COMPONEN

TS OF CCT
2

Objectives I think it’s fair to say that personal computers

After completing this Chapter, the student will be able to:

• trace the evolution of computers,

• describe the computer and its devices,
Introduction
• list the components of a computer system, In the first chapter we were introduced to a
• compare various input and output devices,
device that has changed the way we work, live
and play. Only once in a lifetime does a new
• classify various ports, invention come about to touch every aspect of
• understand different storage devices, our lives in this way. This incredible invention is
• recall the evolution of
the computer.
communication technology,
The electronic computer has been around for
• explain computer languages and their development, over half a century, but its ancestors have been
• compare various types of around for 2000 years. However, only in the last
software and 40 years has it changed society. From the first
wooden abacus to the latest high-speed
• interpret steps involved in
programming. microprocessor, the computer has changed
have become the most empowering tool we’ve nearly every aspect of our lives for the better.
ever created. They’re tools of communication,
they’re tools of creativity, and they can be
shaped by their user.

Bill Gates
Computers and Communication Technology

2.1 HOW DOES ONE PERCEIVE THE COMPUTER?

Let us take a tour to the Computer Laboratory of our school. We may see an
assemblage like the
one shown in figure 2.1. But
then we have also seen
laptops. What differences do
 we notice? Let us gather
information about devices
that look different from these
but still are computers.
Computer indeed derives
its name from its essential
function, namely, to compute.
In a rudimentary sense any
Figure 2.1: A Computer System data and operations
computation requires primary
performed between them. This would mean receiving data, processing them,
keeping in memory the data at different stages of operation, having some set of
data that is fundamental to all operations and giving outcomes of operations.
Hence, essentially a computer means a system of components (i) to input data
and display output i.e. Input and Output devices; (ii) processing unit called the
Central Processing Unit (CPU) and (iii) the Memory space which can be Read
Only Memory (ROM) or Random Access Memory (RAM). One should realise
that it is not the external appearance by which a computer is understood in as
much as its functionalities.
In fact, the memory in terms of capacity (space) and speed, and the
processing capacity of the CPU (speed with which it processes) characterise
computers and distinguish them. Also the manner in which data is presented
determines a classification of computers, namely, analogue or digital
computers.

2.1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Computers can be classified into two major types based on their way of
handling data. These are as follows:
1. Analogue Computers : They work on continuous variables like waves of the
signal, their amplitude, etc.
2. Digital Computers : They work on the principle of binary digits i.e. 0 and 1.
Any value or symbol is represented through a binary value.

Hybrid Computers : They are a combination of good features of analogue and digital
computers. Digital counterparts convert the analogue signals to perform Robotics and other
Process control. Hybrid computers are used to control air traffic and
16
radar of national defence.
Components of CCT

Digital computers can also be classified according to their physical structure

(size) and the purpose of their use. Based on capacity, speed and reliability
they are classified into three categories:
I. Microcomputer : The term “Microcomputer” was introduced with the advent of
single chip large scale integrated circuit (LSIC) computer processors. It is the
smallest single user computer and its CPU is a microprocessor. It can perform
the same operations and can use the same type of instructions as other
computers. These are the most frequently used computers, better known by the
name “Personal Computers.”
Types of Personal Computer
In our everyday use, the term “computer” refers to
digital computers, a typical example being the
common personal computer (PC). These can be
classified mainly as Desktop Computers, Laptop
Computers, Palmtop Computers, Personal Digital
Assistant (PDA), Tablet PC, etc.
Desktop Computers
Desktop computers are larger and not meant to be
portable. They usually sit in one place on a desk or
table and are plugged into a wall outlet for power.
The case (chasis) of the computer holds the CPU.
When this case lies flat on the desk then it is
generally referred to as a Desktop Model (Figure
2.2) else when it stands vertically on the desk in
the form of a tower, it is referred to as a Tower
Model (Figure 2.3). The computer usually has a
separate monitor. A separate keyboard and mouse
allow the user to input data and commands. The
main advantage of tower models is that there are
fewer space constraints, which makes installation Figure 2.3 : Tower Model
of additional storage devices easier.
Laptop
This is a small, portable computer (Figure 2.4),
small enough that it can sit on the lap. Nowadays
laptop computers are also called notebook
computers.
Hand-held Computers/Palmtop
This computer is smaller than a laptop. It is so
small that it literally fits in a palm, hence, referred
17
to as palmtop (Figure 2.5). Because of their small
Figure 2.2 : Desktop Model
Figure 2.4 : Laptop
size, most palmtop computers do not include disk

