STUDY NOTES

Chapter 2: The Invisible Living World — Beyond Our Naked

Eye
Curiosity — Science, Grade 8 (NCERT)

Welcome! These notes go through the whole chapter step by step, exactly the way a teacher
would explain it in class. Every idea, every activity, and every question from the textbook is
explained here in simple words, with the answers worked out for you. Read each part slowly, try
to answer the 'Think about it' questions yourself before reading the explanation, and use the
Q&A boxes to test your memory.

1. Getting Curious: Probe and Ponder

Before the chapter begins, the book asks you some warm-up questions. These questions don't
have one fixed 'correct' answer — they are meant to make you think and wonder. Let's look at
each one and discuss it in simple terms.
Q: Have you ever wondered what you might see if the invisible world around you became
visible?
A: If the invisible world suddenly became visible, we would see that the air, water, soil, our
skin, and even our food are full of tiny living things — bacteria, fungi, algae, and other
microorganisms — moving, growing, and interacting everywhere. The world would look much
more 'crowded' and 'alive' than it appears to our naked eyes.
Q: How do you think your observation of this hidden world might change the way you
think about size, complexity, or even what counts as 'living'?
A: Once we see this hidden world, we realise that 'living things' are not only big animals and
plants we can see — even a single tiny cell, far too small to see without a microscope, is
alive, eats, grows, and reproduces. It changes our idea of size (life can be incredibly small)
and complexity (even something tiny can be a complete, working living being).
Q: Have you thought how these tiny living beings interact with each other?
A: Yes — tiny organisms interact in many ways. Some live together and help each other (like
bacteria that live in plant roots and help them grow), some compete for food and space, some
break down dead matter so others can use the nutrients, and some can cause disease in
bigger organisms by living inside them.
The book also asks you to write down and share your own questions about this hidden world.
This is a great habit — keep a small notebook of 'I wonder...' questions as you read this chapter.
2. How Did We Discover the Invisible World?
2.1 Why couldn't people see tiny things earlier?
Our eyes are wonderful, but they have a limit. The human eye can only see objects that are
above a certain size. Anything smaller than that limit simply looks invisible to us, no matter how
hard we try. For a very long time in human history, this meant that a huge part of the living world
— all the tiny organisms — remained completely unknown to people.

2.2 The discovery of the lens

Long ago, people discovered something amazing: a curved piece of glass could make small
things look bigger. This piece of glass was thick in the middle and thin at the edges — just like
the shape of a lentil seed (think of a 'masoor dal' seed). Because of this shape, it was named a
LENS (the word 'lens' actually comes from the word for lentil).
Key word: Lens
A lens is a curved piece of glass (thick in the middle, thin at the edges) that makes small objects
appear larger when you look through it.
Over time, scientists and craftsmen kept improving these lenses, making them more and more
powerful. Step by step, simple magnifying glasses became microscopes — instruments that
could magnify (make things look bigger) much, much more than a single lens could. The
invention of the microscope opened up a whole new, fascinating world full of tiny living creatures
that no one had ever imagined before.

2.3 Activity 2.1 — Let us observe (the water-flask magnifier)

What you do:
1. Take a round-bottomed glass flask and fill it completely with water.
2. Close the mouth of the flask with a cork.
3. Place the flask on top of an open book and look at the letters through the flask.
What you observe:
The letters of the book appear larger when you look at them through the water-filled flask! This
happens because the curved surface of the flask, filled with water, bends light in the same way
a magnifying lens does — so it acts like a magnifying glass.
Try this too:
Use a real magnifying glass to look at a small organism, like an ant. You will be able to see the
details of its body (legs, eyes, body segments) much more clearly than with the naked eye.
Q: Why does a water-filled round flask make letters look bigger?
A: Because its curved, rounded shape bends (refracts) light rays in the same way a convex
(lentil-shaped) lens does. This bending of light makes the letters appear magnified, just like
looking through a magnifying glass.

2.4 'Ever heard of...' — Robert Hooke and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
This box tells us the real history of how the invisible world was finally discovered.
Robert Hooke (1665):
• He was a scientist who was a very careful observer and a skilled artist.
 • In 1665, he published a famous book called Micrographia, which means 'drawings of
very small things'.
• In this book, he showed detailed drawings of tiny objects that nobody had ever seen
before — all seen through an early microscope.
• His microscope could make things look 200 to 300 times bigger than what the naked eye
could see.
• One day, he looked at a thin slice of cork (the bark of a tree) under his microscope. He
saw that it was made up of many small, empty spaces — like a honeycomb.
• He called each of these small empty spaces a 'CELL'. This was the very first time the
word 'cell' was used in science to describe the basic unit of life.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1660s):
• He was a Dutch scientist, working around the same time as Hooke.
• He made better, more powerful lenses, which allowed him to build more useful
microscopes.
• He was the first person to clearly see and describe tiny living things like bacteria and
blood cells.
• Because of this huge contribution, he is known as the 'Father of Microbiology'.
Q: Who used the word 'cell' for the first time, and why did he choose that name?
A: Robert Hooke used the word 'cell' for the first time, in 1665, after looking at thin slices of
cork under his microscope. He saw many small, empty box-like spaces that reminded him of
the small rooms (cells) in a honeycomb, so he called them 'cells'.
Q: Why is Antonie van Leeuwenhoek called the 'Father of Microbiology'?
A: Because he built powerful microscopes using improved lenses and was the first person to
clearly observe and describe living microorganisms such as bacteria and blood cells —
opening up the entire field of microbiology (the study of microorganisms).

3. What Is a Cell? (Section 2.1)

All living things — every plant, every animal, every tiny microorganism — are made up of cells.
A cell is the smallest 'building block' of life. To actually see what cells look like, we need a
microscope. Let's do two activities to see real cells with our own eyes.

3.1 Activity 2.2 — Studying onion peel cells

What you do (step by step):
4. Take an onion, wash it, and cut it vertically into pieces.
5. Using forceps, peel off the thin, transparent layer from the inner surface of one piece.
This thin layer is called the ONION PEEL.
6. Put the peel in a petri dish with a few drops of safranin (a red stain) for 30 seconds. The
stain gives the cells a pink colour so they are easier to see.
7. Using a thin brush, move the peel to another petri dish with water, to rinse off the extra
stain.
8. Carefully place the stained peel flat on a glass slide using a brush, making sure it doesn't
fold or tear.
 9. Add a drop of glycerin on top of the peel. Glycerin stops the cells from drying out and
helps you see them more clearly.
10. Gently lower a coverslip onto the peel at an angle (about 45°), using a needle, so that no
air bubbles get trapped underneath.
11. Use blotting paper to soak up any extra glycerin that has spread outside the coverslip.
12. Now look at the slide under a microscope (or a foldscope).
What you observe:
You will see many nearly rectangular, box-shaped structures, packed tightly together with no
gaps between them — these are the cells of the onion peel.
Q: Why is safranin (the red stain) added to the onion peel before viewing it?
A: Safranin gives the colourless onion peel cells a pinkish colour. This increases the contrast
between the cells and the background, making it much easier to see the cell structures clearly
under the microscope.
Q: What similarities do you find between the onion peel cells (Fig. 2.3c) and a brick wall
(Fig. 2.3d)?
A: Both show many similar-shaped units arranged compactly, side by side, in neat rows with
almost no gaps between them. Just as bricks are the basic units that make up a wall, cells
are the basic units that make up the onion peel (and indeed, the whole living body). This is
why the chapter says 'a cell is the basic unit of life, just like a brick is the basic unit of a wall'.

