Altimeter-Principle of Operation
Altimeter-Principle of Operation
Aneroid Wafer has a pressure of 29.92 inside it:
expands with an increase in altitude
contracts with a decrease in altitude
compared with the static air pressure
==The altimeter measures the height above a specific reference (pressure
setting).
Kollsman Window
The reference is set in the Kollsman window.
The local pressure setting (altimeter setting) is reported in various weather
reports.
the altimeter setting is not the local pressure, it is a correction that when
dialed gives the field elevation of the airport
must be updated throughout the flight
Altimeter-Effect of Pressure and Temperature
Changes in local pressure and temperature have an affect on:
the altitude reported on the altimeter
the actual altitude of the aircraft above the ground
From High to Low look out below
From Hot to Cold look out below
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
Air temperature that is warmer than standard will cause the altimeter to
indicate a lower altitude than true.
Pressure levels are raised on warm days and the indicated altitude is lower than
true altitude.
cold/high: true < indicated
hot/low: true > indicated
High to low look out below refers to the indicated altitude being higher than
true altitude, making the pilot think they are higher than they actually are
risking flying into terrain.
If a flight is made from an area of high pressure into an area of lower pressure
without the altimeter being reset, the altimeter will indicate higher than the
actual altitude above sea level.
High Pressure Area to Low Pressure Area
If you don't change you altimeter setting when going from an area of high/hot to
an area of low/cold the altimeter will read the same but the aircraft will be
closer to the ground (it will have descended in terms of MSL).
Altimeter-Scenarios
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
Scenario 1
Scenario 2
High Pressure Day
On a high pressure day the reference (29.92) moves up
the pressure at sea level is more than 29.92
a drop in temperature is a high pressure day
cold air is high pressure
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
Low Pressure Day
On a low pressure day the reference (29.92) moves down
the pressure at sea level is less than 29.92
a rise in temperature produces low pressure
warm air is low pressure
1 in. Hg = 1,000 ft
0.1 in. Hg = 100 ft
Scenario 3: Low Pressure Day
The current altimeter setting, even for airports not at sea level, is based on
sea level.
If the pressure outside is 30.02 and you set the altimeter to 29.92 the
altimeter would read -100 ft.
Scenario 4
⨂ 1 Error in region +
Altimeter-Warning
Atmospheric pressure is always reported as if it were recorded at sea level.
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
At sea level on a standard day pressure is reported is 29.92
At an airport at 5,000 ft elevation on a standard day, pressure is also
reported as 29.92, even though it is measured as 24.92
29.92 is the reference from which we are flying, if we set the
altimeter to 24.92 it would read 0
we always the altimeter to show altitude in reference to MSL
Altimeter-Why is it Important
Pressure changes during the day because of meteorological conditions.
Pressure changes from airport to airport
Everyone flying in the same area should be on the same pressure setting.
⨂ 1 Error in region +
Altimeter
The altimeter indicates the height of the aircraft above a reference point (sea
level)
3 Needles:
long thin needle: 100s of feet
wider short needle: 1,000s of feet
very skinny (triangle): 10,000s of feet
Cross hatch is visible under 10,000 feet.
Altitude Definitions
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
ASI & Types of Airspeed
The ASI measures and indicates the difference between pitot (Ram pressure) and
static pressures.
As the aircraft moves through the air, the pitot pressure is more than the
static pressure
speed can be expressed in knots (kt) or miles per hour (mph)
a knot is a nautical mile per hour
Types of Airspeed
Indicated(IAS): as read on the instrument
-> used to determine aircraft performance
Calibrated (CAS): IAS corrected for installation error
-> found using the calibration chart in the aircraft manual
True (TAS): CAS corrected for altitude and non-standard temperatures
because air density decreases as altitude increases, the difference between
pitot and static also decreases
for a given CAS, TAS increases as altitude increases
calculate TAS with a flight computer using CAS, altitude, and temperature
Ground (GS): the actual speed of the aircraft over the ground
without wind, GS is the same as TAS
GS decreases with headwind, increases with tailwind
calculated with a flight computer using wind direction, speed and aircraft
heading and TAS
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
When discussing the flight performance of the airplane: lift, drag, stall
speed, takeoff speed, and climb speed, we talk in terms of indicated
airspeed:
the IAS is vital to performance as the qualities of the airplane depend
on it
IAS is important aerodynamically
The true airspeed is the actual speed of the airplane relative to the air:
TAS is important for navigation
incorporating wind and TAS we can calculate speed over the ground
ASI Markings & V Speeds
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
⨂ 1 Error in region +
Atmospheric Pressure
Air molecules are invisible but have a weight:
sea level: 14.7 lbs. per sq. in.