Computers and Communication Technology

Figure 2.5 :
drives. Compared to full-size computers,
Palmtop Figure 2.6 : Presonal Digital Assistant
palmtops are severely limited, but they are
practical for certain functions such as
phonebooks and calendars. Sometimes these
are also called pocket computers.
Personal Digital Computers/Assistants
Palmtops that use a pen rather than a keyboard
 for input are often called PDAs (Figure 2.6). This
It is a notebook slate-shaped mobile computer
is a hand–held device that combines computing,
(Figure 2.7) which is equipped with a
telephone fax and networking features. PDA can
touchscreen or graphics table which allows the
function as a cellular phone, fax sender and
user to operate the computer with a digital pen
personal organiser. PDA was pioneered by
or stylus or fingertip. A wireless keyboard can
Apple, which introduced the Newton Message
be connected to this for
Pad in 1993.
extensive text
Tablet PC
input. Other models of tablet PCs Tablet PC
are convertible model (screen can
rotate over the keyboard) and
hybird model where the screen is
fixed on the keyboard.
Workstation
A powerful, single user computer, a
workstation is like a personal

Figure 2.7 :

computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and in general, a higher

quality monitor used in computer aided design and other applications requiring
a high end, usually expensive, machine with considerable calculating or
graphics capability.
Server
The term server actually refers to a computer’s function rather than to a specific kind of
computer. A server runs a network of computers. It handles the sharing of equipment like
printers and the communication between computers on the network. For such tasks a
computer would need to be somewhat more capable than a desktop computer. It would need:
• more power
• larger memory
18
• larger storage capacity and
• high speed communications.
Components of CCT

II. Mini Computer : It is a multiuser computer capable of supporting up to

hundreds of users simultaneously. They are usually more powerful compared to
microcomputers. Minicomputers are also known as mid range computers as
their cost and computing powers lie in the middle range between micro and
mainframe computers. Minicomputers are used for multiusers and interactive
applications.
III. Mainframe Computer : A powerful multiuser computer, the mainframe
computer, is capable of supporting many hundreds or thousands of users
simultaneously. They are capable of faster processing and greater storage area.
They are used in research organisations, large industries, large businesses and
government organisations, banks and airline reservation where a large
database is required.

Super Computer
There is another category of computers, the Super Computer which is somewhat similar to
the mainframe computer. These are largest, fastest and most expensive. They are used for
massive data processing and solving very complicated problems like weather forecasting,
weapons research and development, rocketing, atomic, nuclear and plasma physics. The
processing speed of super computers lies in the range 400-10000 million instructions per sec
(MIPS). Examples of the supercomputer are Eka which was developed by the TATA Group,
Pune (India) in November 2007. It is the first in Asia and the 8th fastest supercomputer in the
world as of June 2008 (Figure 2.8 (a)) PARAM (Figure 2.8 (b)) developed by CDAC in Pune
(India), CRAY 3 (developed by control data corporation, JAPAN), SX-3R (25.6 GIGA Flops,
NEC make) HITAC S-300 (32 GIGAFLOPS, HITACH make) etc. HITAC S-300 is the latest
and the fastest Super Computer.

(a)
Eka (b) Param
19
Figure 2.8 : Super Computers
Computers and Communication Technology

2.1.2 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS

Table 2.1 gives a glimpse of the evolution of [Link]

2.1 : Evolution of Computers

Electrical Software Memory and I/O Type of Computer

Devices
Electronic
Component Bulky, slow, Analogue
unreliable, Machine Limited core
Vacuum tubes
consume more language and memory,input
Main Features
space and assembly through punch
power language cards
 Less pow Development Webba
consumpt of techno
smaller in microprocesso s, very
r, more speed friendly
Transistors and reliability sophist
, artific
intellige
More softwa
memory
capacity,
Integrated circuits (ICs) much sma
in size anAnalogue Digital
weight

Very large scale

integration (VLSI)

Digital
scale Being
integration Developed
(ULSI) Digital
Much faster and
very
powerful
Being
Developed
Ultra–large

