CHAPTER 11

ELECTRICITY

Q#1: Write a note on fermi velocity and drift velocity of electron.

Ans: Fermi Velocity: Average velocity of electrons within conducting material
without the existence of external electric field is called Fermi velocity.
• Metals contain a large number of free
electrons that move randomly in all directions
and undergo elastic collision with other
electrons.
• The average value of Fermi velocity of electrons in metals is comparatively
very high about 106 𝑚𝑠 −1 .
• As temperature increases, Fermi velocity also increases.
• Solids contain much more free electrons as compared to liquids and gases.
Therefore, solids are generally better conductors than liquids, while gases
are generally non-conductors.
Drift Velocity: Velocity of electrons in conducting material, when external
electric field is applied is called drift velocity.
• When external field is applied, electrons
acquire energy and start moving (drifting)
in the direction opposite to that of electric
field.
• During their motion, they undergo
inelastic collision with other electrons due
to which temperature of metal increases.
Emf of battery continuously provide energy to electrons to let them move
from low potential to high potential.
• Drift velocity is very low as compared to fermi velocity. Its value is in the
range of 10−4 𝑚𝑠 −1 .
Derivation of formula for drift velocity:
Consider an emf source of voltage ‘V’ connected across a conductor of length ‘L’
and cross-sectional area ‘A’. Current flowing through conductor will be:
 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑄)
𝐼=
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡)
𝑁𝑒
𝐼= ∴ 𝑵: 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠, 𝒆: 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 1 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
𝑡
𝑛𝐴𝐿𝑒 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑁)
𝐼= ∴ 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑛) =
𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐴𝐿)
𝐼 = 𝑛𝐴𝑣𝑒 ∴ 𝑣 = 𝐿/𝑡
𝑰
𝒗=
𝒏𝑨𝒆
Drift velocity and current are directly proportional to each other.
Q#2: Compare drift velocity and mobility.
Ans: Comparison between drift velocity and mobility of electron:
Drift Velocity Mobility

1 Average velocity acquired by charge Measurement magnitude of drift

carriers within conducting material velocity of charge carriers per unit
in the presence of external electric electric field.
field.

2 Formula: 𝑣 = −𝜇𝐸 Formula: 𝜇 = 𝑣/𝐸

3 Unit: 𝑚𝑠 −1 Unit: 𝑚2 𝑠 −1 𝑉 −1

Example 11.1: A current of 3A is flowing in a copper conductor with a cross-

section of 𝟏𝒎𝒎𝟐 . Find the drift velocity of the electrons.

(For copper, 𝒏 = 𝟖. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟖 𝒎−𝟑 )

Given: 𝐼 = 3𝐴 𝐴 = 1 𝑚𝑚2 = 1 × 10−6 𝑚2
Charge on electron (𝑒 ) = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
𝑛 = 8.5 × 1028 𝑚−3
Required: Drift velocity (𝑣) = ?
Solution: Drift velocity is given by:
 𝐼
𝑣=
𝑛𝐴𝑒
3
𝑣=
(8.5 × 1028 )(1 × 10−6 )(1.6 × 10−19 )
𝑣 = 2.20 × 10−4 𝑚/𝑠
Assignment 11.1: A wire of diameter 0.02 m contains 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟖 free electrons per
𝒎𝟑 . For an electric current of 100 A. Find the drift velocity for free electrons
in the wire.
𝑑
Given: Diameter (d) = 0.02 𝑚, 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 (𝑟) = = 0.01𝑚
2

𝑛 = 1028 𝑚−3
𝐼 = 100𝐴
Charge on electron (e) = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
Required: Drift velocity (𝑣) = ?
Solution: Drift velocity is given by:
𝐼
𝑣=
𝑛𝐴𝑒
𝐼
𝑣=
𝑛(𝜋𝑟 2 )𝑒
100
𝑣=
(1028 )(3.14 × 0.012 )(1.6 × 10−19 )
𝑣 = 1.99 × 10−4 𝑚/𝑠
Q#3: Write a note on electric potential energy and electric potential.
Ans: Electric Potential Energy:
Work done on a charge to move it from infinity to a point inside electric field
is called electric potential energy.
• Consider a charge carrier q placed inside electric field as
shown in figure.
• In order to move charge from negative plate to positive
plate, work must be done on it.
• Work done is given by:
𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑆
𝐹
𝑊 = 𝑞𝐸𝑆 ∴𝐸=𝑞

• This work done in stored in the form of electric potential energy.