3.2 Activity 2.3 — Studying human cheek cells

What you do (step by step):
13. Rinse your mouth with clean water.
14. Using the blunt (smooth) end of a clean toothpick, gently scrape the inside of your
cheek.
15. Place this scraped material in a drop of water on a clean glass slide and spread it
evenly.
16. Add a drop of methylene blue (a blue stain) on top — this increases the contrast and
makes the cells easier to see.
17. After one minute, add a drop of glycerin to stop the cells from drying out.
18. Carefully place a clean coverslip on top, and wipe away extra glycerin from the edges
using blotting paper.
19. Observe the slide under a microscope and draw what you see.
What you observe:
You will see polygon-shaped (many-sided) cells. These are cheek cells — they form the inner
lining of your mouth.
Q: What similarities and differences are there between onion peel cells and human cheek
cells?
A: Similarities: Both are made of cells, and both types of cells have a cell membrane,
cytoplasm, and a nucleus. Differences: Onion peel cells are nearly rectangular and have a
thick cell wall around them, so they look firm and box-like, tightly packed together. Cheek
cells are polygon-shaped (irregular, many-sided), thin and flat, and do NOT have a cell wall
— only animal cells, like cheek cells, lack a cell wall, which is why they look more loosely
shaped.
3.3 The three basic parts of a cell
From these two activities, you can see that every cell has three main parts:

Part of the cell What it is / Where it is What it does

Cell membrane The thin outer covering/lining of Encloses the cytoplasm and
the cell nucleus; separates one cell from
another; it is porous, so it lets
useful materials enter the cell
and lets waste materials leave
the cell
Nucleus A small, round structure in the Regulates (controls) all the
middle of the cell, covered by its activities that happen inside the
own thin membrane cell; also regulates the growth of
the cell
Cytoplasm The jelly-like material that fills the Contains carbohydrates,
space between the cell proteins, fats, and mineral salts;
membrane and the nucleus most life processes of the cell
take place here
Some cells — like onion peel cells — have one extra part: an outer layer called the CELL
WALL, which lies outside the cell membrane and gives the cell extra strength and a fixed shape.
Q: What is the function of the cell membrane?
A: The cell membrane encloses the cytoplasm and nucleus and separates one cell from
another. It is porous, which means it allows useful materials needed for life processes to
enter the cell, and allows waste materials to leave the cell.
Q: What is the function of the nucleus?
A: The nucleus regulates (controls) all the activities that take place within the cell, and it also
regulates the cell's growth.
Q: What is cytoplasm and why is it important?
A: Cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance that fills the space between the cell membrane and
the nucleus. It contains carbohydrates, proteins, fats and mineral salts, and most of the life
processes of the cell take place inside it.
Q: Which cells have a cell wall, and what does it do?
A: Plant cells (like onion peel cells) have an extra outer layer called the cell wall. The cell wall
gives rigidity (stiffness) and strength to the cell, which is why plant cells are arranged
compactly together and look firm in structure.

4. A Step Further — Plastids and Vacuoles

This box gives some extra detail about parts found in plant cells (and sometimes animal cells).
Plastids:
Cells in all parts of a plant contain tiny rod-shaped structures called PLASTIDS.
 • Some plastids, called CHLOROPLASTS, contain a green pigment called chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll makes these parts of the plant green and helps in photosynthesis (the
process by which plants make their own food using sunlight).
• In the non-green parts of the plant, plastids help in storing substances instead.
Vacuole:
Plant cells also have a large, empty-looking space called a VACUOLE.
• It helps the plant cell to: store important substances, get rid of waste, and maintain the
shape of the cell.
• This gives strength and support to the whole plant.
• In animal cells, vacuoles are usually absent. If present, they are usually very small, and
they store certain substances dissolved in water.
So remember: a cell is NOT just a simple bag of liquid — it is a complex structure made up of
many different parts, and each part has its own special job, which together allow the cell (and
the whole organism) to work properly.

4.1 Plant cell vs Animal cell — comparison

Feature Animal cell Plant cell
Cell membrane Present Present
Cytoplasm Present Present
Nucleus Present Present
Cell wall Absent Present
Chloroplast (plastids) Absent Present
Vacuole Usually absent or small Large and prominent
Shape Usually round/irregular Usually rectangular/box-like and
firm because of the cell wall

5. Variation in Shape and Structure of Cells (Section 2.1.1)

Not all cells in the body look the same. Different cells have different shapes, and this is closely
connected to the special job (function) each type of cell performs.
Muscle cell vs Nerve cell:
• A muscle cell is shaped like a spindle (long, with pointed ends) — this shape helps it
contract and relax, which is needed for movement.
• A nerve cell (also called a NEURON) is very long and has branches. Its elongated,
branched shape helps it reach far-away parts of the body and pass on messages
(signals) very quickly.
Cheek cells (from Activity 2.3):
These cells are thin and flat. This flat shape lets them form a smooth, protective lining on the
inner surface of the cheek.
Plant cells also vary in shape:
In plants, cells may be rectangular, elongated, oval, or even tube-like. For example, some plant
cells form long tubes, which help carry water throughout the plant — this is exactly the right
shape for their job of transporting water.
Cells of the digestive system (recall from Grade 7):
• In the food pipe, muscle cells are thin, flexible, and spindle-shaped. They contract and
relax in a wave-like manner, which pushes food down towards the stomach.
• In the stomach wall, muscle cells help churn the food, while other cells in the inner lining
produce digestive juices and acid that help break down food.
• All these different cells, with their different shapes, work together to make digestion
possible.
Q: Does the shape and structure of a cell relate to its function? Give an example.
A: Yes, definitely. The shape of a cell is closely related to the job it does. For example, a
nerve cell (neuron) is long and branched because it needs to carry messages over long
distances and to many directions in the body — its shape is perfectly suited to this job.
Similarly, muscle cells are spindle-shaped and flexible so that they can contract and relax to
produce movement, and cheek cells are thin and flat so they can form a smooth protective
lining.

