FIRST AID
Assignment on
CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION
(CPR)
Subject: First Aid
─────────────────────────────
Submitted by:
[Student Name]
[Roll No.]
[Class / Course]
Submitted to:
[Teacher's Name]
Academic Year: 2025–2026
INDEX
1. Introduction
2. Definition
3. Types of CPR
4. Subjective (Indications & Patient Assessment)
5. Role of CPR
6. Importance of CPR
7. Summary
8. Conclusion
9. Bibliography
1. Introduction
Every year, millions of people around the world lose their lives to sudden cardiac arrest — a
condition in which the heart abruptly stops beating, cutting off the supply of oxygenated blood to
the brain and vital organs. What makes this tragedy even more profound is that many of these
deaths are preventable. Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation, commonly known as CPR, is a life-saving
emergency procedure that can mean the difference between life and death when performed
promptly and correctly.
CPR is a combination of chest compressions and rescue breathing designed to manually
maintain blood circulation and airflow in a person whose heart has stopped. It serves as a bridge —
keeping the body alive until professional medical help arrives or until the heart can be restarted with
advanced interventions such as defibrillation.
The history of CPR dates back to the late 1950s and early 1960s, when researchers
discovered that external chest compressions could circulate blood in patients experiencing cardiac
arrest. Dr. James Elam and Dr. Peter Safar pioneered mouth-to-mouth rescue breathing, while Dr.
William Kouwenhoven developed the technique of external cardiac massage. In 1963, the American
Heart Association (AHA) formally endorsed CPR and began training the public in this critical skill.
Today, CPR is recognised globally as one of the most fundamental first aid skills. It is
taught to healthcare professionals, first responders, schoolchildren, and ordinary citizens alike.
Modern CPR guidelines, updated regularly by organisations such as the AHA and the International
Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (ILCOR), reflect the latest scientific evidence on the most
effective techniques.
The importance of CPR extends beyond the individual — it is a public health imperative.
Studies consistently show that bystander CPR, performed by a witness before emergency services
arrive, can double or even triple a victim's chances of survival. This underscores the value of
widespread CPR education and training in communities worldwide.
In the context of first aid, CPR is not just a technical procedure but a profound act of
compassion. To understand CPR fully — its definition, types, subjective applications, roles, and
importance — is to equip oneself with knowledge that can save a life at a moment's notice.
2. Definition
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) is defined as an emergency life-saving procedure
performed when the heart stops beating or when a person has stopped breathing. The term itself is
derived from three components: 'cardio' (relating to the heart), 'pulmonary' (relating to the lungs),
and 'resuscitation' (the act of reviving someone from unconsciousness or apparent death).
According to the American Heart Association (AHA), CPR is 'a combination of rescue
breathing, which provides oxygen to a person's lungs, and chest compressions, which keep
oxygenated blood flowing until an effective heartbeat and breathing can be restored.' This dual
mechanism addresses the two core physiological crises in cardiac arrest: the cessation of the
heartbeat and the cessation of breathing.
Physiological Basis
When the heart stops pumping blood, the brain begins to suffer irreversible damage within
four to six minutes due to oxygen deprivation — a condition known as cerebral hypoxia. CPR
artificially maintains circulation by manually compressing the chest, which squeezes the heart
between the sternum and the spine, forcing blood out into the body's circulatory system. Rescue
breaths simultaneously deliver oxygen to the lungs, which is then carried by the blood to the brain
and other vital organs.
Clinical Definition
In clinical settings, CPR is described as a resuscitation protocol that includes:
• C – Compressions: Applying firm, rhythmic pressure to the centre of the chest at a rate of
100–120 compressions per minute and a depth of at least 2 inches (5 cm) in adults.
• A – Airway: Ensuring the airway is open by tilting the head back and lifting the chin to allow
air to flow freely.
• B – Breathing: Delivering rescue breaths either mouth-to-mouth or through a barrier device to
inflate the lungs with oxygenated air.
This sequence, known as the CAB protocol (replacing the older ABC protocol since the
2010 AHA guidelines), prioritises chest compressions as the most critical component, since blood
circulation is more immediately vital than ventilation in the early minutes of cardiac arrest.