• As electric field is conservative in nature, therefore work done on charge q
does not depend upon the path taken.
Unit: SI unit of electric potential energy is J. Other non-SI units are electron volt
(eV) and KJ/mol.
CONVERSION INTO
Energy Unit Joule Kilo Joule per Electron-Volt
mole
Joule 1 6.66 × 1020 6.24 × 1018
Kilo Joule per mole 1.66 × 10−21 1 0.01
Electron-Volt 1.6 × 10−19 96.5 1
Electric Potential:
Work done per unit charge to move it from infinity to a point inside electric
field is called electric potential.
𝑊
𝑉=
𝑞
𝐹𝑟 𝑞𝐸𝑟
𝑉= = = 𝐸𝑟
𝑞 𝑞
𝑘𝑄 𝑘𝑄
𝑉= .𝑟 ∴𝐸=
𝑟2 𝑟2
𝑘𝑄
𝑉=
𝑟
In case of multiple charges, potential at a point is equal to sum of electric
potential due to individual charges.
 𝑛
𝑞𝑖
𝑉 = 𝑘∑
𝑟𝑖
𝑖=1

SI Unit: Volt or 𝐽𝐶 −1
Q#4: Define electron-Volt. Is it unit of energy or Force.
Ans: Electron Volt: Electron-Volt is a unit of electrical energy.
Amount of energy acquired or lost by an electron as it moves through a
potential difference of 1 V is called 1 electron Volt.
1𝑒𝑉 = (1.6 × 10−19 𝐶 )(1𝑉 )
1𝑒𝑉 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶𝑉
1𝑒𝑉 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽
Q#5: Define electromotive force, internal resistance and terminal potential.
Ans: Electromotive Force:
In order to move charge through the circuit, energy must be supplied to it.
Total energy supplied per unit charge by a battery or cell to move charge
through a circuit is called emf of cell.
• Unit: Volt (V)
• Symbol: 𝜀
Internal Resistance:
Internal resistance is the opposition to current flow
within a battery, caused by the movement of ions in the
electrolyte and other resistive effects inside the battery.
Only an ideal battery can have zero internal resistance.
Practically all batteries have some internal resistance due
to which power dissipation occurs and heat is generated.
Terminal Potential:
The terminal potential difference is the voltage measured across the terminals
of a cell or battery when it is delivering current to an external circuit.
When a current flows, the terminal potential difference is less than the EMF due
to the voltage drop across the internal resistance of the cell.
 Consider the circuit above:
Total Voltage
Current =
Total Resistance
𝜀
𝐼= 𝜀 = EMF of battery
𝑅+𝑟 R = Resistance of Load
𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑟 = 𝜀 r = Internal Resistance
I = Current through the circuit
𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝑟 = 𝜀 𝑉𝑡 = Terminal Voltage
𝑉𝑡 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟
Q#6: Describe the condition under which:
(a) Terminal potential is equal to emf
(b) Terminal potential is less than emf
(c) Terminal potential is greater than emf.
Ans: Relationship between terminal potential and E.M.F:
Case 1: When the circuit is Open:
When the circuit is Open, no current flows through the circuit (𝐼 = 0).
𝑉𝑡 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟
𝑉𝑡 = 𝜀 − (0)𝑟
𝑉𝑡 = 𝜀
Thus, in Open Circuit, the terminal potential is equal to the emf of the battery
as potential drop across internal resistance will be zero.
Case 2: When the circuit is closed:
When current (𝐼 ) is flowing through the circuit, some potential will be dropped
across internal resistance of battery. In this case, terminal potential will be less
than emf of battery. Potential difference across terminals of source is given by:
𝑉𝑡 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟
Higher the amount of current, lower will be the terminal potential difference.
Case 3: When the battery is charging:
When current (𝐼 ) is flowing through the circuit in reverse direction (i.e. battery
is charging), then terminal potential will become greater than emf of battery.
 𝑉𝑡 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟
𝑉𝑡 = 𝜀 − (−𝐼 )𝑟
𝑉𝑡 = 𝜀 + 𝐼𝑟
𝑉𝑡 > 𝜀
Q#7: Write a note on maximum power transfer theorem.
Ans: Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:
Maximum power is delivered to a load R when the
internal resistance of the source of emf is equal to the
load resistance.
Proof:
Current flowing through the circuit is given by:
𝜀
𝐼=
𝑅+𝑟