The future is promising for the computer industry and its technology.
The speed of processors is expected to double every year and a half in the
coming years. As manufacturing techniques are further perfected, the prices of computer systems are
expected to steadily fall. However, since the microprocessor technology will be advancing, its higher
costs will offset the drop in the price of older processors. In other words, the 20
price of a new computer will stay about the same from year to year, but the
capacity of the technology will steadily advance.
Components of CCT

2.1.3 LET US KNOW THE COMPUTER

A computer is basically a device that can respond to a specific set of instructions
in a well – defined manner, execute a prerecorded list of instructions (a
program) and quickly store and retrieve large amounts of data. Since a
computer is understood more by its functions than its appearance, let us see
what functions each of the components performs.

2.1.4 ORGANISATION OF THE COMPUTER SYSTEM

A computer system (Figure 2.9) is usually defined as a combination of hardware
and software. Computer hardware is the physical equipment. Software is the
collection of programs that make the hardware do its job.
Each of the hardware and software components has undergone
refinements and modifications depending upon the limitations encountered by
the users and the endeavours to overcome these limitations to meet new
requirements and challenges. Let us therefore understand the computer from
two perspectives, namely, the general functions of its components and the
evolution these components have undergone.

Figure 2.9 : Components of a computer system

2.2 HARDWARE
In order to accomplish a particular task the computer performs a series 21
of jobs, namely, Input, Storage, Processing and Output, which it handles in a
very special way as follows:
Computers and Communication Technology

• It accepts the data (input) from the user.

• The computer has memory chips, which are designed to hold data until it is
needed.
• It processes this data into information. The computer has an electronic brain
called the Central Processing Unit, which is responsible for
processing all data into information according to the instructions
given to the computer.
• It then returns the processed information (output) to the user.
For performing each of the jobs listed above, every computer has
special parts/components, for Input Device, Storage Device, Central Processing
Unit and Output Device.

2.2.1 INPUT DEVICES

General Functions
It provides a means for the machine to communicate with its external
environment by accepting (or reading) data and the program.
1. It converts the data based on the program into computer acceptable form
through an input interface.
2. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for
 further processing.
The very scope of computers is enough to understand that there is
no limit to the form and type of data that serves as an input. Sometimes the
input is in the form of text in normal language, sometimes it is a picture,
sometimes it is a voice input like a song. Selection of an appropriate input
device will improve efficiency and keep human interaction minimal.
Types of Input Devices
On-line or Direct Data Entry Devices : These devices are under the control of
the CPU and communicate directly with the CPU, that is, these are connected
via cable to the CPU. This process of data entry may be time consuming and
may have errors but by using these devices, we can avoid having to capture
data from paper. These are also known as Interactive Input Devices and are
classified as:
(a) Keyboard
(b) Locator devices
(c) Interface or pick devices.
(a) Keyboard
The most common input device is the keyboard (Figure 2.10). The modern
keyboard generally contains 104 keys and is called the QWERTY keyboard because of the sequence
of keys in the top row, 22
which are similar to those of a standard typewriter. A keyboard is used for a
wide range of tasks but is well known for its capability to
Components of CCT

enter data, which is copied from the original

paper documents (such as name and address
details on a form). Keyboards are also used for
typing letters, memos, reports and other
documents using word processing software.
(b) Locator devices Figure 2.10 :
Keyboard
Locator devices are used to control the location
or position of the cursor on the screen and they allow us to provide the
necessary input. Generally, locator devices are good for gross movement but
not for precision work. Different locator devices are discussed in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 : Various Locator Devices

Name of Description Picture/ the Device Diagram

Mouse It is a small hand-held device used to indicate a position or

movement
on a
computer’s display screen by rolling it
over the mouse pad/flat surface. There
are different types of this device like
physical, optical and laser mouse.
Physical mouse works on the principle
of the movement of a ball, whereas
optical and laser mouse works on the
bases of light signals (i.e. have no
 mechanical movement inside.)
Trackball Touch pad It is a
station
manua
two bu
operati
dimens
allow
traditio
backwa
down a

It is a
surface
a mous
Mouse, track ball and touch pad are point and click devices and are used to start the task by
positioning the pointer, selecting and dragging items/objects. They 23
can also be used to draw various simple/complex graphic images/pictures.
Computers and Communication Technology