Lay Definition
For the general public, CPR is often explained simply as 'pushing hard and fast on the chest
of someone whose heart has stopped, and breathing into their mouth to keep them alive until help
arrives.' This layperson definition captures the essence of the procedure and has been used
effectively in mass public education campaigns such as 'Hands-Only CPR,' which encourages
bystanders to perform compression-only CPR without rescue breaths — a simplified but highly
effective form of resuscitation.
In summary, CPR is both a medical procedure and a first aid skill — a critical intervention
that bridges the gap between cardiac arrest and definitive medical care, preserving life through the
simplest yet most powerful actions: pushing and breathing.
3. Types of CPR
CPR is not a single, fixed procedure. Over decades of research and clinical experience,
several types of CPR have been developed to suit different situations, patient populations, and
levels of rescuer training. Each type has its own indications, techniques, and effectiveness. The
major types of CPR are described below.
1. Traditional CPR (Conventional CPR)
Traditional CPR, also called Conventional CPR, involves the full sequence of chest
compressions combined with rescue breaths in a ratio of 30 compressions to 2 breaths (30:2) for
adults. This method is the standard taught in most first aid and medical training programmes
worldwide. It addresses both the circulatory and respiratory components of cardiac arrest
simultaneously.
• Who performs it: Trained first aiders, healthcare professionals, and trained bystanders.
• Best for: Adults, children, and infants in cardiac and respiratory arrest.
2. Hands-Only CPR (Compression-Only CPR)
Introduced as a simplified alternative for untrained bystanders, Hands-Only CPR involves
continuous chest compressions at a rate of 100–120 per minute without any rescue breaths.
Research has shown that in the first few minutes of cardiac arrest, the blood retains enough oxygen
to sustain the brain if circulation is maintained through compressions alone.
• Who performs it: Untrained bystanders or rescuers uncomfortable with rescue breathing.
• Best for: Adult sudden cardiac arrest witnessed by a bystander. Not recommended for children
or drowning victims where respiratory arrest precedes cardiac arrest.
• Advantage: Removes the barrier of fear or hesitation about mouth-to-mouth contact,
encouraging more bystanders to act.
3. Infant CPR
Infant CPR is specifically designed for babies under 12 months of age. Due to their smaller
and more delicate anatomy, the technique differs significantly from adult CPR.
• Compressions: Use only two fingers (index and middle) placed on the centre of the chest, just
below the nipple line. Compress to a depth of about 1.5 inches (4 cm).
• Breathing: Cover both the infant's mouth and nose with your mouth. Give gentle puffs of air,
enough to see the chest rise.
• Ratio: 30:2 (or 15:2 when two rescuers are present).
• Rate: 100–120 compressions per minute.
4. Child CPR
Child CPR is for children aged 1 to 8 years (or until puberty). The technique is intermediate
between adult and infant CPR.
• Compressions: Use the heel of one hand (or two hands for larger children). Compress to a
depth of 2 inches (5 cm).
• Breathing: Mouth-to-mouth with a gentle breath.
• Ratio: 30:2 for single rescuers; 15:2 for two rescuers.
5. CPR with an Automated External Defibrillator (AED)
AED-assisted CPR combines standard chest compressions with the use of an Automated
External Defibrillator — a portable device that delivers an electric shock to restore normal heart
rhythm in cases of ventricular fibrillation or pulseless ventricular tachycardia. AEDs are
increasingly available in public spaces such as airports, shopping centres, schools, and gyms.
• Process: Perform CPR, attach AED pads, follow voice prompts, deliver shock if advised,
resume CPR immediately.
• Effectiveness: Survival rates improve dramatically when defibrillation is delivered within the
first 3–5 minutes of arrest.
6. CPR in Special Circumstances
Modified CPR techniques also exist for special situations such as drowning victims (where
rescue breaths are prioritised), pregnant women (where the rescuer tilts the body to the left to
relieve pressure on major blood vessels), and trauma victims (where spinal precautions must be
maintained).
4. Subjective – Indications, Contraindications & Patient
Assessment
The 'subjective' aspect of CPR encompasses the clinical judgement required before and
during resuscitation — the patient assessment process, indications for initiating CPR, scenarios
where CPR may not be appropriate, and the psychological and situational factors that influence a
rescuer's decision-making. In a first aid context, understanding the subjective dimension of CPR is
as important as mastering the physical technique.
Indications for CPR (When to Begin)
CPR should be initiated immediately when the following signs are observed:
• Unresponsiveness: The person does not respond to verbal commands or physical stimulation
(e.g., tapping the shoulders and calling their name loudly).
