Conic Section - Parabola

THE PARABOLA
01 July 2023 04:49 PM

If the plane is parallel

to the edge of the
cone, an unbounded
curve is formed. This
curve is a parabola.

A parabola is the set of

all points (x,y) in a
plane that are the
same distance from a
fixed line, called the
directrix, and a fixed
point (the focus) not
on the directrix.

• The line segment that passes through

the focus and is parallel to the
directrix is called the latus rectum.
The endpoints of the latus rectum lie
on the curve.

• By definition, the distance d from the

focus to any point P on the parabola
is equal to the distance from P to the
directrix

STANDARD FORMS OF PARABOLA WITH VERTEX AT THE ORIGIN

Graphing Parabolas with Vertices Not at the Origin

The graph of a parabola can be translated. If a parabola is translated h units horizontally and k units
vertically, the vertex will be (h,k). This translation results in the standard form of the equation we saw
previously with x replaced with (x-h) and y replaced with (y-k).

STANDARD FORMS OF PARABOLA WITH VERTEX (h,k)

Topics to Remember Page 1

Latitude
11 July 2023 09:25 PM
Cartographers and geographers trace horizontal and vertical lines called
latitudes and longitudes across Earth's surface to locate points on the globe.
The Earth is very close to a sphere (ball) shape, with an
average radius of 6371 km PARALLELS OF LATITUDE

When we measure distances that a boat or aircraft travels The angle from the horizontal
between any 2 places on the Earth, we do not use straight through the equator determines
line distances, since we need to go around the curve of the the name given to each parallel of
Earth from one place to another latitude. Five parallels of latitude
are shown in the diagram; 60o N,
30o N, 0o N (the equator), 30o S
and 60o S

Each 1o of latitude on the Earth

represents 60 nautical miles, or
around 110.9 km. Of course,
90o N represents the North pole
and 90o S is the south pole

We slice the Earth through the equator and remove the

top. We show the Earth's axis which (by convention) points
to North at the top

If the Earth were perfectly spherical, the two lines would be identical and so the two
angles would be identical. But since the Earth is an oblate spheroid (i.e. its cross-
section is an ellipse) the two are not quite the same

The angle I had in mind is the geocentric latitude ψ. The angle made by a
perpendicular line and the plane of the equator is the geographic latitude φ, also
known as the astronomical latitude

Geographic latitude φ is most commonly used

NOTABLE LATITUDES

The equator represents 0° latitude, while the North and South Poles
represent 90° North and 90° South latitudes. In addition to the equator,
there are four other major latitudes that are usually found on maps and
globes. The positions of these latitudes are determined by the Earth's axial
tilt.

The Arctic Circle is the latitude 66° 34′ North. All locations falling north of
this latitude are said to be in the Arctic Circle.

The Antarctic Circle on the other hand, is the latitude 66° 34′ south. Any
locations falling south of this latitude are said to be in the Antarctic Circle.
Places in both the Arctic and Antarctic circles experience the Midnight Sun
and polar night.

The latitude 23° 26′ North is also known as the Tropic of Cancer. It marks
the northern-most position on the Earth, where the Sun is directly overhead
at least once a year. This happens during the June Solstice, when the Earth’s
Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun.

The Tropic of Capricorn is the latitude that lies at 23° 26′ South of the
equator. It is the southern-most position on the globe, where the Sun is
directly overhead during the December Solstice.

Sometimes, latitudes north of the equator are denoted by a positive sign.

Latitudes south of the equator are given negative values. This eliminates the
need to add whether the specified latitude is north or south of the equator.

Topics to Remember Page 2

Longitude
11 July 2023 09:46 PM

EAST - WEST LOCATIONS

Longitudes are geographical positioning markers that run from the

geographical North Pole to the geographical South Pole, intersecting the
equator. They meet at both poles and specify the east-west position of a
location. Half of a longitudinal circle is known as a meridian. Meridians are
perpendicular to every latitude.

Unlike, latitudes, there is no obvious central longitude. However, in

order to measure the position of a location based on the longitude,
cartographers and geographers over the course of history have
designated different locations as the main longitudinal reference point.

Today, the meridian line through Royal Observatory, Greenwich,

England, is considered as the reference point for longitudes. This line is
also known as the Prime Meridian.

The Prime Meridian is set as 0° longitude and it divides the Earth into the
Eastern and the Western Hemispheres.

Since a sphere has 360 degrees, the Earth is divided into 360 longitudes.
The meridian opposite the Prime Meridian (on the other side of the
Earth) is the 180° longitude and is known as the antimeridian.

Topics to Remember Page 3

Solstice & Equinox
11 July 2023 09:50 PM

NO TRADITIONAL SEASONS

Countries along the equator don’t have

traditional seasons like spring, summer,
fall (autumn), and winter. Generally
speaking, regions around the equator
have wet and dry seasons.