Power delivered to the load is given by:
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐼 2 𝑅
𝜀2 𝜀
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑅 ∴𝐼=
(𝑅 + 𝑟)2 𝑅+𝑟
𝜀 2𝑅
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
(𝑅 − 𝑟)2 + 4𝑅𝑟
When 𝑅 − 𝑟 = 0, the denominator of the expression will be minimum, therefore
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 will be maximum. Put 𝑟 = 𝑅 in above expression:
𝜀 2𝑅 𝜀 2𝑅
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
(𝑅 − 𝑅 )2 + 4𝑅 2 4𝑅 2
𝜀2
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4𝑅
Q#8: Define electrical resistance. What are the factors upon which resistance of a
conductor depends? Also write a note on specific resistance.
Ans: Resistance:
The ability of a conductor to oppose flow of electric current is called resistance.
 𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
Unit: Ohm(Ω)
Factors affecting Resistance of substance:
The resistance of conducting material depends upon physical factors such as
length and Cross-section area and also upon non-physical factors such as
temperature of the conductor.
• Resistance of conductor is directly proportional to its length (L)
𝑅∝𝐿
• Resistance is inversely proportional to cross-section area (A) of conductor
1
𝑅∝
𝐴
• Joining above equations:
𝐿
𝑅∝
𝐴
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
Where 𝜌 is a constant of proportionality known as resistivity or specific
resistance of a material.
Specific resistance / Resistivity:
Resistance of wire of length 1 m having
cross sectional area 𝟏𝒎𝟐 is called specific
resistance.
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
𝑅𝐴
𝜌=
𝐿
Unit: Ω𝑚
• Resistivity depends upon material and temperature and is independent of
length and cross-sectional area (intrinsic property), where as resistance
depends upon physical dimensions (extrinsic property).
 • Materials having low resistivity are good conductors of electricity. E.g.,
Copper, gold etc.
Q#9: Define the terms conductance and conductivity.
Ans: Conductance:
The ability of a substance to conduct electricity is called Conductance.
OR
The Reciprocal of resistance of a conductor is called conductance (G).
1
𝐺=
𝑅
Unit: The SI unit of conductance is mho or Siemens (S).
Conductivity:
The reciprocal of resistivity of a conductor is called conductivity (𝝈).
It is denoted by the symbol 𝜎. If a conductor has resistivity 𝜌, then its
conductivity is given by:
1 𝐿
𝜎= =
𝜌 𝑅𝐴
Unit: The unit of conductivity is mho m−1 or Siemen meter-1 (S m−1 )
Q#10: How temperature affects resistance of various substances. Also define
temperature coefficient and its range for various substances.
Ans: Effect of temperature on resistance of conductors:
• Metals contain free electrons. When electric field is applied, electrons drift is
direction opposite to electric field.
• During their motion, they collide with other electrons and atoms. As a result
of collision, they lose their kinetic energy which is often emitted as heat
energy.
• As temperature increase, thermal vibrations of atoms increase due to which
number of collisions increase.
• Thus, resistance of metal increases with increase in temperature.
Effect of temperature on resistance of semiconductors:
• Semiconductor do not have any free electron at 0 Kelvin.
• As temperature increases, bond breaks and conductivity
increases.
• Thus, resistance of semiconductor decreases with increase
in temperature.
Temperature co-efficient of resistance/resistivity:
Change in resistance per ohm original resistance per degree rise in
temperature is called Temperature co-efficient of resistance.
It is represented by 𝛼.
𝑅𝑇 − 𝑅𝑜
𝛼=
𝑅𝑜 𝑇
Material Temperature Coefficient
Metals Positive (Resistance increases with increase in temperature).
Solid Non-Metals Zero (Resistance is not affected by change in temperature)
Semi-Conductors Negative (Resistance decreases with increase of temperature).
Electrolyte Negative (Resistance decreases with increase of temperature).
Ionized Gases Negative (Resistance decreases with increase of temperature).
Alloys Has small value greater than zero.