• Absence of Normal Breathing: The person is not breathing, or is only gasping (agonal
breathing — irregular, laboured gasps that indicate severe brain and heart dysfunction).
• No Pulse (for trained rescuers): Absence of a carotid pulse (felt at the side of the neck) in
adults, or brachial pulse in infants. Untrained bystanders are advised not to check for a pulse
as this can cause dangerous delays.
• Sudden Collapse: A person who suddenly collapses in a public place, especially if witnessed,
should be presumed to be in cardiac arrest until proven otherwise.
The chain of survival — recognise, call for help, begin CPR, use an AED, and transfer to
advanced care — must be activated immediately upon recognition of these signs. Every second
without CPR reduces survival chances by approximately 7–10%.
Contraindications for CPR (When NOT to Begin)
While CPR is a life-saving measure, there are specific circumstances in which it should not
be initiated or should be discontinued:
• Do Not Resuscitate (DNR) Order: A legally valid DNR order, signed by the patient and their
physician, indicates the patient's wish not to be resuscitated. Rescuers must respect this
directive if it is clearly presented.
• Obvious Signs of Irreversible Death: Rigor mortis (stiffening of muscles), livor mortis
(pooling of blood causing skin discolouration), decapitation, or severe injuries incompatible
with life.
• Unsafe Environment: If the scene is dangerous (e.g., fire, structural collapse, live electrical
wires), the rescuer must not endanger themselves. Safety of the rescuer is the first priority in
any first aid situation.
• Prolonged Submersion: In cases of drowning where submersion has been prolonged in warm
water with no realistic chance of survival.
Patient Assessment Before CPR
Before initiating CPR, a rapid but systematic assessment should be performed using the
DRS ABC or DRS CAB protocol:
• D – Danger: Check the environment for hazards to the rescuer, bystanders, and the patient.
• R – Response: Check if the patient is responsive by calling their name and tapping their
shoulders.
• S – Send for Help: Call emergency services (e.g., 112 or 108 in India) or instruct a bystander
to call immediately.
• C – Compressions: Begin chest compressions if there is no response and no normal breathing.
• A – Airway: Open the airway using the head-tilt chin-lift manoeuvre.
• B – Breathing: Deliver rescue breaths if trained and willing to do so.
Psychological and Situational Factors
Subjective factors that influence CPR performance include bystander fear of harming the
victim, unfamiliarity with the technique, emotional distress in witnessing a collapse, and concerns
about disease transmission during mouth-to-mouth breathing. Public health campaigns and
widespread CPR training programmes aim to address these psychological barriers, empowering
more individuals to act confidently in an emergency.
5. Role of CPR
The role of CPR in emergency medicine, first aid, and public health is multifaceted and
profound. Far beyond being a simple technical procedure, CPR plays several critical roles at the
individual, community, and systemic levels. Understanding these roles helps illuminate why CPR
education and practice are so universally prioritised.
1. Role in Maintaining Vital Organ Perfusion
The most immediate and fundamental role of CPR is to maintain the circulation of
oxygenated blood to the brain, heart, and other vital organs in the absence of a spontaneous
heartbeat. Without CPR, brain cells begin to die within 4–6 minutes of cardiac arrest. CPR slows
this process by artificially pumping blood through the body, buying critical time until advanced
medical care is available. Even imperfect CPR is significantly better than no CPR — research
shows that bystander-initiated CPR can double or triple survival rates.
2. Role as a Bridge to Advanced Life Support (ALS)
CPR serves as the critical bridge between the onset of cardiac arrest and the arrival of
emergency medical services (EMS). In most urban settings, EMS response times range from 5 to 15
minutes. During this window, CPR keeps the patient's organs viable, maximising the effectiveness
of advanced interventions such as defibrillation, intravenous medications (adrenaline, amiodarone),
and mechanical ventilation. Without this bridge, even the most advanced ALS measures may fail
because the organs would have deteriorated beyond recovery.
3. Role in Reversing Ventricular Fibrillation
The most common cardiac rhythm observed in the early stages of sudden cardiac arrest is
ventricular fibrillation (VF) — a chaotic, disorganised electrical activity in the heart that renders it
incapable of pumping blood. CPR helps maintain the heart in a 'shockable' rhythm for a longer
period, increasing the window during which defibrillation can successfully restore normal cardiac
rhythm. Studies show that CPR before defibrillation significantly improves outcomes when the
response time exceeds 5 minutes.