6. Levels of Organisation in the Body (Section 2.2)

The body of a living organism is organised in a step-by-step, complex way, starting from the
smallest unit — the cell — and building up to the whole organism. Just as a brick is the basic
unit of a wall, a cell is the basic unit of life.
The levels of organisation, in order, are:
Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism
Level Meaning (in simple words) Example from the chapter
Cell The basic unit of life — the smallest A single cell (Fig. 2.7a)
living building block
Tissue A group of similar cells working together A group of similar cells forms a
tissue (Fig. 2.7b)
Organ Different tissues working together for a Different tissues organise to
job form an organ, e.g. the stomach
(Fig. 2.7c)
Organ system Several organs working together for a Several organs together form
major body function an organ system, e.g. the
digestive system (Fig. 2.7d)
Organism All the organ systems working together A complete living being, like a
plant or an animal (Fig. 2.7e)
These levels of organisation help us understand how simple building blocks (cells) come
together, step by step, to form a complex living being.
6.1 The beginning of life — the egg cell, and multicellular organisms
The life of complex living organisms begins with a single cell, called the EGG. This egg cell has
an amazing ability — it can divide again and again, repeatedly, to form a complete living being
made up of many, many cells.
Living beings whose body is made up of many cells are called MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS.
Animals (including humans) and plants are all examples of multicellular organisms.

6.2 'Ever heard of...' — the largest cell in the world

The yolk (the yellow part) of an ostrich egg is actually a single cell — and it is the largest known
cell in the living world! It measures about 130 mm to 170 mm in diameter (that's about 13–17
cm — almost the size of a small ball).
The egg also contains extra non-cellular material that is not part of the cell itself: a hard shell for
protection, and a white liquid (egg white) that provides nourishment to the cell as it develops.
Q: Arrange the following in the correct order of the levels of organisation: Organ, Cell,
Organism, Tissue, Organ system.
A: Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ system → Organism.
Q: What is special about the yolk of an ostrich egg?
A: The yolk of an ostrich egg is a single cell, and it is the largest known cell in the entire living
world, measuring about 130 mm to 170 mm in diameter.

7. What Are Microorganisms? (Section 2.3)

Some living organisms are made up of just one cell, or very few cells. They are so small that
they cannot be seen with the naked eye. These tiny living beings are called
MICROORGANISMS or MICROBES (micro = very small, organism = living being).
Unicellular vs Multicellular microorganisms:
• UNICELLULAR (made of just one cell): for example, bacteria and Amoeba.
• MULTICELLULAR (made of many cells): for example, some fungi and some algae.
Microorganisms are found absolutely everywhere around us — in water, in soil, in the air, and
even inside our own bodies! To see the cells of a microorganism, we again need a microscope,
because they are far too small to see otherwise.
The foldscope:
Scientists have created a low-cost, foldable paper microscope called a FOLDSCOPE. A
foldscope may not give the same level of detail as a high-powered laboratory microscope, but it
makes the microscopic world accessible (easy to reach/afford) to many more people, such as
students in schools without expensive lab equipment.

7.1 Activity 2.4 — Observing pond water / stagnant water

What you do:
20. With the help of a teacher or elder, collect some pond water or stagnant water in a
container.
21. Using a dropper, place one drop of this water on a microscope or foldscope slide.
 22. Put a coverslip on top and observe under the microscope or foldscope.
23. Observe the tiny organisms present in the water.

7.2 Activity 2.5 — Observing soil suspension

What you do:
24. Take a beaker and collect some moist soil from a nearby field or garden. Do not touch
the soil with bare hands — use a spoon or gloves.
25. Pour some water into the beaker and stir it with a glass rod. This dirty-looking liquid,
containing very fine soil particles, is called SOIL SUSPENSION.
26. Let the mixture settle for some time.
27. Use a dropper to take a drop of water from the top layer, and place it on a microscope
slide.
28. Gently cover it with a coverslip and observe under the microscope.
What you observe:
You may see small moving organisms, similar to the ones seen in pond water. This shows that
even soil suspension contains many kinds of tiny creatures that cannot be seen with the
unaided eye.
Q: What is a 'soil suspension'?
A: When soil is mixed with water and stirred, the resulting dirty-looking liquid — which
contains very fine particles of soil floating in it — is called a soil suspension.
Q: Why is a coverslip placed over the drop of liquid before observing it under the
microscope?
A: The coverslip keeps the sample flat, evenly spread, protects the microscope lens from
getting wet or dirty, and prevents the liquid from drying out quickly while being observed.

7.3 Activity 2.6 — Recording what we found (Table 2.1 and Table 2.2)
A group of Grade 8 students did Activities 2.4 and 2.5, and also collected information from the
library and the internet. They identified the microorganisms they found as belonging to four main
groups: protozoa, algae, fungi, and bacteria.
Table 2.1: Organisms present in pond water
Organism Group Remarks (what it looks like)
Amoeba Protozoa Single cell, keeps moving, has an irregular
(changing) shape
Paramecium Protozoa Single cell, moves from one place to another
using special structures
Algae (example) Algae Single cell, looks green due to a green pigment,
moves using special structures
Table 2.2: Organisms present in soil suspension
Organism Group Remarks (what it looks like)
Bread mould Fungi Branched, thread-like (filament) structure, without
chlorophyll, has a sac-like structure
 Mould Fungi Branched, thread-like (filament) structure, without
chlorophyll, has a brush-like structure
Algae Algae Spherical (round) shape, contains chlorophyll
(green pigment)
Bacteria Bacteria Spherical, comma-shaped, spiral, or rod-shaped;
may have one long hair-like structure and many
small hair-like projections around the cell
From these tables, we can see that microorganisms are everywhere, and we can see them only
with a microscope — a device that magnifies them 100 to 400 times. Even though they are very
small in size, microorganisms play a hugely important role in our lives, as we will see in the rest
of this chapter.

7.4 'Ever heard of...' — Viruses

Viruses are microscopic (extremely small, can only be seen with very powerful microscopes)
and ACELLULAR (this means they are not made of cells at all — they are different from
bacteria, fungi, protozoa and algae, which ARE made of cells).
• Viruses can only multiply (increase in number) when they enter a living cell — they
cannot multiply on their own outside a living cell.
• They may infect plants, animals, or even bacterial cells, and may cause diseases.
Q: What is the difference between a virus and other microorganisms like bacteria?
A: Bacteria (and protozoa, fungi, algae) are made up of cells — they are cellular. Viruses, on
the other hand, are acellular, meaning they are not made up of cells at all. Also, viruses can
multiply only when they enter a living cell, whereas other microorganisms can grow and
multiply on their own.

8. How Are We Connected to Microbes? (Section 2.4)

Microorganisms are found absolutely everywhere — in water, soil, air, and even on/inside food
items, plants, and animals (including us!). Some microorganisms can survive even in extreme
conditions, such as very hot water springs or very cold, snowy zones, as well as at
normal/moderate temperatures.
You already know from your Grade 7 chapter 'Life Processes in Animals' that our intestine (gut)
contains many bacteria that help us in digestion.
Just like plants and animals, microorganisms also show great variety (diversity) in their shape,
size, and structure — as you saw in Tables 2.1 and 2.2 (spherical, rod-shaped, irregular, etc.).

