Campbell Biology: Concepts &
Connections
Tenth Edition, Global Edition
Chapter 4
A Tour of the Cell
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Introduction
• Improved microscopes and techniques have vastly expanded our view of
the cell.
– In 1665, Hooke used a crude microscope to examine a piece of bark
from an oak tree. Hooke compared the structures he saw to “little
rooms”—cellulae in Latin—and the term “cell” stuck.
– A few decades later Leeuwenhoek used more refined microscope to
view numerous subjects, including blood, sperm, and pond water.
Robert Hooke, FRS
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Introduction to the Cell
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4.1 Microscopes Reveal the World of the Cell
• The light microscope can display living cells.
• The greater magnification and resolution of scanning and
transmission electron microscopes reveal the ultrastructure of cells.
– Magnification is the increase in an object’s image size compared with its
actual size.
– Resolution is a measure of the clarity of an image. In other words, it is the
ability of an instrument to show two nearby objects as separate.
• In the mid-1800s, early studies of cells led to the cell theory, which states
all living things are composed of cells and all cells come from other cells
Rudolf Virchow
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(German pathologist)
Seeing is believing - types of micrographs
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Figure 4.1e_3
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4.2 The Small Size of Cells Relates to the Need to
Exchange Materials Across the Plasma Membrane
• The microscopic size of most cells provides a large surface-to-volume ratio.
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4.2 The Small Size of Cells Relates to the Need to
Exchange Materials Across the Plasma Membrane
• The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
– Some proteins form channels (tunnels) that shield ions and other
hydrophilic molecules as they pass through the hydrophobic center of
the membrane.
– Other proteins serve as pumps, using energy to actively transport
molecules into or out of the cell.
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4.3 Prokaryotic Cells Are Structurally Simpler
Than Eukaryotic Cells
• All cells have a plasma membrane, DNA, ribosomes, and cytosol.
• Bacteria and Archaea consist of prokaryotic cells.
• All other forms of life are placed in domain Eukarya and consist of
eukaryotic cells.
• Eukaryotic cells are distinguished by having
– a membrane-enclosed nucleus and
– many membrane-enclosed organelles that perform specific
functions.
• Prokaryotic cells are smaller and simpler in structure.
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Figure 4.3
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4.4 Eukaryotic Cells Are Partitioned into Functional
Compartments
• Membrane-enclosed organelles compartmentalize a cell’s activities.
• The organelles and other structures of eukaryotic cells can be
organized into four basic functional groups:
1. The nucleus and ribosomes carry out the genetic control of the cell.
2. Organelles involved in the manufacture, distribution, and
breakdown of molecules include the endoplasmic reticulum (ER),
Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, and peroxisomes.
3. Mitochondria in all cells and chloroplasts in plant cells function
in energy processing.
4. Structural support, movement, and communication between cells
are the functions of the cytoskeleton, plasma membrane, and
plant cell wall.
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Figure 4.4a – typical animal cell
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Figure 4.4b – typical plant cell
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The Nucleus and Ribosomes
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4.5 The Nucleus Contains the Cell’s Genetic
Instructions
• The nucleus houses the cell’s DNA, which directs protein synthesis via
messenger RNA.
• Subunits of ribosomes are assembled in the nucleolus.
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4.6 Ribosomes Make Proteins for Use in the Cell
and Export
• Ribosomes are
– composed of ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) and proteins and
– synthesize proteins
according to directions from
DNA.
• Cells that make a lot of proteins
have a large number of
ribosomes.
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The Endomembrane System
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4.7 Many Organelles Are Connected in the
Endomembrane System
• Many of the membranes within a eukaryotic cell are part of the
endomembrane system.
• Many of these organelles interact in the
– synthesis,
– distribution,
– storage, and
– export of molecules.
• The ER is a membranous network of tubes and sacs.
– Smooth ER synthesizes lipids and processes toxins.
– Rough ER produces membranes, and ribosomes on its surface
make membrane and secretory proteins.
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Figure 4.8a -
Rough ER and
Smooth ER
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Figure 4.8b – Ribosomes on the Rough ER make
membrane and secretory proteins.
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4.9 The Golgi Apparatus Modifies, Sorts, and Ships
Cell Products
• The Golgi apparatus consists of stacks of sacs in which products of the
ER are processed and then sent to other organelles or to the cell surface.
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4.10 Lysosomes Are Digestive Compartments
Within a Cell
• Lysosomes house enzymes that break down ingested substances and
damaged organelles.
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Animation: Lysosome Formation
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4.11 Vacuoles Function in the General Maintenance
of the Cell
• Vacuoles are large vesicles that have a variety of functions.