4. Role in Paediatric and Drowning Emergencies
In children and drowning victims, cardiac arrest is often preceded by respiratory arrest rather
than a primary cardiac event. In these cases, the role of rescue breathing in CPR is especially
critical, as delivering oxygen to the lungs can reverse the underlying cause and restore cardiac
function. This is why full CPR with rescue breaths (rather than compression-only CPR) is
recommended for these populations.
5. Role in Trauma Situations
In trauma-related cardiac arrest — caused by severe haemorrhage, tension pneumothorax, or
cardiac tamponade — CPR plays a supportive role while the underlying cause is addressed. While
CPR alone cannot reverse traumatic arrest, it maintains circulation while emergency interventions
such as haemorrhage control, needle decompression, or surgical repair are performed.
6. Role in Public Health and Community Resilience
At a societal level, CPR plays a vital role in building community resilience. Every trained
bystander is a potential first responder. Communities with high rates of CPR training demonstrate
consistently higher survival rates from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Public access defibrillation
programmes — which pair AEDs with CPR-trained communities — have been shown to increase
survival from sudden cardiac arrest from approximately 5% to over 50% in some settings.
7. Role in Medical and Nursing Education
CPR is the foundation of Basic Life Support (BLS) training and is a mandatory competency
for all healthcare professionals including doctors, nurses, paramedics, and allied health workers.
Regular CPR recertification ensures that clinical teams maintain the skills and muscle memory
required to respond effectively in high-pressure resuscitation scenarios within hospital settings.
6. Importance of CPR
The importance of CPR cannot be overstated — it is one of the most impactful skills a
human being can possess. Its significance spans clinical outcomes, social equity, legal frameworks,
and public awareness. The following points comprehensively outline why CPR occupies such a
central place in emergency medicine and first aid education.
1. Saves Lives — Directly and Immediately
The most compelling reason CPR is important is simple: it saves lives. Approximately 17
million people die annually from cardiovascular diseases worldwide, and a significant proportion of
these deaths involve sudden cardiac arrest. According to the American Heart Association, effective
bystander CPR performed immediately after cardiac arrest can double or triple a victim's chance of
survival. In India alone, an estimated 700,000 people die from sudden cardiac arrest each year, the
vast majority of whom do not receive CPR before medical help arrives.
2. Reduces Brain Damage and Long-Term Disability
Beyond saving lives, CPR reduces the severity of outcomes for those who survive cardiac
arrest. By maintaining blood flow to the brain during the critical period before medical intervention,
CPR minimises cerebral hypoxia and the resulting neurological damage. Survivors who received
early CPR are significantly more likely to achieve full neurological recovery — returning to their
normal cognitive, physical, and social functioning — compared to those who did not.
3. Empowers Ordinary People to Act in Emergencies
One of the most socially significant aspects of CPR is its democratisation of emergency
response. CPR does not require specialised equipment or advanced medical knowledge — it can be
learned in a few hours and performed by anyone with the willingness and basic training. When
schools, workplaces, religious institutions, and community organisations incorporate CPR training
into their activities, they create networks of empowered individuals capable of responding to
emergencies anywhere — at home, on the street, or in public spaces.
4. Reduces Healthcare Costs
From an economic perspective, CPR training and early intervention reduce the enormous
financial burden associated with prolonged hospitalisation, rehabilitation, and long-term care for
survivors of cardiac arrest who sustain significant brain or organ damage. Every minute of effective
CPR is an investment that can prevent years of costly medical care.
5. Addresses Cardiac Arrest as a Public Health Crisis
Sudden cardiac arrest is a public health crisis that does not discriminate — it affects people
of all ages, genders, ethnicities, and socioeconomic backgrounds. CPR training at scale is a public
health intervention that directly addresses this crisis. Countries and cities with mandatory CPR
training in schools (such as Denmark, Norway, and Singapore) have demonstrated measurably
higher survival rates from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest compared to regions without such
programmes.
6. Legal and Ethical Dimensions
In many countries, Good Samaritan Laws protect individuals who provide emergency CPR
in good faith from legal liability — encouraging bystanders to act without fear of legal
repercussions. Some jurisdictions have gone further by making CPR training mandatory for
students, drivers, and public employees, reflecting the ethical principle that possessing a life-saving
skill carries a moral responsibility to use it.