Example 11.3: Calculate the resistance of wire 10 m long that has a diameter
of 2 mm and resistivity of 𝟐. 𝟔𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝛀𝒎.
Given: 𝐿 = 10𝑚
2𝑚𝑚
Radius 𝑟 = 2
= 1 × 10−3 𝑚

Resistivity 𝜌 = 2.63 × 10−2 Ω𝑚

Required: Resistance = ?
Solution: Resistance of a wire is given by:
𝜌𝐿 𝜌𝐿
𝑅= = 2
𝐴 𝜋𝑟
(2.63 × 10−2 )(10)
𝑅=
(3.14)(1 × 10−3 )2
 𝑅 = 83,758Ω
Assignment 11.3: A wire has length 10 m with its resistance 100 ohm, if wire is
stretched as its length is increased 3 times, how much the resistance of the
wire will be increased?
Given: 𝐿 = 10𝑚
Resistance 𝑅 = 100 Ω
𝐿′ = 3𝐿
Required: Resistance 𝑅′ = ?
Solution: Resistance of a wire is given by:
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
As length increases, resistance increases.
𝜌𝐿′
𝑅′ =
𝐴
𝜌(3𝐿) 𝜌𝐿
𝑅′ = =3
𝐴 𝐴
𝑅 ′ = 3𝑅 = 3(100)
𝑅 ′ = 300 Ω
Q#11: Write a note on Light Dependant Resistor (LDR).
Ans: Light dependant Resistor (LDR):
Resistors, whose resistance depends upon intensity of light is called light
dependant resistor (LDR)/Photo-Resistor.
• Resistance of LDR is inversely proportional to intensity of light. In dark
environment, its resistance is in MJ, while in lighted environment it becomes
few 100 Ω.
• There are two types of LDR i.e. Intrinsic (made of pure semiconductor) and
extrinsic (made of impure semiconductor).
• Mostly these LDRs cannot be used for shorter wavelength lights. LDR can
detect light of wavelength ranging between 4 × 103 𝐴𝑜 to 104 𝐴𝑜 .
• Sensitivity of LDR changes with change of wavelength of light and
temperature. LDR is more sensitive at lower temperature.
 • In potential divider circuit, LDR can be used in
replacement of 𝑅2 . As light intensity changes, its value
will change and provide variable output potential.
Practical applications of LDRs:
There are so many daily life practical applications of LDRs. It is
used as a part of SCADA (Supervisory Control and data acquisition). It has
following uses:
• Used for counting the number of packages on a moving conveyor belt.
• Used to measure the intensity of light and control shutter speed of camera.
• Infrared astronomy and Infrared Spectroscopy also use photo resistors for
measuring mid-infrared spectral region.
• It is Low cost, used in street lighting design, Alarm clocks, Burglar alarm
circuits, Light intensity meters.
11.6 ELECTRIC POWER & ELECTRIC ENERGY
Q#12: What is the difference between alternating current and direct current?
Ans: Difference Between AC and DC:
Alternating Current Direct Current
The current, which reverses The current which flows in only one
1 direction after equal interval of time direction is called direct current.
is called Alternating Current.
2 AC can be transmitted over long DC cannot be transmitted over long
distance. distance.
3 The positive and negative polarity of Positive and negative polarity of DC
AC is not fixed. is fixed.
4 Frequency of AC used in Pakistan is Frequency of DC is zero.
50Hz. In some countries, AC has
frequency of 55 Hz.
5 Source of AC is generator. Source of DC is cell or batteries.
Q#13: Write a note on electrical power and its units.
Ans: Electric Power:
Rate of doing work in an electric circuit is known as electric power.
Work done in electric circuit
Electric power =
Time
W
P=
t
qV
P=
t
q
P = VI ∴I= t