8.1 Why does food rot, and why don't pickles spoil easily?
Have you ever seen a lemon, tomato, orange, or other food rot after being left outside for some
time? You may have noticed a powdery or cotton-like growth on it (see Fig. 2.9). This happens
because the food has been infected by microbes that are present in the air, water, or surfaces
around us.
Student's question: 'But why do microorganisms not infect pickles and murabbas
(preserves)?'
 Answer given in the book: 'This is because you add many spices, with salt or sugar, to it —
these act as preservatives. A high concentration of salt or sugar does not allow these
organisms to grow on them.'
Q: Why does fruit left outside for a few days often develop a powdery or cottony growth?
A: Because microorganisms (such as fungi) present in the air and surroundings land on the
fruit and start growing on it, since the fruit provides them with food and moisture — this
growth appears as a powdery or cotton-like layer.
Q: Why don't pickles (achaar) and murabbas spoil quickly even though they are kept for
a long time?
A: Because a large amount of salt or sugar is added to pickles and murabbas. High
concentrations of salt or sugar act as preservatives — they do not allow microorganisms to
grow on the food, so it stays safe to eat for a long time.

8.2 Key players in cleaning the environment — Activity 2.7

What you do:
29. Take an empty container and fill it halfway with garden soil.
30. Add some fruit and vegetable peels to the container, then put a layer of soil on top of it,
and leave it aside.
31. After 2–3 weeks, observe what has changed.
What you observe:
The peels of fruits and vegetables have turned into a dark-coloured material. This material is
called MANURE — it is rich in nutrients and helps increase the fertility of the soil.
How does this happen?
As you saw in Activity 2.6, soil contains many kinds of microorganisms. Some of these —
especially fungi and bacteria — act on (work on) the plant waste and slowly break it down into
simpler substances that are rich in nutrients. This is exactly why gardeners collect dry leaves
and plant waste and put them into pits — they are making natural manure!
Q: What is 'manure', and how is it formed naturally?
A: Manure is a dark-coloured, nutrient-rich material formed when fungi and bacteria present
in the soil break down plant waste (like fruit and vegetable peels and dry leaves) into simpler
substances. Manure increases the fertility of the soil and helps plants grow better.
Q: Why do gardeners collect dry leaves and plant waste and put them into pits?
A: They do this to allow microorganisms in the soil to act on this waste and break it down over
time into manure, which is rich in nutrients and improves the soil's fertility — this is a natural
way of making fertiliser, called composting.

8.3 'Our scientific heritage' — Krimi in ancient Indian texts

Ancient Indian texts, especially the Vedas, mention the word 'Krimi', which refers to different tiny
living things — including both 'Drishya' (visible) and 'Adrishya' (invisible) ones. Various Vedic
texts describe both their beneficial (helpful) and harmful effects. The Atharvaveda also refers to
'Krimi'.
This shows that even thousands of years ago, people in India had some awareness of tiny living
beings — long before microscopes were invented!
8.4 How do microorganisms clean up nature?
If you look around carefully, you might notice that decaying plants and fallen leaves, stored in a
container or lying in the garden, gradually disappear from the surroundings over time. This
happens because microorganisms break them down and turn them into simpler substances that
are rich in nutrients.
• These nutrients go back into the soil and help plants grow better.
• Microorganisms also decompose (break down) the dead bodies of animals.
• In this way, microbes help recycle waste and return important nutrients to nature.
• Manure formation happens best at an optimal (just-right) temperature and an appropriate
level of moisture.
Some of these helpful bacteria can also decompose animal waste, like dung — this is one more
example of how microorganisms help clean our environment by breaking down waste.
Q: Why do dead leaves and dead animal bodies eventually 'disappear' from nature over
time?
A: Microorganisms in the soil and surroundings break down (decompose) the dead leaves
and animal bodies into simpler substances. These substances are rich in nutrients and mix
back into the soil, helping new plants to grow. This is nature's own recycling system.

8.5 A step further — Microbes as a source of biogas

Many microorganisms, like certain bacteria and fungi, can live in an oxygen-free (without air)
environment. Some of these bacteria are able to decompose plant and animal waste — or
household wastewater — that is present in the environment.
During this process, they release a mixture of gases. This mixture contains carbon dioxide, and
a high proportion of another gas called METHANE. This gas mixture (biogas) is used as a fuel
source for:
• Cooking
• Heating
• Generating electricity
• Running vehicles
Q: What is biogas, and which gas in it is mainly used as fuel?
A: Biogas is a mixture of gases produced when certain bacteria (which can live without
oxygen) decompose plant and animal waste or household wastewater. This gas mixture
contains carbon dioxide and a high proportion of methane — methane is the main gas that is
used as a fuel for cooking, heating, generating electricity, and even running vehicles.

8.6 Be a scientist — Dr. Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty

Dr. Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty (1938–2020) was a scientist who studied bacteria.
• In 1971, he developed a special bacterium that could break down oil spills, which helped
to clean up the environment.
• His discovery received a PATENT in 1980.
• A patent is a kind of legal right given to a person, so that no one else can copy, use, or
sell their invention without permission.
• His work showed how microorganisms could be used to solve environmental problems
like pollution.
He is remembered for his important contributions to science and for helping protect the
environment using microbes.
Q: What special bacterium did Dr. Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty develop, and why was it
important?
A: In 1971, he developed a special bacterium that could break down oil spills. This was
important because it helped clean up the environment after oil pollution — showing for the
first time how microorganisms could be used as a tool to solve pollution problems.
Q: What is a patent?
A: A patent is a legal right given to a person for their invention, so that no one else is allowed
to copy, use, or sell that invention without the inventor's permission.
Q: (From the book) What are other problems which you think can be solved with the help
of microorganisms?
A: This is an open-ended thinking question, but here are some good example answers:
microorganisms can help clean up sewage and wastewater (sewage treatment plants use
bacteria), they can help break down plastic waste (some bacteria/fungi are being studied for
plastic degradation), they can be used to produce biofuels like biogas and bioethanol, they
can help in making vaccines and medicines, and they can help restore soil quality in polluted
farmland by breaking down harmful chemicals.

9. Microorganisms and Food (Section 2.4.2)

Let's now explore how the diversity of microorganisms helps us in our kitchens, through two
simple activities.