7. Technological Integration — CPR and AEDs
The increasing availability of Automated External Defibrillators (AEDs) in public spaces
has amplified the importance of CPR. AEDs and CPR work synergistically — compressions
maintain perfusion while the AED analyses and corrects cardiac rhythm. Public AED programmes
are most effective when paired with a CPR-literate community, reinforcing the critical importance
of universal CPR training.
8. Psychological Importance — Confidence in Crisis
CPR training also has a profound psychological impact on individuals. People who have
undergone CPR training report greater confidence, reduced panic, and a stronger sense of civic
responsibility. In a cardiac emergency, this calm, prepared response can mean the difference
between effective action and paralytic hesitation.
7. Summary
This document has provided a comprehensive exploration of Cardiopulmonary
Resuscitation (CPR) in the context of first aid. The following is a concise summary of the key
points covered across all sections.
Introduction
CPR is a life-saving emergency procedure developed in the late 1950s and 1960s. It
involves manually maintaining blood circulation and oxygen delivery in a person whose heart has
stopped. Pioneered by researchers such as Dr. Peter Safar and Dr. William Kouwenhoven, CPR is
now a globally recognised and universally taught first aid skill endorsed by organisations including
the American Heart Association (AHA) and the World Health Organisation (WHO).
Definition
CPR — Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation — is the combination of chest compressions (to
circulate blood) and rescue breathing (to deliver oxygen to the lungs). The modern CAB protocol
prioritises Compressions, followed by Airway management and Breathing. For adults, the standard
rate is 100–120 compressions per minute at a depth of at least 2 inches, in a ratio of 30
compressions to 2 breaths.
Types of CPR
Several types of CPR have been developed to address different patient populations and
emergency scenarios. These include: Traditional CPR (30:2 compressions to breaths), Hands-Only
CPR (compression-only for untrained bystanders), Infant CPR (two-finger compressions with
gentle puffs), Child CPR (one-hand compressions), AED-assisted CPR (combining compressions
with defibrillation), and modified CPR for special circumstances such as drowning and pregnancy.
Subjective – Indications and Patient Assessment
CPR should be initiated when a person is unresponsive, not breathing normally, and has no
detectable pulse. Key contraindications include valid DNR orders, irreversible signs of death, and
unsafe environments. Patient assessment follows the DRS CAB protocol — checking for Danger,
assessing Response, Sending for help, and then initiating Compressions, Airway management, and
Breathing. Psychological factors such as fear and hesitation are significant barriers to bystander
CPR and are addressed through widespread public training.
Role of CPR
CPR plays multiple critical roles: maintaining vital organ perfusion, bridging the gap to
Advanced Life Support, sustaining a shockable cardiac rhythm for defibrillation, addressing
respiratory arrest in children and drowning victims, supporting trauma management, building
community resilience, and serving as the foundation of healthcare professional training. In every
emergency where the heart stops, CPR is the first and most critical intervention.
Importance of CPR
The importance of CPR is immense. It directly saves lives and reduces long-term
neurological damage. It empowers ordinary citizens to become emergency first responders. It
reduces healthcare costs, addresses cardiac arrest as a public health crisis, and is supported by legal
frameworks such as Good Samaritan Laws. The synergy between CPR and AEDs in public spaces
creates a powerful community-level emergency response system. CPR training also builds
psychological confidence and civic responsibility.
In essence, CPR is not merely a medical procedure — it is a humanitarian skill, a public
health tool, and a moral responsibility. Every person who learns CPR becomes a potential lifesaver,
and every life saved through CPR is a testament to the power of knowledge, preparation, and
compassion.
8. Conclusion
Sudden cardiac arrest is one of the most time-critical medical emergencies a human being
can face. It strikes without warning, can affect anyone regardless of age or health status, and kills
within minutes if left untreated. Yet, despite its severity, cardiac arrest is not inevitably fatal — and
that is precisely where the extraordinary value of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation lies.
CPR stands at the intersection of science and humanity. It is grounded in decades of rigorous
medical research, continuously refined by global health organisations to reflect the best available
evidence. At the same time, it is fundamentally human — an act of reaching out to another person
in their most vulnerable moment and refusing to let them go without a fight.