P = I2 R ∴ V = IR
V2 V
P= ∴I=
R R

Unit: Watt
Watt: A power of 1 Watt is said to be consumed in a circuit if a potential
difference of 1 V causes a current of 1A to flow through it.
P = VI
1𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 1𝑉 × 1𝐴
Q#14: Define Kilowatt Hour. Is it a unit of power or energy.
Ans: Kilowatt-Hours:
Commercial unit of electrical energy is kilowatt hours.
1 kilowatt hour is the amount of energy obtained by a power of 1 kilowatt in
one hour.
1𝑘𝑊ℎ = 1000𝑊 × 3600𝑠
1𝑘𝑊ℎ = 3.6 × 106 𝐽
Example 11.4: Calculate 1 month cost of using 50 W energy saver for 8 hours
dally in your study room. Assume that the price of a unit is Rs. 20.
Given: Power (in watt)= 50 watt = 0.05 kW
Time (in hours) for 30 days = 8 × 30 = 240 ℎ
 Cost per units = Rs. 20
Required: Cost of electricity = ?
Solution: No. of units = power (kW) x time of use in hours
No. of units = 0.05 x 240 = 12 kWh
Cost of electricity = number of units x cost per unit
Cost of electricity = 12 x 20 = 240 Rs
Assignment 11.4: Estimate the cost of electricity consumed for a month of one
year (365 days), if the following devices are used as specified:
i) 10 bulbs of 40 watts for 10 hours
ii) 10 fridges of 250 watts for 24 hours.
iii) 40 tube lights of 25 watts for 10 hours.
(Given the rate of electricity is Rs. 50/unit).
Solution:
Total power of bulbs = 10 × 40 = 400 Watts = 0.4kW
Total power for Fridges = 10 × 250 = 2500 Watts = 2.5𝑘𝑊
Total power for Tubelights = 40 × 25 = 1000 Watts = 1𝑘𝑊
Energy Consumed per day = (0.4 × 10) + (2.5 × 24) + (1 × 10)
= 74 𝑘𝑊ℎ
Energy consumed per month = 74 × 30 = 2220 𝑘𝑤ℎ
Bill for the month = 2220𝑘𝑊ℎ × 50𝑅𝑠/𝑘𝑊ℎ
= 1,11,000 Rs
11.7 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
Q#15: Define and explain Kirchhoff’s Laws with the help of examples.
Ans: Kirchhoff’s Law
Kirchoff’s laws help in calculation of Current in complex combinations of
resistances with more than one emf sources.
 Robert Kirchoff presented two laws based upon law of conservation of charge
and law of conservation of energy i.e.
1) Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL)
2) Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
1) Kirchhoff’s Current Law:
A Junction is a point in a circuit
Kirchoff’s current law also known as junction rule is based
where two or more components
on law of conservation of charge. It states that: are connected.
The sum of all currents flowing into the junction is equal
to the sum of the currents flowing out of that junction.
OR
The algebraic sum of all currents meeting at a junction is zero.
∑ 𝐼 = 0.
Explanation:
• Consider four conductors carrying currents 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 and
𝐼4 connected with each other at junction O.
• Since charge can neither be created nor destroyed, so
the charge that has entered the junction must be equal
the charge leaving the junction. (Law of conservation of
charge).
• If we take current flowing into the junction (𝐼1 , 𝐼4) to be positive, then current
flowing out of junction (𝐼2 , 𝐼3 ) will be taken negative.
According to KCL:

∑𝐼 = 0

(𝐼1 ) + (𝐼4 ) + (−𝐼2 ) + (−𝐼3 ) = 0

𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟒 = 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑
Sum of incoming current = Sum of outgoing current
2) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law is based on law of conservation of energy. It states that:
The algebraic sum of all the voltages in a closed loop is always equal to zero.
Algebraic sum of emf + Algebraic sum of voltage drops = 0
 ∑𝑉 = 0

While solving a circuit using KVL, following convention is adopted:

1) First assume the direction of current either clock wise or anticlockwise.
2) Rise in potential is taken positive and drop in potential is taken negative.
3) Positive terminal of a battery is at higher potential. Moving from the
negative to the positive terminal adds potential (+), while moving from
positive to negative subtracts potential (-).
4) Potential drop across resistor is −𝐼𝑅.
Example:
Consider the loop ABCD as shown in figure.
• Assume that direction of current is clockwise.
• At 𝜀1 , the direction is from negative to positive terminal
of battery, therefore there is a rise in potential and
taken positive (+𝜀1 ).
• Potential always drops across resistors. Potential drop
across 𝑟1 and 𝑅1 will be −𝐼𝑟1 and −𝐼𝑅1 respectively.
• At 𝜀, the direction of current is from positive to negative, therefore, there is
a fall in potential (−𝜀).
• Potential drop across 𝑟2 will be −𝐼𝑟2 .
Applying KVL:
𝜀1 − 𝐼𝑟1 − 𝐼𝑅1 − 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟2 = 0
This law is based on the conservation of energy. As energy per unit charge is
∆𝑈
called voltage (𝑉 = ), the total amount of energy gained per unit charge must
𝑞𝑜
be equal to the amount of energy lost per unit charge, so that energy and charge
are both conserved. Thus, Kirchhoff's voltage law is just a specific way of stating
law of conservation of energy.
 11.7.3 Applying Kirchhoff's Laws
(This topic is for understanding only; Related numerical are crucial for exams)
To solve multi-loop circuits using
Kirchhoff's laws, we need enough loops so
that each component is covered at least
once without repeating loops. In the
circuit, two loops are defined: loop
'ABCFA' with current 𝐼1 and loop 'CDEFC'
with 𝐼2 . The assumed current directions
are arbitrary; a negative result indicates
the opposite direction.
Loop ‘ABCFA’:
• Starting from A, battery voltage 𝜀1 is positive (Negative to positive terminal).
• Potential drop at resistor 𝑅1 is −𝐼1 𝑅1 .
• In branch 'CF,' both currents combine as 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 . Potential drop at resistor 𝑅2
will be −(𝐼1 + 𝐼2 )𝑅2.
Applying KVL:
𝜀1 − 𝐼1 𝑅1 − (𝐼1 + 𝐼2 )𝑅2 = 0
Loop ‘CFEDC’:
• Starting from E, battery voltage 𝜀2 is positive
(Negative to positive terminal).
• Potential drop at resistor 𝑅2 will be −(𝐼2 + 𝐼1 )𝑅2.
• Potential drop at resistor 𝑅3 is −𝐼2 𝑅3.
Applying KVL:
𝜀2 − (𝐼2 + 𝐼1 )𝑅2 − 𝐼2 𝑅3 = 0
By simultaneously solving both loop equations, the branch currents in the
circuit can be determined.
Q#16: Using Kirchhoff’s Law, derive equation for equivalent resistance of series and
parallel combination of resistors.
Ans: Series Combination of Resistors:
Consider two resistors 𝑅1
and 𝑅2 connected in series.
A single resistor R is
equivalent to them.
• From Kirchhoff’s first law, the current I through each resistor is the same.
Since they're connected in series (i.e., having no junctions).
• From Kirchhoff’s second law, the total p.d of both resistors in a closed-circuit
loop must equal the sum of the p.d (the p.d across the single resistor):
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
• From Ohm's Law, potential difference is given by the product of current and
resistance, i.e.,
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2
• Dividing above equation by 𝐼, we get:
𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
• The equivalent resistor R of several resistors connected in series is given by:
𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯
Parallel Combination of resistors:
Consider two resistors 𝑅1 and 𝑅2
connected in parallel. A single
resistor R is equivalent to them.
• From Kirchhoff’s first law, the
current through each resistor
will be different. Since the
current split at the junctions). The current through the equivalent resistor R
will be the total current:
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
• From Kirchhoff’s second law, the p.d across resistors 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 in different
branch must be the same and the resistor R will have that same p.d across it
too:
𝑉 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2
• From Ohm's Law, potential difference is given by the product of current and
resistance. So, equation (1) becomes:
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2
• Dividing above equation by 𝑉, we get:
1 1 1
= +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2
• The equivalent resistor R of several resistors connected in parallel is given
by:
1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
Example 11.5: Find current flowing through each resistor using Kirchhoff's law,
in the given circuit.
Solution:
Applying Kirchhoff’s law to loop BAFEB:
𝜀1 − 𝐼1 𝑅1 − 𝐼1 𝑅2 − (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 )𝑅4 = 0
3 − 3𝐼1 − 2𝐼1 − 6(𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) = 0
3 − 5𝐼1 − 6𝐼1 + 6𝐼2 = 0
−11𝐼1 + 6𝐼2 + 3 = 0 … (1)
Applying Kirchhoff’s law to loop DCBED:
𝜀2 − 𝐼2 𝑅5 − (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 )𝑅4 − 𝐼2 𝑅3 = 0
4.5 − 4𝐼2 − 6(𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) − 5𝐼2 = 0
4.5 − 9𝐼2 − 6𝐼2 + 6𝐼1 = 0
6𝐼1 − 15𝐼2 + 4.5 = 0 … (2)
Multiplying eq (1) by 5 and eq (2) by 2 and adding:
−55𝐼1 + 30𝐼2 + 15 = 0
12𝐼1 − 30𝐼2 + 9 = 0
−43𝐼1 + 24 = 0
 24
𝐼1 = = 0.56𝐴
43
Putting value of 𝐼1 in equation (1):
−11(0.56) + 6𝐼2 + 3 = 0
6𝐼2 = 3.16
3.16
𝐼2 = = 0.53𝐴
6
Current flowing through 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 = 𝐼1 = 0.56 𝐴
Current flowing through 𝑅3 and 𝑅5 = 𝐼2 = 0.53 𝐴
Current flowing through 𝑅4 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 = 0.56 − 0.53 = 0.03𝐴
Assignment 11.5: Use given space to Find current flowing through each
resistor in the circuit having loops as shown in figure.
(Do yourself)