18,000 feet: 7.4 lbs. per sq. in.
Standard Day
A standard day is defined as:
Temperature: 15C (59F)
Pressure: 29.92 inches of mercury (Hg)
Altitude: Sea level
29.92 is referred to as the Standard Datum Plane.
Standard atmospheric pressure at sea level is known as 1 atmosphere (atm) but
can be expressed in different units.
1 atm = 14.7 psi = 29.92 inHg = 1013.2 hPa = 1013.2 mb = 760 mm Hg
Pressure decreases at a rate of 1 inch Hg every 1,000 ft.
Standard day atmospheric pressure
These are the values a barometer would display.
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
Attitude Indicator
Indicates the aircrafts attitude: climbing, descending, turning
Primary instrument for instant information
Uses the principle of rigidity is space
The horizon bar represents the true horizon
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
Blockage of Pitot-Static System
Scenarios:
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
Blocked Pitot System
blocked pitot tube + open drain hole
blocked pitot tube + blocked drain hole: level flight
blocked pitot tube + blocked drain hole: climbing/descending
Blocked Static System
blocked static + open pitot
blocked static + blocked pitot
Blocked Pitot + Open Drain Hole
ASI will indicate 0
Blocked Pitot Tube + Blocked Drain Hole
Level Flight: pressure inside the pitot tube remains the same.
-> airspeed indication will remain the same, whether the actual airspeed
increases or decreases
Climbing: airspeed will increases
Descending: airspeed will decrease
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
Open Pitot + Blocked Static
If the static port is blocked but the pitot tube is open, the ASI will still
indicate an airspeed but it will be inaccurate.
climbing: IAS will decrease
descending: IAS will increase
Blocked Static: Altimeter & VSI
Altimeter will freeze at the altitude at which is became clogged.
VSI will indicate 0
A source of alternate static is available on most aircraft: will be slightly off
actual altitude
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
Compass Errors-Acceleration Errors
Acceleration errors only happen when accelerating/decelerating on an Easterly or
Westerly heading.
ANDS: Accelerate North, Decelerate South
an acceleration will show a turn to the North
deceleration will show a turn to the South
Acceleration: compass will go left (North is to the left of West)
Deceleration: compass will go right (South is to the right of West)
Compass Errors-Deviation
Magnets align with any magnetic fields, including the ones generated by the
aircraft itself.
Deviation depends on the aircraft itself and the aircraft's heading, unique to
each aircraft.
Deviation is reported on a compass correction card that shows the actual
heading to be flown to attain a certain compass course.
Compass Errors-Variation
We orient ourselves by using 2 main references:
True North: the physical Earth's North Pole, most maps are orientated in
relation to true north.
Magnetic North: the location of the Earth's magnetic field's northern position.
they are not same, and the magnetic north changes over time
We don't have a way in the aircraft to orient ourselves to true north only
magnetic.
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
Variation is the difference between true and magnetic north.
Measured in degrees.
Varies depending on your location on Earth and is identified as East or West.
To convert from True to Magnetic, add/subtract variation.
East is Least (subtract), West is Best (add)
Aeronautical charts show lines of variation called isogonic lines
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
subtract 11.5 from the heading to get magnetic.
Compass-Turning Errors
Compass turns are useful when all power instruments have failed.
The compass is prone to errors when the airplane is not in straight-and-level
unaccelerated flight.
Turning errors only happen when turning towards the north or south.
When turning towards northerly headings the compass lags
you will be on your desired heading before the compass shows that you are
When turning from a North heading the compass initially indicates a turn in
the opposite direction then lags
When turning towards southerly headings the compass leads
the compass will indicate that you are on your desired heading before you
actually are
When turning from a south heading the compass leads the turn, indicating a
faster turn than is actually occuring
UNOS: Undershoot North, Overshoot South: how to get to desired heading
to fly South you have to stop your turn after turning through South
to fly North you have to stop your turn before the compass reads North
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
How much lead on a compass
Lead = degrees latitude (north/south) + half bank angle
39 degrees of lead, end the turn 40 degrees early (turn to the north)
Electronic Flight Display (EFD)
Gyro Principles-Precession
Precession is the tilting or turning of a gyro in response to a deflective
force.