Throughout this document, we have explored CPR from multiple perspectives. We began
with its historical origins and clinical definition, understanding why chest compressions and rescue
breathing work together to sustain life. We examined the diverse types of CPR, recognising that
resuscitation is not a one-size-fits-all procedure but a nuanced skill adapted to the needs of infants,
children, adults, and special-circumstance patients. We studied the subjective dimensions of CPR
— when to act, when not to act, and how to assess a patient quickly and accurately under pressure.
We then explored the multifaceted role of CPR — as a bridge to advanced care, a preserver
of brain function, a community health tool, and a mandatory professional competency. Finally, we
examined the profound importance of CPR: its capacity to save lives immediately, reduce disability,
empower communities, lower healthcare costs, and foster a culture of emergency preparedness.
One of the most striking insights to emerge from this study is the role of the bystander.
Medical professionals cannot be everywhere. Ambulances take time to arrive. But a trained
bystander — a colleague, a neighbour, a stranger on the street — can be there in seconds. Studies
overwhelmingly confirm that bystander CPR initiated within the first two minutes of cardiac arrest
dramatically improves outcomes. This simple fact makes a compelling case for universal CPR
education.
In India, where out-of-hospital cardiac arrest claims hundreds of thousands of lives annually
and where EMS infrastructure is still developing in many regions, the need for widespread CPR
literacy is particularly urgent. Initiatives that integrate CPR training into school curricula,
workplace safety programmes, and community health campaigns have the potential to save tens of
thousands of additional lives each year.
In conclusion, CPR is more than a first aid skill — it is a societal imperative. To know CPR
is to carry the potential to be someone else's lifeline. As this document has demonstrated, the
knowledge, willingness, and confidence to perform CPR in an emergency can transform an ordinary
bystander into a hero. In the chain of survival, every link matters — and every person trained in
CPR strengthens that chain for the entire community.
The message is clear: learn CPR, practice it, and be prepared. Because when a heart stops,
the most powerful tool available may simply be your own two hands.
9. Bibliography
The following sources were consulted in the preparation of this document:
American Heart Association (AHA). (2020). CPR & First Aid Emergency Cardiovascular Care.
American Heart Association. [Link]
Berg, R. A., Hemphill, R., Abella, B. S., Aufderheide, T. P., Cave, D. M., Hazinski, M. F., &
Neumar, R. W. (2010). Part 5: Adult Basic Life Support. Circulation, 122(18 Suppl 3),
S685–S705. [Link]
Cummins, R. O., Ornato, J. P., Thies, W. H., & Pepe, P. E. (1991). Improving survival from sudden
cardiac arrest: The chain of survival concept. Circulation, 83(5), 1832–1847.
International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (ILCOR). (2020). 2020 International Consensus
on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science with
Treatment Recommendations. Resuscitation, 156, A1–A172.
Kleinman, M. E., Brennan, E. E., Goldberger, Z. D., Swor, R. A., Terry, M., Bobrow, B. J., & Rea,
T. D. (2015). Part 5: Adult Basic Life Support and Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation Quality.
Circulation, 132(18 Suppl 2), S414–S435.
Kouwenhoven, W. B., Jude, J. R., & Knickerbocker, G. G. (1960). Closed-chest cardiac massage.
JAMA, 173(10), 1064–1067.
Maconochie, I. K., Bingham, R., Eich, C., Lopez-Herce, J., Rodriguez-Nunez, A., Rajka, T., ... &
Nolan, J. P. (2015). European Resuscitation Council Guidelines for Resuscitation 2015 —
Section 6: Paediatric life support. Resuscitation, 95, 223–248.
Safar, P. (1958). Ventilatory efficacy of mouth-to-mouth artificial respiration: Airway obstruction
during manual and mouth-to-mouth artificial respiration. JAMA, 167(3), 335–341.
Sinha, N., & Dhall, A. (2016). Cardiac arrests in India: Challenges and opportunities. Indian Heart
Journal, 68(5), 623–625.
World Health Organisation (WHO). (2021). Cardiovascular Diseases (CVDs): Key Facts. World
Health Organisation. [Link]
diseases-(cvds)
Perkins, G. D., Handley, A. J., Koster, R. W., Castren, M., Smyth, M. A., Olasveengen, T., &
Nolan, J. P. (2015). European Resuscitation Council Guidelines for Resuscitation 2015 —
Section 2: Adult basic life support and automated external defibrillation. Resuscitation, 95,
81–99.