Q#17: What is Wheatstone bridge? Explain its working.

Ans: Wheatstone Bridge:
Wheatstone bridge is an electrical device used to measure value of unknown
resistance.
Construction:
Wheatstone bridge consists of:
1) Two fixed known resistances P and Q
2) One variable known resistor S
3) One unknown resistance R
4) Battery
 5) Galvanometer
Working:
• Adjust value of S, such that galvanometer shows no deflection. Under this
condition, bridge is said to be balanced (null point) and 𝐼1 = 𝐼3 and 𝐼2 = 𝐼4 .
• As b and d are at same potential:
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎𝑑 𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝐼1 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 𝐼3 𝑄 = 𝐼4 𝑆
𝐼1 𝑄 = 𝐼2 𝑆
• Dividing above equations, we get:
𝐼1 𝑃 𝐼2 𝑅
=
𝐼1 𝑄 𝐼2 𝑆
𝑃 𝑅
=
𝑄 𝑆
𝑃𝑆
𝑅=
𝑄
Hence if three resistances are known, value of unknown resistor R can be
calculated.
Q#18: Write a note on potentiometer.
Ans: Potentiometer:
The word potentiometer is derived from two words; potentio means potential
difference and meter means measurement.
Potentiometer is a device used for measuring electromotive force and internal
resistance of battery, and for Comparison of potential of two emf sources.
Construction:
• A Potentiometer consists of a wire of length L
and resistance R connected between two
points A and B.
• Essentially, this electric circuit is divided into
two sub-circuits. The primary circuit includes
a rheostat, an ammeter, a known EMF source,
and a resistance, all connected in series. The secondary circuit consists of a
galvanometer, an unknown EMF, and a jockey, as illustrated in the figure.
Working Principal:
Potential difference between two points of a conductor of directly
proportional to length of conductor between points (If current is constant).
Working principal of potentiometer is based on Ohms law (𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 ). If current is
constant, 𝑉 ∝ 𝑅
Also, 𝑅∝𝐿
⇒ 𝑉∝𝐿
Working:
Comparison of potential of two emf sources:
• Consider two emf 𝜀1 and 𝜀2, which are to be
compared by applying potentiometer principal.
• Positive terminal of the emf source is connected
with end A of potentiometer wire and also with
positive terminals of the unknown emf sources,
while negative terminal is attached with end B of
potentiometer wire through rheostat. Rheostat controls current passing
through wire.
• The negative terminals of unknown emf sources are connected to key-1 and
key-2. Other end of both keys is connected with galvanometer and jokey.
• Close key-1 (connect ε₁) and adjust jockey on wire to find the null point 𝑌1
(zero deflection on galvanometer). At null point, emf is directly proportional
to length of wire 𝐴𝑌1 .
𝜀1 ∝ 𝑙1
• Repeat for key-2 to compare ε₂.
𝜀2 ∝ 𝑙2
• Dividing above equations, we get:
𝜀1 𝑙1
=
𝜀2 𝑙2
Measurement of Internal Resistance:
Consider the following circuit.
• The positive terminal of emf source (whose
internal resistance has to be measured) is
connected at point C, while negative terminal is
attached with high resistance, jockey and
galvanometer.