If a force is applied to a rotating object, a resulting force will be applied
in the same direction, 90 degrees in the plane of rotation.
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
Gyro Principles-Rigidity in Space
Any spinning object exhibits gyroscopic properties.
2 fundamental properties of gyroscopic action:
Rigidity in space
Precession
Rigidity in Space
As a wheel increases in speeds, it becomes more stable.
The gimbal remains in space while the airplane rotates around it.
Gyroscopic Flight Instruments
3 instruments use the property of a gyroscope:
Turn Coordinator
Heading Indicator
Attitude Indicator
The gyroscopes can be actuated either by:
the vacuum system
the electrical system
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
Heading Indicator
HI is a mechanical device designed to facilitate the use of the magnetic
compass.
the compass has numerous errors that make it difficult to use in all phases
of flight
the HI does not have such errors
uses the principle of rigidity in space
sometimes called a directional gyro
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
Because of precession and friction, the heading indicator needs to be
reset (about every 15-30 minutes)
The instrument does not have a magnet so it needs to be set periodically
based on the compass
only use the compass as reference when in unaccelerated straight and
level flight
Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) receives magnetic information and does not
need to be reset.
Outside Air Temperature Gauge
Nothing more than a thermometer than indicates the outside temperature.
Can be helpful to determine icing conditions or performance calculations.
Inclinometer
The inclinometer (ball) is used to depict the aircraft yaw during flight.
the ball indicates whether the flight is coordinated
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
Skid: too much rudder in the direction of the turn, pushes airplane outside of
the turn
Slid:not enough or opposite rudder of the turn, airplane slides toward the
inside of the turn
skid out, slip in
Pitot Static Flight Instruments
Pitot Static Instruments:
Airspeed Indicator (ASI)
Altimeter
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
Pitot-Static System
⨂ 1 Error in region +
Magnetic Compass
Contains a magnet that aligns with the Earth's magnetic field.
magnet floats inside of a kerosene-type liquid
Markings are in the opposite direction to the heading indicator.
Should only be read during straight-and-level, unaccelerated flight.
Compass Errors
Variation
Deviation
Dip Errors
Turning Errors
Acceleration Errors
Turn Indicators
Aircraft use 2 types of turn indicators:
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
turn-and-slip indicators
turn coordinators
Neither instrument indicates angle of bank but rather indicates rate.
Uses the principle of precession.
Turn and Slip Indicator
Indicates only rate of turn (yaw) in degrees per second.
Older design
also contains the inclinometer
Turn Coordinator
Indicates both rate of turn (yaw) and rate of roll.
also contains inclinometer (the ball)
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
When on the mark, standard rate turn, 3 degrees per second.
360 in 2 minutes
180 in 1 minutes
Setting the Altimeter
Always use the most updated weather report and set the altimeter to the proper
setting.
as you fly cross country, check local weather reports or use the altimeter
setting reported by ATC
Verify the altimeter setting on the ground by setting the altimeter to the
reported setting and check it against the airport elevation
The altimeter should be within 75 feet of airport elevation when set.
Types of Altitude
Altitude is all relative to the reference point that it's measured from.
Indicated: read from the altimeter
True: vertical distance of the aircraft above sea level, expressed as feet above
Mean Sea Level (MSL)
Is usually what we will use.
Absolute:vertical distance of the aircraft above the ground, expressed as feet
Above Ground Level
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
Pressure:the altitude indicated on the altimeter when set to 29.92
-> True altitude corrected for non-standard pressure
Density: pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature
-> determines the aircraft performance
Vacuum System
For redundancy purposes, there are at least 2 sources of power to spin the gyro.
In most cases, the heading and attitude indicators are powered by the vacuum
system while the turn coordinator is electrically actuated.
Gyros rotate at rotation speeds in the thousands of RPM
The vacuum sucks outside air via a vacuum pump to make the gyro spin (like
a windmill)
A typical vacuum system consists of:
an engine-driven vacuum pump
relief valve
air filter
gauges and tubing
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
VSI-Principal of Operation
As we stop the climb and level out the calibrated leak will equalize the
pressure so that it is the same inside and outside the wafer, indicating 0.
there is a delay in the indication
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Altimeter-Principle of Operation
The VSI displays 2 different types of information:
1. Trend: immediately (climb or descent)
2. Rate: once established (how many FPM)
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
Indicates whether the aircraft is climbing or descending.
Rate of climb/descent is indicated in feet per minute (FPM)
should indicate 0 (or close) when on the ground
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