Sampling Methods | Types, Techniques
& Examples
Published on September 19, 2019 by Shona McCombes. Revised on June 22, 2023.
When you conduct research about a group of people, it’s rarely possible to
collect data from every person in that group. Instead, you select a sample. The
sample is the group of individuals who will actually participate in the research.
To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to carefully decide how
you will select a sample that is representative of the group as a whole. This is
called a sampling method. There are two primary types of sampling methods
that you can use in your research:
Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make
strong statistical inferences about the whole group.
Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on
convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.
You should clearly explain how you selected your sample in the methodology
section of your paper or thesis, as well as how you approached minimizing
research bias in your work.
[Link] [Link]/methodology/sampl ng-methods/ 19.06.2026 10 55
Sayfa 1 / 13
:
i
i
Population vs. sample
First, you need to understand the difference between a population and a sample,
and identify the target population of your research.
The population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions
about.
The sample is the specific group of individuals that you will collect data
from.
The population can be defined in terms of geographical location, age, income, or
many other characteristics.
[Link] [Link]/methodology/sampl ng-methods/ 19.06.2026 10 55
Sayfa 2 / 13
:
i
i
It can be very broad or quite narrow:
maybe you want to make inferences
about the whole adult population of
your country; maybe your research
focuses on customers of a certain
company, patients with a specific
health condition, or students in a single
school.
It is important to carefully define your
target population according to the
purpose and practicalities of your project.
If the population is very large, demographically mixed, and geographically
dispersed, it might be difficult to gain access to a representative sample. A lack
of a representative sample affects the validity of your results, and can lead to
several research biases, particularly sampling bias.
Sampling frame
The sampling frame is the actual list of individuals that the sample will be drawn
from. Ideally, it should include the entire target population (and nobody who is
not part of that population).
Example: Sampling frame
You are doing research on working conditions at a social media marketing
company. Your population is all 1000 employees of the company. Your sampling
frame is the company’s HR database, which lists the names and contact details
of every employee.
Sample size
[Link] [Link]/methodology/sampl ng-methods/ 19.06.2026 10 55
Sayfa 3 / 13
:
i
i
The number of individuals you should include in your sample depends on various
factors, including the size and variability of the population and your research
design. There are different sample size calculators and formulas depending on
what you want to achieve with statistical analysis.
Probability sampling methods
Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of
being selected. It is mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to produce
results that are representative of the whole population, probability sampling
techniques are the most valid choice.
There are four main types of probability sample.
[Link] [Link]/methodology/sampl ng-methods/ 19.06.2026 10 55
Sayfa 4 / 13
:
i
i
1. Simple random sampling
In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance
of being selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.
To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number
generators or other techniques that are based entirely on chance.
Example: Simple random sampling
You want to select a simple random sample of 1000 employees of a social
media marketing company. You assign a number to every employee in the
[Link] [Link]/methodology/sampl ng-methods/ 19.06.2026 10 55
Sayfa 5 / 13
:
i
i
company database from 1 to 1000, and use a random number generator to
select 100 numbers.
2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly
easier to conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but
instead of randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular
intervals.
Example: Systematic sampling
All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order. From the first 10
numbers, you randomly select a starting point: number 6. From number 6
onwards, every 10th person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and
you end up with a sample of 100 people.
If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no hidden
pattern in the list that might skew the sample. For example, if the HR database
groups employees by team, and team members are listed in order of seniority,
there is a risk that your interval might skip over people in junior roles, resulting in
a sample that is skewed towards senior employees.
3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may
differ in important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring
that every subgroup is properly represented in the sample.
To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called
strata) based on the relevant characteristic (e.g., gender identity, age range,
income bracket, job role).
[Link] [Link]/methodology/sampl ng-methods/ 19.06.2026 10 55
Sayfa 6 / 13
:
i
i
Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many
people should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or
systematic sampling to select a sample from each subgroup.
Example: Stratified sampling
The company has 800 female employees and 200 male employees. You want to
ensure that the sample reflects the gender balance of the company, so you sort
the population into two strata based on gender. Then you use random sampling
on each group, selecting 80 women and 20 men, which gives you a
representative sample of 100 people.
4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each
subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of
sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.
If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled
cluster. If the clusters themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from
within each cluster using one of the techniques above. This is called multistage
sampling.