Digitising Tablet Digitising tablet is an electronic plastic

board, on which specifying a location
corresponds to a location on the
computer screen. It is considered to
be an absolute locator because it is very
precise and when a stylus (pen) is
placed in a particular position the same
signals are produced each time. It is
in this that it differs from other locator
devices. Digitisers are used by
architects and engineers in Computer
Aided Designing (CAD) for designing
buildings, cars, mechanical parts,
robots, etc. Moreover, they are used in
the Geographical Information System
for digitising of maps.
Joystick Joystick is a wired/wireless control
device which is usually used for playing
video games. These are relative locators
in which the direction of the push
determines the change of position and
the amount of deflection determines a
change of speed (see Figure).
A joystick not only indicates two
dimensional positions by moving the
ball rotationally but also three
dimensional position, where the third
dimension is indicated by the rotation
of the rod. Games software, flight
simulators, etc. often use joystick as
the input device.
 (c) Interface/Pick Devices
Pick devices are used to select an object on the screen. The object may be text
or graphic. Examples of pick devices are light pens and touch screens.
Light Pens
The light pen is a pen-like light-sensitive device that feeds a narrow electrical
pulse generated by a pointing device directed towards the screen. It is connected by a wire to the
computer terminal that detects the signals from the screen. Light pens may be used in place of a
mouse or a keyboard, particularly for menu based applications where 24
an option may be selected by pointing on it. They are used for Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and drawing purposes. Moreover, with the help
Components of CCT

of a light pen, engineers, architects or fashion designers can draw and edit the
designs directly on the screen, though for editing a drawing keyboard may be
used to select colours, lines with varying thickness, cropping or enlarging the
drawings. It is also used to read bar codes from products that are available in
big departmental stores.
Touch Screens
Touch screens are monitors on which the user makes selections by touching the
screen, rather than moving a cursor to the location with external locator devices.
Touch screens are often used in situations where users are likely
to have a low level of competence in using computer keyboards. Touch screens
are sometimes used in restaurants, building societies and travel information
systems.
Source Data Entry Devices : We have observed that in grocery stores, the
clerks merely wave the product over a laser scanner/barcode reader, which
automatically enters the product code and retrieves the corresponding price of
the product automatically. The earlier practice was to enter the code/ product
name by using a keyboard (a time consuming process). The laser
scanner/barcode reader comes under Source Data Entry Devices category,
which increases the efficiency of a user. These devices help us in entering the
data directly from the source, without any human intervention.
The devices used in this category are:
(a) Video digitiser
(b) Digital camera
(c) Scanning devices
(d) Voice input
(e) Remote control
(f) Magnetic stripe reader
(g) Sound sensor – microphone
(h) MIDI instrument.
Source Data Entry Devices
(a) Video Digitiser
A video digitiser captures television pictures from devices such as a TV set,
video camera or video recorder and converts them into a digital format that a
computer can use for display, storage or general manipulation. A video digitiser
is an ideal tool for capturing images from real-life scenes to incorporate into
computer work. It is used to convert still or moving images into a digital format
required for computerised presentation. Taking video pictures or frames from
video files is known as ‘frame grabbing’.
A video digitiser may be required for video conferencing. (If a digital
25
video camera is used there will be no need for a video digitiser.) It can also be
used to make television advertisements and pop videos, etc.
Computers and Communication Technology

Advantages
• Video digitisers allow us to capture real-life images which are often more
appropriate than drawings.
• Captured images can then be transferred to paper.
Disadvantages
• A fast computer with a large memory capacity is required to cope with the
large amount of data involved.
(b) Digital Camera
A digital camera (Figure 2.11) stores images (digital pictures) in the memory and
does not use celluloid films as in the case of ordinary cameras. Each digital
picture is made up of thousands of tiny dots, called pixels (picture elements),
and the camera
stores data about the colour of each dot. The
picture quality is determined by the number of
dots representing a specific picture. The
resolution of the image is expressed in Dots Per
Inch (DPI) defines. Higher the DPI, better the
resolution . Most cameras allow the user to choose
the resolution needed for a picture. Once the
photograph is stored in the camera it can be
transferred to a computer where it can be edited,
cameras store images on a floppy disk or
Figure 2.11 : Digital Camera
printed or more permanently stored. Some memory
card so that they can be easily transferred. Other cameras are connected to the
computer with a lead (cable) and special software is used to transfer the image.
Advantages
• There is no developing cost, no film is needed and we can insert images
directly into a document on the computer.
• You can edit, enlarge or enhance the images.
• An image can be saved with multiple shots and the best one can be saved.
That is, there is no wastage like a miss-shot in ordinary
cameras.
Disadvantages
• Digital cameras are generally more expensive than ordinary cameras. •
When the memory is full they can be connected to a computer to download
the stored images (or the images can be deleted from
memory) before they are used again. This is not as convenient as
simply changing a film.