9.1 Activity 2.8 — Yeast and bread dough

What you do:
32. Take two bowls, A and B.
33. In each bowl, take 200 g of flour (atta or maida) and add a pinch of sugar.
34. In bowl A, add a small amount of yeast powder and mix it well into the flour.
35. In bowl B, do NOT add any yeast — this lets us compare the results of the two bowls.
36. Knead the flour in both bowls with warm water to make soft dough.
37. Cover the dough with a damp cloth and keep it in a warm place.
38. Observe both bowls after 4–5 hours (if there's no change yet, leave it for more time).
What you observe:
The dough in bowl A (with yeast) has risen slightly, become fluffy, and has a slightly different
smell compared to the dough in bowl B (without yeast), which stays flat and unchanged.
Why does this happen? (The science behind it)
• Yeast is a type of microorganism. It belongs to a group of microorganisms called FUNGI.
• Yeast grows well in warm conditions — that's why we used warm water and kept the
dough in a warm place.
• Like all living organisms, yeast respires — it breaks down food (here, the sugar) to
release energy for its growth and life processes.
 • During this process, carbon dioxide gas is released. These gas bubbles get trapped in
the dough, making it soft and fluffy (this is why the dough 'rises').
• Yeast also produces a small amount of alcohol during this process, which gives the
dough a slightly different smell.
• This special property of yeast — producing gas that makes dough rise — is used to
make breads, cakes, and more!
Apart from yeast, some bacteria, such as Lactobacillus, help in the fermentation of batter used
to make idli and dosa, and also help in fermenting the dough used to make bhatura.
Q: In Activity 2.8, why did the dough in bowl A rise and become fluffy, while the dough in
bowl B did not?
A: The dough in bowl A had yeast added to it. Yeast respires by breaking down the sugar
present in the dough, and during this process it releases carbon dioxide gas. The bubbles of
this gas get trapped inside the dough, making it soft, fluffy, and larger in volume. Bowl B had
no yeast, so no gas was produced, and the dough remained flat and unchanged.
Q: Why was sugar added to the flour in Activity 2.8?
A: Sugar acts as 'food' for the yeast. The yeast breaks down (respires using) this sugar to
release energy for its growth, and carbon dioxide gas is produced as a result — this is what
makes the dough rise.
Q: Why was warm water used, and why was the dough kept in a warm place?
A: Yeast grows well in warm conditions. Warm water and a warm environment help the yeast
become active and carry out respiration efficiently, producing the carbon dioxide gas needed
to make the dough rise.
Q: Apart from yeast, name a bacterium that helps in making idli, dosa, and bhatura.
A: Lactobacillus is the bacterium that helps in the fermentation of batter for idli and dosa, and
dough for bhatura.

9.2 Activity 2.9 — Curd formation (Table 2.4)

What you do:
39. Take two small glass bowls, labelled A and B.
40. Pour lukewarm (slightly warm) milk into bowl A, and cold milk into bowl B.
41. Add a small spoonful of curd to each bowl and mix well.
42. Cover both bowls. Keep bowl A in a warm place, and bowl B in a cool place (like a
refrigerator), for a few hours or overnight.
43. Observe the changes and record them in a table (predictions vs. observations).
What you observe:
• Bowl A (warm milk): The milk turns into curd after a few hours and becomes slightly
sour.
• Bowl B (cold milk): The milk does NOT curdle (does not turn into curd), although it might
become a little sour.
Why does this happen? (The science behind it)
Curd contains several types of bacteria. One important one is Lactobacillus.
• Lactobacillus feeds on the sugar present in milk, called lactose.
• It multiplies (increases in number) and ferments the milk, turning it into curd.
 • Instead of producing alcohol (like yeast does), these bacteria produce LACTIC ACID —
this is what makes curd taste sour.
• These bacteria grow well in WARM conditions. That is why curd forms properly in bowl A
(warm milk) but not in bowl B (cold milk, kept in the fridge).
Table 2.4 — filled in as an example:
Bowl A (warm milk) Bowl B (cold milk)
Change in Turns thick and sets like curd Stays liquid; does not set into
appearance of milk curd
Change in colour of Stays whitish, may look slightly Stays whitish/liquid, almost no
milk more set/solid visible change
Possible reason Lactobacillus bacteria are active Cold temperature slows
in warm conditions; they multiply down/stops the activity and
quickly and ferment lactose into multiplication of Lactobacillus
lactic acid, forming curd bacteria, so fermentation does
not happen properly
Q: Why did the milk in bowl A turn into curd, but the milk in bowl B did not?
A: Bowl A had warm milk, and Lactobacillus bacteria (added through the spoonful of curd)
grow and multiply very well in warm conditions. They fed on the lactose (sugar) in the milk
and produced lactic acid, turning the milk into curd. Bowl B had cold milk, and the cold
temperature slowed down or stopped the activity of these bacteria, so the milk did not curdle
properly.
Q: Why does curd taste sour?
A: Curd tastes sour because the bacteria (like Lactobacillus) present in it produce lactic acid
as they feed on the lactose (sugar) in milk. Lactic acid gives curd its sour taste.
Q: What is the difference between what yeast produces during fermentation and what
Lactobacillus produces?
A: Yeast produces carbon dioxide gas (which makes dough rise) and a small amount of
alcohol (which gives a slightly different smell) during fermentation. Lactobacillus, on the other
hand, produces lactic acid during fermentation, which makes curd taste sour — it does not
produce alcohol.

9.3 Rhizobium and root nodules

We can group microorganisms into different categories — protozoa, fungi, bacteria, some algae,
and more. One special example is the bacterium RHIZOBIUM:
• Rhizobium bacteria form swollen regions called NODULES on plant roots and live inside
them (see Fig. 2.12).
• Roots of certain legumes (pulses) — such as beans, peas, and lentils — have these root
nodules containing Rhizobium bacteria.
• These bacteria trap nitrogen from the air and convert it into a form that is useful for the
plant.
• This helps the plant grow better WITHOUT needing chemical fertilisers.
• This is exactly why farmers grow legumes in rotation with other crops (crop rotation) — it
naturally increases the nitrogen content of the soil and keeps it healthy for the next crop
(such as wheat).
Q: What is the role of Rhizobium bacteria in legume plants like peas, beans, and lentils?
A: Rhizobium bacteria live inside swollen structures called root nodules on the roots of
legume plants. They trap (capture) nitrogen from the air and convert it into a form that the
plant can use. This natural nitrogen supply helps the plant grow better without needing
chemical fertilisers, and it also increases the nitrogen content of the soil for future crops.
Q: Why do farmers grow legume crops (like beans, peas, lentils) in rotation with other
crops, such as wheat?
A: Because legume crops have Rhizobium bacteria in their root nodules, which add nitrogen
to the soil naturally. When farmers grow legumes in rotation with crops like wheat, the soil's
nitrogen level is naturally increased and kept healthy, reducing the need for chemical nitrogen
fertilisers for the next crop.

10. Amazing Microalgae: Tiny Helpers in Water (Section 2.4.3)

MICROALGAE are microscopic, plant-like organisms. They live in water, soil, air, and even on
trees.
• They make their own food using sunlight (just like plants do).
• While doing this, they also release oxygen — in fact, microalgae produce more than half
of the Earth's total oxygen supply!
• They are rich in nutrients and serve as a food source for many aquatic (water-living)
animals.
• Some microalgae — like Spirulina, Chlorella, and Diatoms — are used by humans as
health supplements and medicines.
• Microalgae also help in cleaning water, and are used to make biofuel.
A warning:
Pollution, climate change, and habitat destruction are threatening (putting in danger) the
diversity and abundance (numbers) of microalgae. It is important to conserve (protect) these tiny
organisms, because they help protect the environment and maintain the oxygen balance on
Earth.