This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there
is more risk of error in the sample, as there could be substantial differences
between clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee that the sampled clusters are really
representative of the whole population.
Example: Cluster sampling
The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with roughly the
same number of employees in similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to
travel to every office to collect your data, so you use random sampling to select
[Link] [Link]/methodology/sampl ng-methods/ 19.06.2026 10 55
Sayfa 7 / 13
:
i
i
3 offices – these are your clusters.
Non-probability sampling methods
In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random
criteria, and not every individual has a chance of being included.
This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk of
sampling bias. That means the inferences you can make about the population are
weaker than with probability samples, and your conclusions may be more limited.
If you use a non-probability sample, you should still aim to make it as
representative of the population as possible.
Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and
qualitative research. In these types of research, the aim is not to test a
hypothesis about a broad population, but to develop an initial understanding of a
small or under-researched population.
[Link] [Link]/methodology/sampl ng-methods/ 19.06.2026 10 55
Sayfa 8 / 13
:
i
i
1. Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most
accessible to the researcher.
This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to
tell if the sample is representative of the population, so it can’t produce
generalizable results. Convenience samples are at risk for both sampling bias
and selection bias.
Example: Convenience sampling
[Link] [Link]/methodology/sampl ng-methods/ 19.06.2026 10 55
Sayfa 9 / 13
:
i
i
You are researching opinions about student support services in your university,
so after each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to complete a
survey on the topic. This is a convenient way to gather data, but as you only
surveyed students taking the same classes as you at the same level, the
sample is not representative of all the students at your university.
2. Voluntary response sampling
Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on
ease of access. Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly
contacting them, people volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a public
online survey).
Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some
people will inherently be more likely to volunteer than others, leading to self-
selection bias.
Example: Voluntary response sampling
You send out the survey to all students at your university and a lot of students
decide to complete it. This can certainly give you some insight into the topic,
but the people who responded are more likely to be those who have strong
opinions about the student support services, so you can’t be sure that their
opinions are representative of all students.
3. Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the
researcher using their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the
purposes of the research.
[Link] [Link]/methodology/sampl ng-methods/ 19.06.2026 10 55
Sayfa 10 / 13
:
i
i
It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain
detailed knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical
inferences, or where the population is very small and specific. An effective
purposive sample must have clear criteria and rationale for inclusion. Always
make sure to describe your inclusion and exclusion criteria and beware of
observer bias affecting your arguments.
Example: Purposive sampling
You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of disabled
students at your university, so you purposefully select a number of students
with different support needs in order to gather a varied range of data on their
experiences with student services.
4. Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit
participants via other participants. The number of people you have access to
“snowballs” as you get in contact with more people. The downside here is also
representativeness, as you have no way of knowing how representative your
sample is due to the reliance on participants recruiting others. This can lead to
sampling bias.
Example: Snowball sampling
You are researching experiences of homelessness in your city. Since there is no
list of all homeless people in the city, probability sampling isn’t possible. You
meet one person who agrees to participate in the research, and she puts you in
contact with other homeless people that she knows in the area.
5. Quota sampling
[Link] [Link]/methodology/sampl ng-methods/ 19.06.2026 10 55
Sayfa 11 / 13
:
i
i
Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined number
or proportion of units. This is called a quota.
You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups (called strata)
and then recruit sample units until you reach your quota. These units share
specific characteristics, determined by you prior to forming your strata. The aim
of quota sampling is to control what or who makes up your sample.
Example: Quota sampling
You want to gauge consumer interest in a new produce delivery service in
Boston, focused on dietary preferences. You divide the population into meat
eaters, vegetarians, and vegans, drawing a sample of 1000 people. Since the
company wants to cater to all consumers, you set a quota of 200 people for
each dietary group. In this way, all dietary preferences are equally represented
in your research, and you can easily compare these [Link] continue
recruiting until you reach the quota of 200 participants for each subgroup.
Other interesting articles
If you want to know more about statistics, methodology, or research bias, make
sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
Frequently asked questions about sampling
What is sampling?
Why are samples used in research?
[Link] [Link]/methodology/sampl ng-methods/ 19.06.2026 10 55
Sayfa 12 / 13
:
i
i
What is probability sampling?
What is non-probability sampling?
What is multistage sampling?
What is sampling bias?
[Link] [Link]/methodology/sampl ng-methods/ 19.06.2026 10 55
Sayfa 13 / 13
:
i
i