(Some digital cameras overcome this problem by using floppy disks or other storage devices
to store images before they are transferred, but floppy disks cannot hold
26
many images and other devices are expensive).
Components of CCT on CCD and therefore can see a broader range
of light from white to black.
(c) Scanning Devices
(i) Scanner
A scanner is a device which can capture still
images or even text, to be stored and used on a
computer. The scanner throws a light beam
onto the paper and measures the amount of
light reflected back by each part of the page.
Like a digital camera, the page is split into tiny
pixels (dots) and a number representing the
colour of each dot is sent to the computer.
Scanner software usually allows the user to
choose between high and low resolution. Very Figure 2.12 : A
high quality images take up a lot of memory. flatbed scanner
Most scanners need to place the paper on a
glass plate inside them for scanning similar to a
photocopier machine. These are called flatbed
scanners (Figure 2.12) and typically use a
charge– coupled device (CCD) as a image
senser. This usually come in A4 size or larger
(such as A3), but there are also some small
hand-held ones (Figure 2.13) often used to read
text such as bar codes.
Figure 2.13 : A hand
Another type of scanners used to capture the held scanner
highest resolution from an image are called
drum scanners (Figure 2.14). These scanners
spin the film around on a drum while a fixed
laser or other beam of light looks at the art as it
spins. The beam is then picked up by a very
sensitive vacuum tube called a photomultiplier
Figure 2.14
tube (PMT). This big single, fixed tube is much
: A drum scanner
more sensitive to light than any of the tiny pixels

At also sees it without the noise of a CCD. Drum scanners are good because
the image is picked up by a much more sensitive PMT.
Advantages
• Any image can be converted from paper into digital format and later
enhanced and used in other computer documents.
Disadvantages
• Images take up a lot of memory space, but it is possible to reduce the size of
the data file by reducing the resolution (number of dots
per inch) or by using different ways of storing the data i.e., different
file formats.
Whether to go for a flatbed or a drum scanner depends upon the
27
objectives of our scanning. Table 2.3 gives the comparison of flatbed and drum
scanners.
 Computers and Communication Technology

Table 2.3 : Flatbed Scanners Vs. Drum Scanners

Drum Scanners
Flatbed Scanners
Flying-spot scanner
Line-at-a-time scanners
Good drum scanners can resolve 8,000 to
High end flatbeds scan at resolution range 11,000 dpi optically
from about 1500 to 5400 dpi
Illuminate the original with a tiny spot of
Illuminate the original with a whole line of light, which effectively flies across the
light at a time that lights up a long thin strip original
of the original
Expensive
Reasonable cost
Very large size
Smaller in size

Hand-held digital cameras and camcorders are field scanners because they scan a whole
2-dimensional field at once.

(ii) Optical Mark Readers (OMR)

Optical Mark Readers are able to detect marks on paper. A pre-printed
document is prepared for users to select certain areas to put a line or a mark. A
document like this is scanned using reflected light to detect dark shadows.
Universities and educational institutes often use pre–printed
enrolment forms where students have to enter a mark with a medium or soft
pencil. Multiple choice questions in entrance examination papers often require a
candidate to make a mark to indicate the answer. The student will pencil a line
through the option of their choice. Questionnaires and surveys may also use
this technique.
Advantages
Simply selecting and marking a choice in the right location on an
OMR form is easier than typing writing in data.
• Documents can be checked evaluated very quickly by scanning them with
only a few chances of error (only 2–3% with modern
OMR machines).
Disadvantages
• Careful handling of forms is needed. Badly damaged, creased or folded
forms may be rejected.
• They can only be used when the data to be input can be selected by
marking with lines. Because every option must be catered for, the
28
forms are sometimes not very easy for the user to understand. This
may introduce errors.
Components of CCT