The Northern and Southern Hemispheres

tilt toward and away from the Sun at
opposite times of the year. This tilt of
Earth’s axis is known as axial tilt and is
the reason why we have seasons in the
north and south of Earth.

Twice a year, on the March and September equinox, the

Sun passes precisely over the equator. This means that
when the Sun is at its highest point in the sky, known as
the zenith, it will be directly overhead.

At that perfect time of the equinox–when the Sun is both

directly overhead and at its highest in the sky–the
shadows of everything on the ground disappear!

Equal Day and Night

Day and night are approximately the same length along the
equator: around 12 hours of daytime and 12 hours of night-
time. However, the days are a few minutes longer than the
night.

Opposite Seasons in the North and South

Seasons in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres are

opposite. When it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere, it’s
summer in the Southern Hemisphere. This is because Earth’s
axis is tilted in relation to its orbit around the Sun, known as
axial tilt.

Topics to Remember Page 4

Earth's Obliquity - 23.4°
11 July 2023 09:55 PM

Earth's Obliquity Today

Today, on 11 July 2023 at noon, Earth's axial tilt, or mean

obliquity was 23.43622° or 23°26'10.3"

Earth's mean obliquity today is about 0.00001°, or 0.04", less

than 30 days ago.

The Arctic and Antarctic circles today are 1.2 m (4 ft) closer to
the poles, and the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn are
equally closer to the equator than 30 days ago.

THE TILT CHANGES

Acts Like Two Spinning Tops
Earth's axial tilt actually oscillates between 22.1 and 24.5 degrees. The Axial precession can be described as a slow
reason for this changing obliquity angle is that Earth's axis also wobbles gyration of Earth's axis about another line
around itself. This wobble motion is called axial precession, also known as intersecting it. A complete wobble of Earth's
precession of the equinoxes. It is caused by the gravitational force from axis takes around 26,000 years.
the Sun, the Moon, and other planets.

Illustrator's Point of View

Different illustrators may vary which direction they incline the axis in their images. Some draw it tilted left-to-
right, others right-to-left. These illustrations can both be accurate; the only difference is that the artist has
chosen the opposite side of the Sun as the point-of-view.

The obliquity or tilt of the earth means that its rotational axis is titled by 23.5
degrees with respect to the equator of the sun (or equivalently, the ecliptic plane).

So from the point of view of an observer on the ecliptic plane, the equator of the
Earth is tilted by 23.5 degrees.

So this means that in the summer solstice the Sun has a declination of 23.5
degrees, meaning that if you were at 23.5 degrees the sun would be directly
overhead (e.g 90 degrees above the horizon) at noon.

Now finally, let's consider the case of Eugene, which is at a latitude of about 44.5
degrees.

• 44.5 - 23.5 = 21 degrees away from that reference point

• On the summer solistice, the maximum elevation of the Sun above the
horizon would therefore be 90-21 = 69 degrees
• At winter solistice, the sun has a declination of -23.5 meaning that if you
were at -23.5 degrees south latitude, the sun would be 90 degrees above the
horizon. Eugene would be 44.5 - (-23.5) or 68 degrees away from that
reference point -so on Dec 21 in Eugene the sun have a maximum angle
above the horizon of 90-68 = 22 degrees.
• At the time of the equinoxes the sun has a declination of 0 degrees meaning
its directly overhead at the equator or, in the Eugene sky, has a maximum
altitude of 44.5 degrees above the horizon.

Topics to Remember Page 5

Horizontal Coordinate System
11 July 2023 10:34 PM

The horizontal coordinate system, also known as the Alt/Az

system, is a method for describing the exact position of objects in
the sky, such as planets, the Sun, or the Moon.

Distance Irrelevant
Based on two coordinates, altitude and azimuth, the horizontal
coordinate system provides the general direction in which to find
a celestial object. Although the distance of the visible planets,
stars, and galaxies differs by billions of light years, the system
ignores the depth of space as an object's distance is irrelevant for
the purpose of locating it in the sky.

• Altitude or elevation: The angle the object makes with the

horizon
• Azimuth: The object's cardinal direction, such as north,
east, south, or west. It is specified as the horizontal angle
the object makes with a reference direction, such as true
north

Note: Since true north is the reference direction most commonly

used. However, some astronomical conventions still follow the
traditional method of using true south as a starting point for
azimuth angles.

In the northern hemisphere at latitudes above 23.5°,

the sun never reaches the Zenith and is always at the
south. For this reason, we place the solar panels facing
south. In the southern hemisphere at latitudes
below -23.5°, the sun is always at the north, so we
position solar panels facing north.

Topics to Remember Page 6