– Some protists have contractile vacuoles.
– Plant cells contain a large central vacuole that stores molecules
and wastes and facilitates growth.
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Video: Paramecium Vacuole
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4.12 A Review of the Structures Involved in
Manufacturing and Breakdown
• The organelles of the endomembrane system are interconnected
structurally and functionally.
Figure 4.12
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Energy-Converting Organelles
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4.13 Mitochondria Harvest Chemical Energy
from Food
• Mitochondria are organelles that carry out cellular respiration in nearly
all eukaryotic cells.
• Mitochondria have two internal compartments.
1. The intermembrane space is the narrow region between the inner
and outer membranes.
2. The mitochondrial matrix contains
the mitochondrial DNA, ribosomes,
and many enzymes that
catalyze some of the reactions of
cellular respiration.
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Reserved.
4.14 Chloroplasts Convert Solar Energy to
Chemical Energy
• Photosynthesis is the conversion of light energy from the sun to the
chemical energy of sugar molecules.
• Chloroplasts are the photosynthesizing
organelles of plants and algae.
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4.15 Evolution Connection: Mitochondria and
Chloroplasts Evolved by Endosymbiosis
• The endosymbiont theory states that mitochondria and chloroplasts
were formerly small prokaryotes that began living within larger cells.
Two endosymbiotic events
occurred 1.5 ~ 2 billion years ago
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The Cytoskeleton and Cell
Surfaces
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4.16 The Cell’s Internal Skeleton Helps Organize
Its Structure and Activities
• The cytoskeleton includes microfilaments, intermediate filaments,
and microtubules. Their functions include
1) maintenance of cell shape, 2) anchorage and movement of
organelles, 3) amoeboid movement, and muscle contraction.
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Figure 4.16
4.17 Scientific Thinking: Scientists Discovered the
Cytoskeleton Using the Tools of Biochemistry and
Microscopy
• In the 1940s, biochemists first isolated and identified the proteins actin and
myosin from muscle cells.
• In 1954, scientists, using newly developed techniques of microscopy,
established how filaments of actin and myosin interact in muscle contraction.
• In the next decade, researchers identified actin filaments in all types of cells.
• Researchers then tagged actin proteins with fluorescent molecules and
injected them into living cells.
• This technique enabled scientists to visualize the dynamic behavior of
cytoskeletal proteins in living cells.
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Figure 4.17
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4.18 Cilia and Flagella Move When Microtubules
Bend
• Eukaryotic cilia and flagella are locomotor appendages made of
microtubules in a “9 + 2” arrangement.
– Flagella, longer than cilia, propel a cell by an undulating, whiplike motion.
• Cilia work more like the coordinated oars of a rowing team.
– Though different in length and beating pattern, cilia and flagella have a
common structure and mechanism of movement.
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Figure 4.18c – Structure of flagella and cilia
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Animation: Cilia and Flagella
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Video: Chlamydomonas
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4.19 The Extracellular Matrix of Animal Cells
Functions in Support and Regulation
• Animal cells synthesize and secrete an elaborate extracellular matrix (ECM),
which 1) binds tissue cells together, 2) supports the plasma membrane, and 3)
communicates with the cytoskeleton.
• The ECM may attach to the cell through other glycoproteins that then bind to
membrane proteins called integrins.
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4.20 Three Types of Cell Junctions Are Found in
Animal Tissues
• Neighboring cells often adhere,
interact, and communicate
through specialized junctions
between them.
– Tight junctions bind cells
to form leakproof sheets.
– Anchoring junctions rivet
cells into strong tissues.
– Gap junctions allow ions
and small molecules to flow
from cell to cell.
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Animation: Tight Junctions seal the space
between cells
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Animation: Desmosomes anchor cells
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Animation: Gap Junctions allow for molecules to
flow between cells
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4.21 Cell Walls Enclose and Support Plant Cells
• A plant cell, but not an animal cell, has a rigid cell wall that
– 1) protects and provides skeletal support that helps keep the plant
upright on land, and 2) is primarily composed of cellulose.
• Plant cells have cell junctions called plasmodesmata that allow plant
tissues to share water, nourishment, and chemical messages.
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4.22 Review: Eukaryotic Cell Structures Can Be
Grouped on the Basis of Four Main Functions
• Eukaryotic cell structures can be grouped on the basis of
four functions:
1. genetic control,
2. manufacturing, distribution, and breakdown of
materials,
3. energy processing, and
4. structural support, movement, and intercellular
communication.
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