10.1 'Ever heard of...' — Spirulina, the 'superfood'

Spirulina is a microalga that is called a 'superfood' because of its health benefits.
• It is a good source of Vitamin B12, which is essential for our body.
• It has a lot of protein — more than 60 percent of its body weight is protein!
• It contains only a small amount of fat and sugar.
Farming Spirulina is becoming a feasible (workable) livelihood (way to earn money) opportunity.
Here are the steps to grow Spirulina:
44. Set a clear glass tank in a bright place, away from direct sunlight.
45. Cover the tank with a shade net, or keep it in a place with moderate temperature.
46. Fill the tank with pond water.
47. Add living Spirulina collected from a pond.
48. Stir the growing Spirulina twice a week.
49. After 3–6 weeks, harvest the Spirulina from the tank by filtering it through a fine cloth.
Conserving microalgae is a good practice — it helps with both food security (having enough
nutritious food) and livelihood development (creating jobs).
Q: Why are microalgae important for life on Earth?
A: Microalgae make their own food using sunlight, and during this process they release
oxygen — producing more than half of the Earth's oxygen supply. They are also a food
source for aquatic animals, are used by humans as health supplements (like Spirulina), help
clean water, and are used to make biofuel.
Q: What makes Spirulina a 'superfood'?
A: Spirulina is rich in protein (more than 60% of its body weight), is a good source of Vitamin
B12 (which our body needs), and contains only small amounts of fat and sugar — making it
very healthy and nutritious.

11. Why Is the Cell Considered the Basic Unit of Life?

(Section 2.5)
The bodies of all living organisms are made up of tiny building blocks called cells. A single cell
contains various components (parts) that help the organism carry out various functions.
Multicellular organisms:
The bodies of all plants and animals are made up of many cells. That is why they are called
MULTICELLULAR (many-celled) organisms. In multicellular organisms, cells carry out
specialised (specific) functions individually, but they also cooperate with each other — this
cooperation increases the chance of survival of the whole organism.
Unicellular organisms:
Some microorganisms — such as bacteria and protozoa — are made up of just one cell. These
are called UNICELLULAR (single-celled) organisms. A unicellular organism carries out ALL the
functions necessary for its survival using just that one single cell.
What about algae and fungi?
Other microbes, like algae and fungi, can be either unicellular or multicellular.
• Example: Yeast is a unicellular fungus.
• Example: Mould is a multicellular fungus.

11.1 The bacterial cell — no real nucleus!

Like animal and plant cells, the cells of microorganisms are also surrounded by a cell
membrane.
• Cells of fungi additionally have a cell wall, but they do NOT have chloroplasts — so fungi
cannot make their own food through photosynthesis (this is one reason fungi are not
considered plants).
• Bacteria do NOT have a well-defined nucleus or a nuclear membrane. Instead, they
have a region called a NUCLEOID (see Fig. 2.13) — this is a region where their genetic
material is present, but it is not enclosed by a membrane.
 • This feature (lack of a true nucleus) is what distinguishes (separates/differentiates)
bacterial cells from the cells of yeast, protozoa, algae, fungi, plants, and animals — all of
which DO have a true, membrane-bound nucleus.

11.2 Seeing even smaller — the electron microscope

We have looked at only a few basic cell structures here — the cell actually has many more
components, which you will learn about in higher classes.
To observe these very tiny sub-cellular components (parts inside a cell smaller than the main
structures), we need microscopes with very high magnification.
Fun fact:
An electron microscope magnifies the cell about 10,00,000 times (that's 1,000,000 times — one
million times)! With this kind of magnification, scientists can see many more structures present
inside a cell that are impossible to see with an ordinary microscope.
Q: What is the main difference between bacterial cells and the cells of plants, animals,
fungi, protozoa, and algae?
A: Bacterial cells do not have a well-defined nucleus or nuclear membrane. Instead, they
have a region called the nucleoid, where the genetic material is present without a surrounding
membrane. In contrast, the cells of plants, animals, fungi, protozoa, and algae all have a true
nucleus enclosed by a nuclear membrane.
Q: Why can't fungi make their own food through photosynthesis, even though they have
a cell wall like plants?
A: Fungi do not have chloroplasts (the structures that contain chlorophyll, needed for
photosynthesis). Without chloroplasts, fungi cannot capture sunlight to make their own food,
so they cannot perform photosynthesis — even though, like plant cells, fungal cells do have a
cell wall.
Q: Give one example each of a unicellular fungus and a multicellular fungus.
A: Yeast is an example of a unicellular fungus (made of just one cell). Mould is an example of
a multicellular fungus (made of many cells).
Q: How many times can an electron microscope magnify a cell?
A: An electron microscope can magnify a cell about 10,00,000 times (one million times),
allowing scientists to see many fine structures inside the cell that cannot be seen with an
ordinary light microscope.
By now, you should understand that all living beings — including microorganisms — are made
up of one or more cells, and their cells differ in size, shape, and structure. Understanding these
differences helps us learn how different organisms function. In the next chapter, you will learn
about some diseases that are caused by harmful microbes.

12. Snapshots — Chapter Summary (in simple words)

Here is a quick recap of every key point from the chapter, explained in simple sentences. Read
through this list as a final revision before moving on to the questions.
• Microorganisms are small-sized organisms that are not visible to the unaided (naked)
eye.
 • They can live in all kinds of environments, and even inside the bodies of plants and
animals.
• Microorganisms are either unicellular or multicellular: bacteria and protozoans are
unicellular; fungi can be unicellular or multicellular; while plants and animals are always
multicellular.
• The cell is the basic unit of life.
• The body of every living organism is made up of cells. A cell contains various
components which help the organism perform its functions and survive.
• A typical cell is bounded by a cell membrane, is filled with cytoplasm, and contains a
nucleus. Plant, fungal, and bacterial cells have an extra covering called a cell wall
around the cell membrane. Bacteria lack a well-defined nucleus.
• Cells differ in shape and size, and their shape is related to the function they perform.
• Bacteria, fungi, and protozoa are different kinds of microorganisms.
• Viruses are also small in size, but they are different from other microorganisms because
they reproduce only inside a host organism.
• Microorganisms can be either beneficial (helpful) or harmful to us.
• Some microorganisms decompose plant and animal waste into simple substances and
help clean up the environment.
• Some microorganisms live in the root nodules of legumes such as peas, beans, and
lentils. They trap nitrogen from the air and increase the fertility of the soil.
• Yeasts are fungi that are used in making bread, cakes, pastries, idlis, dosas, and
bhaturas.
• Lactobacillus is used in curd formation at home, and in fermentation processes in the
food industry.

13. 'Keep the Curiosity Alive' — Chapter-End Questions with

Answers
Below are ALL the questions given at the end of the chapter, along with clear, complete
answers. Try to answer each question yourself first (cover the answer with your hand!), then
check your answer against the one given here.

