitochondria are relatively large organelles found in all
eukaryotic cells.
•They are often visible using the electron microscope only
•Each mitochondrion has a double membrane, the outer
one of which controls the entry and exit of materials.
•The inner membrane forms many folds on which some of
the chemical reactions of aerobic respiration take place.
•Cells with high rates of aerobic respiration have many
mitochondria to provide sufficient energy.
•For example, human liver cells and insect flight muscle
cells contain vast numbers of mitochondria.
Ribosomes:
•Make proteins for the cell
•Join amino acids together during protein synthesis, the
reaction is controlled by enzymes and transport vesicles.
•This process is controlled by the DNA.
•They are about 20 nanometres (nm) in diameter in
eukaryotic cells but smaller in prokaryotic cells.
Eukaryote- A cell that has a nucleus
Prokaryote- A cell that lacks nucleus
Endoplasmic reticulum:
•Ribosomes can be free within the cytoplasm or attached to
a system of membranes within the cell known as
Endoplasmic Reticulum
•Endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes looks
rough under the microscope; this gives rise to its name of
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (often shortened to R.E.R.)
Vesicles:
•Vesicles can also be seen using a higher magnification -
these are small circular structures found moving throughout
the cytoplasm
•
•They transport materials from one part of the cell to the
other.
Bacteria Cells:
•Bacteria, which have a wide variety of shapes and sizes, all share the
following biological characteristics:
•They are microscopic single-celled organisms
•Possess a cell wall (made of peptidoglycan, not cellulose), cell
membrane, cytoplasm and ribosomes
•Lack a nucleus but contain a circular chromosome of DNA that floats in
the cytoplasm
•Plasmids are sometimes present - these are small rings of DNA (also
floating in the cytoplasm) that contain extra genes to those found in the
chromosomal DNA
•They lack mitochondria, chloroplasts and other membrane-bound
organelles found in animal and plant cells
•Some bacteria also have a flagellum (singular) or several flagella
(plural). These are long, thin, whip-like tails attached to bacteria that
allow them to move
•Examples of bacteria include:
•Lactobacillus (a rod-shaped bacterium used in the production of
yoghurt from milk)
•Pneumococcus (a spherical bacterium that acts as the pathogen
causing pneumonia)
Magnification:
•Magnification is the number of times larger an image is, than the real
size of the object.