(iii) Optical Character Readers (OCR)

Optical Character Readers (OCR) are devices that can detect patterns of marks
which are in character format (numbers, letters, punctuation and some special
characters like ‘ – , @ ’, etc.). Only printed characters can be recognised
because it is not easy to cater for different styles of handwriting. The characters
are converted by a scanner from picture format into coded characters that the
computer can work with. This is normally in ASCII format (American Standard
Code for Information Interchange). OCR software can be purchased separately
for use with a standard A4 scanner. OCR is often used to scan text for use in a
word processor.
Advantages
• When a computerised document has not been saved and only printed text is
available, it is possible to use OCR to scan in the text for
later editing and re-arrangement.
Disadvantages
• Some characters cannot easily be interpreted and errors occur during
conversion. This is especially true if there are a lot of
diagrams and characters laid out in a way the software cannot
interpret.
(iv) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
Characters which have been printed using magnetised ink can be recognised
using a Magnetic Ink Character Reader device. This type of data collection has
limited use and it is mainly restricted to banking systems because of the
expensive equipment involved. Cheques are pre-printed with some code and
account number. When a cheque has been written the data input clerk also has
to mark the cheque amount in magnetic ink.
MICR is used for Bank cheque processing.
Advantages
• Fast processing of large volumes of data.
• It is a fairly secure method of data collection as the shape of the characters
cannot be changed without expensive equipment.
• This method of input is very reliable as the number of errors generated
during the reading of documents is negligible.
Disadvantages
• MICR is expensive to use because special equipment is needed to create
the characters as well as to read them.
(v) Bar–Code Readers
29
Bar-codes (Figure 2.15) are a series of thick and thin vertical lines grouped
together. Bar-code readers (Figure 2.16) are the devices used
 reader uses a laser beam to read the series of
thick and thin lines which represent the barcode
number. Almost every product we see on
supermarket shelves has a barcode. The
barcode is 13 digits long and there are four
main divisions. The first part of the barcode
(two digits) represents the country, the second
part represents the manufacturer’s code (five
digits), the third part represents the produce
code (five digits) and there is a final digit, which
Figure 2.15 : represents the check digit. This last digit is a
Bar code calculated digit to ensure that the barcode is
read properly. If there is an error, the reader
usually beeps and the operator must key in all
the digits manually. When the barcode is read,
it locates the correct product on the inventory
file, stored on the computer’s disc. The price is
read from the file and a sale is registered,
producing a record on the customer’s receipt.
The number filed in the inventory file is reduced
by one.
Figure 2.16 : Bar code Bar codes are used on library tickets, airport
reader baggage labels, books, supermarket products,
Computers and Communication Technology

to input data from such sets of Bar codes. The

clothes and on many other retail items. Barcode readers are used in most
situations where there is an Electronic Point of Sale terminal (EPOS terminal),
for example: department stores, supermarkets.
Advantages
• Fast and accurate data entry.
• It is possible to store all the details about the country of origin and
manufacturer as well as the product code itself. These are recorded
in a standard format within the barcode.
Disadvantages
• If the barcode is damaged the barcode reader cannot read it. It is then time
consuming to enter all the separate digits using a keypad.
(d) Voice input
We can now input data by simply talking into a microphone and using special
software to recognise the voice. Users should be trained in the software
regarding correct pronunciation of the words before the speech can be
interpreted and transferred to the computer. Some computer systems can
respond to voice commands and can carry out tasks because the spoken word
is interpreted by the software and converted to instructions. These can be used
for inputting text to word processing software, controlling devices such as
electronically
30
controlled doors and machines.
Components of CCT