Question 1 — Sorting the parts of a cell (Venn diagram)

Question: Various parts of a cell are given below — Nucleus, Cytoplasm, Chloroplast, Cell wall,
Cell membrane, Nucleoid. Write them in the appropriate places in the Venn diagram, which has
four regions: 'Only in Animal Cell', 'Only in Plant Cell', 'Only in Bacterial Cell', and 'Common to
all three cells'.
Answer:
Region of the Venn diagram Part(s) of the cell that go here
Common to all three cells Cytoplasm, Cell membrane
(animal, plant, and bacterial cell)
Only in Animal Cell Nucleus (animal cells have a true nucleus, but no cell
 wall, chloroplast, or nucleoid)
Only in Plant Cell Nucleus, Cell wall, Chloroplast (plant cells have a true
nucleus PLUS a cell wall and chloroplast — but since
'Nucleus' is shared with animal cells too, the unique extra
parts only in plant cells are Cell wall and Chloroplast)
Only in Bacterial Cell Nucleoid, Cell wall (Note: a bacterial cell has a cell wall
too, but does NOT have a true nucleus — instead it has a
nucleoid, which is unique to bacteria)
Simple way to remember: Cell membrane and cytoplasm are found in ALL cells (animal, plant,
bacterial). A true, membrane-bound nucleus is found in animal and plant cells, but NOT in
bacteria (bacteria have a nucleoid instead). A cell wall is found in plant cells and bacterial cells,
but NOT in animal cells. A chloroplast is found only in plant cells.

Question 2 — Aanandi's yeast and balloon experiment

Question: Aanandi took two test tubes, A and B, and put two spoonfuls of sugar solution in
each. In test tube B, she added a spoonful of yeast. She attached two incompletely inflated
balloons to the mouths of both test tubes, and kept the set-up in a warm place, away from
sunlight.
(i) What do you predict will happen after 3-4 days? She observed that the balloon
attached to test tube B was inflated. What can be a possible explanation for this? Choose
the correct option.
• (a) Water evaporated in test tube B and filled the balloon with water vapour.
• (b) The warm atmosphere expanded the air inside test tube B, which inflated the balloon.
• (c) Yeast produced a gas inside test tube B which inflated the balloon.
• (d) Sugar reacted with warm air, which produced gas, eventually inflating the balloon.
Q: Which option (a, b, c, or d) is correct, and why?
A: The correct answer is option (c): 'Yeast produced a gas inside test tube B which inflated
the balloon.' This is because yeast is a living microorganism that respires by breaking down
the sugar in the solution. During this respiration, yeast releases carbon dioxide gas. This gas
collects in the test tube and pushes into the balloon, inflating it. Test tube A had no yeast, so
no extra gas was produced, and its balloon stayed the same (not inflated). Options (a), (b),
and (d) are incorrect because plain water evaporation, warm air expansion, or a reaction
between sugar and warm air would not produce enough gas specifically in test tube B (with
yeast) and not in test tube A (without yeast) — the difference is caused by the living yeast,
not by physical/chemical changes unrelated to it.
(ii) She took another test tube, 1/4 filled with lime water. She removed the balloon from
test tube B (without letting the gas escape), attached it to the test tube with lime water,
and shook it well. What do you think she wants to find out?
Q: What is Aanandi trying to find out by shaking the gas from the balloon with lime
water?
A: She wants to confirm that the gas produced by the yeast is carbon dioxide. Lime water is a
simple test for carbon dioxide gas — when carbon dioxide is passed into lime water and
shaken, the lime water turns milky/cloudy white. If the lime water turns milky after shaking
with the gas from the balloon, it confirms that the gas released by the yeast was indeed
carbon dioxide.
Question 3 — The farmer and the bean grower
Question: A farmer was planting wheat crops and added nitrogen-rich fertiliser to the soil to get
a good yield. In the neighbouring field, another farmer was growing bean crops, but she
preferred not to add nitrogen fertiliser to get healthy crops. Can you think of the reasons?
Q: Why didn't the bean-growing farmer need to add nitrogen fertiliser, unlike the wheat
farmer?
A: Beans are legume plants. The roots of legume plants have special swellings called root
nodules, which contain Rhizobium bacteria. These bacteria trap (capture) nitrogen directly
from the air and convert it into a form that the bean plant can use. So, the bean plant naturally
gets enough nitrogen from these bacteria in its roots, and the farmer does not need to add
extra nitrogen fertiliser. Wheat, on the other hand, is NOT a legume and does not have
Rhizobium in its roots, so the wheat farmer needs to add nitrogen-rich fertiliser separately to
get a good yield.

Question 4 — Snehal's two pits experiment

Question: Snehal dug two pits, A and B, in her garden. In pit A, she put fruit and vegetable peels
mixed with dried leaves. In pit B, she dumped the same kind of waste without mixing it with
dried leaves. She covered both pits with soil and observed after 3 weeks. What is she trying to
test?
Q: What is Snehal trying to find out with her two-pit experiment?
A: Snehal is trying to test whether mixing dried leaves with fruit and vegetable peels affects
how quickly (or how well) the waste is broken down by microorganisms into manure. She is
comparing decomposition in pit A (peels + dried leaves) with decomposition in pit B (only
peels, no dried leaves) to see which pit shows faster or more complete decomposition into
manure — in other words, she is investigating the effect of adding dried leaves (which can
affect factors like aeration, carbon content, and moisture) on the rate/quality of composting by
microorganisms.

Question 5 — Identify the microorganisms

Question: Identify the following microorganisms based on their clues.
Q: (i) 'I live in every kind of environment, and inside your gut.' — Which microorganism is
this?
A: Bacteria. (Bacteria are found in almost every environment on Earth — water, soil, air, hot
springs, cold zones — and many types of bacteria also live inside the human gut/intestine,
helping in digestion.)
Q: (ii) 'I make bread and cakes soft and fluffy.' — Which microorganism is this?
A: Yeast. (Yeast is a unicellular fungus that respires and releases carbon dioxide gas, which
gets trapped in the dough and makes bread and cakes soft and fluffy.)
Q: (iii) 'I live in the roots of pulse crops and provide nutrients for their growth.' — Which
microorganism is this?
A: Rhizobium (a type of bacteria). (Rhizobium lives in the root nodules of pulse/legume crops
like peas, beans, and lentils, and it traps nitrogen from the air, providing this important
nutrient to the plant.)
Question 6 — Designing an experiment for microbial growth conditions
Question: Devise an experiment to test that microorganisms need optimal temperature, air, and
moisture for their growth.
Q: How can you design an experiment to show that microorganisms need optimal
temperature, air, and moisture for their growth?
A: Here is a simple experiment design: Take 4 identical pieces of bread (or pieces of a
fruit/vegetable) and place each one in a separate, clean, sealable bag or container, labelled
1, 2, 3, and 4. Set 1: Add a few drops of water to make it moist, seal it, and keep it at
room/warm temperature (with normal air inside the bag) — this represents the 'optimal'
condition (moisture + warmth + air). Set 2: Keep the bread completely dry (no water added),
seal it, and keep it at the same warm temperature — this tests the effect of NO moisture. Set
3: Add water to make it moist (like Set 1), but keep this one in a refrigerator (cold
temperature) — this tests the effect of LOW temperature. Set 4: Add water to make it moist,
but place it inside a sealed bag from which most of the air has been squeezed out / or
vacuum sealed — this tests the effect of LESS air. Observe all four sets after 4-5 days.
Expected result: Set 1 (moist + warm + air) will show the most mould/microbial growth,
because it has all the conditions microorganisms need. Sets 2, 3, and 4 will show much less
growth (or no growth), because each is missing one of the required conditions (moisture,
optimal temperature, or air). This shows that microorganisms need a combination of optimal
temperature, moisture, and air to grow well.