• A load resistor R is attached in parallel with
battery through 𝐾2 .
• With 𝐾2 being open (Load Disconnected), adjust position of jockey to find
null point (Position of Jockey 𝑙1 at which no current flows through
galvanometer.
• In an open circuit, terminal potential is equal to emf of battery. Therefore,
𝜀 ∝ 𝑙1
• Now close 𝐾2 . Current 𝐼 will flow through 𝑅 which can be calculated using
Ohm’s Law:
𝜀
𝐼=
𝑅+𝑟
• As soon as current starts flowing, terminal potential becomes less than emf
and can be measured as:
𝑉𝑡 = 𝐼𝑅
𝜀
𝑉𝑡 = 𝑅
𝑅+𝑟
• Again, find null point 𝑙2
𝑉𝑡 ∝ 𝑙2
𝜀
𝑅 ∝ 𝑙2
𝑅+𝑟
• By dividing above Relations, we get:
𝜀 𝑙1
𝜀 =
𝑙2
𝑅+𝑟𝑅
𝑅 + 𝑟 𝑙1
=
𝑅 𝑙2
Knowing the value of 𝑅, 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 , we can easily find internal resistance.
Q#19: Write a note on thermistor.
Ans: Thermistor:
Thermistor is a combination of two words i.e., therm(temperature) and resistor.
A resistor whose resistance changes with change in temperature is called
thermistor.
Thermistor are made from semiconductor oxides of iron, cobalt and nickel. The
physical structure is in the form of discs or rods, couple of platinum leads can
also be connected at the two ends in any electrical connection.
There are two types of the thermistors i.e.
1. NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient)
Resistor whose resistance decreases with increase in temperature is called
negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor.
2. PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient).
Resistor whose resistance increases with increase in temperature is called
positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor.
Uses of thermistor:
Appliances, such as hair dryers, ovens, air conditioners and fire alarms use
thermistor for temperature control.
Use of thermistor in potential divider:
In potential divider circuit thermistor
(Temperature sensitive resistor) can be used in
replacement of 𝑅2 because its resistance can be
increased or decreased by changing temperature
as shown in figure. By increasing temperature,
the resistance of thermistor falls and by
decreasing temperature, the resistance of
thermistor increases depending upon which type
of thermistor connected (NTC or PTC). As resistance changes, potential across
thermistor will also change.
 11.10 CARBON FIBERS IN CONCRETE BRIDGE
Q#20: What is the advantage of using carbon Fibers in concrete bridge.
Ans: Carbon Fibers in concrete bridge:
• Carbon Fiber-reinforced concrete is used in construction projects due to its
ability to improve compressive/tensile strength, elastic modulus, chemical
stability and corrosion resistance. It reduces shrinkage cracks and brittleness. It
is light weight and has good thermal conductivity.
• Carbon Fiber contain mainly carbon atoms. The optimum carbon Fiber amount
should be 0.3 % by volume of concrete.
• Inspector can easily check the reliability of concrete bridge made by carbon
fibres because Fiber conducts electricity. If sensor shows the electric resistance
increasing over time the fibres are separating because of cracks.