Question 7 — Bread slices: sink vs. refrigerator

Question: Take 2 slices of bread. Place one slice in a plate near the sink, and place the other
slice in the refrigerator. Compare after three days. Note your observations and give reasons.
Q: What will you observe after 3 days, and why?
A: Observation: The bread slice kept in a plate near the sink will most likely show visible
mould growth (small fuzzy spots, often white, green, black, or blue in colour) and may start to
smell. The bread slice kept in the refrigerator will show little to no mould growth, and will look
almost the same as before. Reason: The area near the sink is usually warm and humid
(moist), which provides the perfect conditions (warmth + moisture + air) for fungi (mould)
present in the air to land on the bread and grow quickly. The refrigerator, on the other hand,
is cold. Cold temperatures slow down the activity, growth, and multiplication of
microorganisms like fungi, so the bread in the fridge stays fresh for longer with much less
mould growth.

Question 8 — Why curd becomes more sour

Question: A student observes that when curd is left out for a day, it becomes more sour. What
can be two possible explanations for this observation?
Q: What are two possible reasons why curd left outside becomes more sour over time?
A: Reason 1: The Lactobacillus bacteria already present in the curd continue to grow and
multiply when left outside (especially in warm conditions). As they multiply, they continue to
feed on the lactose (sugar) in the curd and keep producing more lactic acid, which makes the
curd taste more and more sour over time. Reason 2: If the curd is kept at room temperature
(which is generally warmer than a refrigerator), the warmer temperature speeds up the
activity and growth rate of these bacteria. Faster bacterial activity means lactic acid is
produced more quickly, so the curd becomes sourer faster than it would if kept in a cooler
place like a refrigerator.
Question 9 — Yeast, sugar solution, and lime water set-up (Fig. 2.15)
Question: Observe the set-up in Fig. 2.15, where flask A contains warm sugar solution with
yeast added, and is connected to test tube B which contains lime water. Answer the following
questions.
Q: (i) What happens to the sugar solution in flask A?
A: The yeast in flask A respires by breaking down the sugar present in the warm sugar
solution. As a result of this respiration, the yeast releases carbon dioxide gas (and a small
amount of alcohol) into the solution and the space above it. The sugar solution will gradually
show signs of this activity, such as bubbling/fizzing, as the gas is produced and escapes from
the solution.
Q: (ii) What do you observe in test tube B after four hours? Why do you think this
happened?
A: After four hours, the lime water in test tube B will turn milky (cloudy white). This happens
because the carbon dioxide gas produced by the respiring yeast in flask A travels through the
connecting tube into test tube B. When carbon dioxide gas passes into lime water, it reacts
with it and turns the lime water milky/cloudy — this is the standard chemical test that confirms
the presence of carbon dioxide gas.
Q: (iii) What would happen if yeast was not added in flask A?
A: If yeast was not added to flask A, there would be no living organism present to respire and
break down the sugar solution. Without respiration by yeast, no (or almost no) carbon dioxide
gas would be produced. As a result, the lime water in test tube B would NOT turn milky — it
would remain clear, because no carbon dioxide gas would travel from flask A to test tube B.

14. Discover, Design, and Debate — Extra Activities to

Explore
This section of the chapter encourages you to go beyond the textbook and explore the real
world. These are not 'answer and forget' questions — they are projects you can actually do at
home, in school, or with your family. Here is what each one is asking you to do, explained
simply:
1. India's history of biogas production
India has a long history of producing biogas — one of the oldest biogas plants in India was set
up in the late 1850s! You are asked to find out more about the 'Biogas Program' started by the
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Government of India.
How to do it: Search online (with an adult's help) for 'National Biogas and Manure Management
Programme' or 'Biogas Programme Ministry of New and Renewable Energy India'. Try to find
out: when the programme started, its main goals, how many biogas plants have been set up
under it, and how it helps rural households (for example, by providing clean cooking fuel and
reducing the use of firewood).
2. Fermented foods from your region
Many regions of India have traditional fermented foods, such as fermented soybeans (like
'kinema' in some northeastern states) and fermented bamboo shoots.
How to do it: With the help of your parents, grandparents, or teachers, make a list of fermented
foods that are traditionally eaten in your area (for example: idli, dosa, dhokla, kanji, gundruk,
etc., depending on where you live). For each food, try to find out: what ingredients are used,
how it is prepared (the method), which microorganism causes the fermentation, and why this
food is culturally and nutritionally important to your community.
3. Studying a mushroom under the microscope
A mushroom is an example of a 'macro fungus' — meaning it is a fungus large enough to see
with the naked eye (unlike most fungi, which need a microscope).
How to do it: Get a mushroom (with adult supervision) and use a magnifying glass first to study
its different parts (cap, stem/stalk, gills underneath the cap). Then, with help from senior
students and a teacher, take a very thin slice of a part of the mushroom and look at it under a
microscope or foldscope in your school laboratory, to see its internal cell structure.
4. Interacting with a mushroom-farming entrepreneur
This activity asks you to talk to someone who actually grows mushrooms for a living (an
entrepreneur), and learn from them directly.
How to do it: If possible, visit a mushroom farm or invite someone who cultivates mushrooms to
speak to your class. Ask them questions such as: what type of mushroom do they grow, what
materials/substrate do they use, what conditions (temperature, humidity, light) are needed, how
long does it take to grow a batch, and how do they sell their produce? This connects what
you've learnt about fungi to a real-world livelihood opportunity — just like the Spirulina farming
example in this chapter.

15. Quick Revision Checklist

Before your test, make sure you can confidently answer 'yes' to each of these:
• I can explain what a lens is and how it helps us see small things bigger.
• I can describe what Robert Hooke and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek discovered, and why
each is famous.
• I can name the three basic parts of a cell and describe the function of each.
• I can explain the difference between a plant cell and an animal cell (cell wall, chloroplast,
vacuole).
• I can explain why cell shape is related to cell function, with at least two examples (nerve
cell, muscle cell).
• I can recite the levels of organisation in order: Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ system
→ Organism.
• I can define 'microorganism' and give examples from each group: protozoa, algae, fungi,
bacteria, virus.
• I can explain how microorganisms help make manure, biogas, bread, idli/dosa, curd, and
how Rhizobium helps legumes.
• I can explain why pickles don't spoil easily, and why bread near a sink grows mould
faster than bread in a fridge.
• I can explain the difference between unicellular and multicellular organisms, and give
examples of each.
 • I can explain why bacteria are different from other cells (nucleoid instead of a true
nucleus).
• I know that viruses are acellular and reproduce only inside a host cell.

Good luck with your revision! Go through each section again slowly, try the activities at home
wherever possible (the onion peel and curd experiments are easy to do!), and discuss the Q&A
boxes with a friend or family member to test how well you remember them.