Advantages
 • Voice input is extremely useful for those users unable to use keyboards or
mouse.
Disadvantages
• The system must be able to recognise the voice of each user. ‘Teaching’ the
software can be tedious and time consuming.
• Speech recognition software is still not very accurate.
(e) Remote Control
Remote control devices are used for transmitting data when the user is at some
distance from the processor. Devices such as video recorders can accept data
which is programmed into the system from a remote handset. Special keys for
certain tasks or selections are usually found on the handset. An infrared sensor
on the main processing unit picks up the signals when keys are pressed. It is
used to enter data from a distance.
Advantages
• The device provides the user with the convenience of inputting and working,
away from the processing unit.
Disadvantages
• Small remote devices can easily be misplaced.
• The unit and remote need to be quite near to each other and should have no
other objects between them which may interfere with the
signals sent.
(f) Magnetic Stripe Reader
Magnetic stripes are the dark-looking stripe that may be seen on the back of
many plastic cards, for example, bank cards. The magnetic stripe holds data
about the owner of the card, a bank card will contain details such as the bank
account number (the card owner’s individual account number) and sort code
(the code that identifies the branch of the bank where the account is held).
The device (Figure 2.17) reads the data on the
magnetic stripe and money can be taken from
the correct account to pay the bill. The money is
taken from the bank account, not from the card.
Data on a magnetic stripe does not change and
there is no balance recorded on the card. It may
be noted that the card does not contain details of
the credit limit. Magnetic stripe readers are often
seen at supermarkets and in many different types
of shops, in fact anywhere where there is a ‘point
31
Figure 2.17 : Magnetic stripe reader
of sale’ (somewhere we pay for our purchases). and debit card
Computers and Communication Technology

When the data is read electronically, the point of sale is called EPOS (Electronic
Point of Sale).
Advantages
• The card can be read many times without damaging the stripe. • The data is
not visible to people because a machine is needed to read the data (although
with debit cards the bank details are actually displayed on the card as well).
 • Putting magnetic stripes onto cards is not expensive so the cards are quite
cheap to produce.
• The data from the stripe is read very quickly and more conveniently.
Disadvantages
• Magnetic stripes may get damaged or the magnetic stripe reader could
break down.
• The biggest disadvantage of magnetic stripes is that ordinary equipment can
read but not change the data. That is why Smart Cards are gaining more
popularity. These cards contain a small chip (or tiny processor with some
memory) instead of a magnetic stripe. The data on the chip may then be
changed as the smart card is used.
(g) Sound Sensor Microphone
A sound sensor, which is a microphone (Figure 2.18), is a device that detects
sound and inputs it to the computer, and then
the sound which is analogue in nature is converted
into digital format.
The person using the computer speaks into the
microphone. Speech recognition software on the
computer converts what the person has said into
text. The text is displayed on the screen and can be
saved as a word-processed file. Speech recognition
is getting more reliable though it is necessary to
spend some time ‘teaching’ the system to recognise
the user speech. Remember, it still does not always
and music, from any source. These sounds
Figure 2.18 : A sound sensor– microphone
may be
make accurate conversions to text.
Some users record special sounds, both voice
used in computerised presentations, for example, multimedia teaching software.
Advantages
• People with a range of disabilities can be benefited from the use of
microphones and speech recognition, for example, those who cannot
use a keyboard. They can create word-processed documents by
speaking instead of typing. Moreover, many devices in the home
32
can now be controlled by voice.
Components of CCT

• Recording our own sounds means that we can add spoken messages or
music to our own presentations or even e-mails.
Disadvantages
• There should be no background noise while recording, otherwise sound may
become distorted. Cutting down the background noise is sometimes difficult
and the sound recorded using a microphone is often not very good.
• Sound sampling (converting the analogue sound to digital format using
software) often produces very large data files.
(h) MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) Instrument
It is a serial interface standard that allows
connections of music synthesisers, musical
instruments and [Link] are a
variety of musical instruments such as
keyboards, guitars and drums, which
send
and receive electronic messages. If a
musical
keyboard is connected to a computer
using a
MIDI instrument (Figure 2.19), the musical
information such as pitch is converted to digital
data which can then be stored on the directly into a computer so that it can
computer.
Figure 2.19 : Musical Instrument Digital Interface
The music industry uses MIDI to input music

be edited and developed, often by mixing it with other sounds which are input
from a microphone. Some programs allow its user to enter a tune from a
musical instrument, then convert this into written music, which can even be
printed out.
Advantages
• Once the tune has been played on the musical instrument, all the details are
held on the computer. These details may then be changed.
It is possible to speed up the tune, slow it down or even make it
sound like a completely different instrument.
• The data stored is very compact and takes up about 1/20th of the space
taken up by even the lowest quality recorded sound samples.
Disadvantages
• A musician is required to play the instrument to acquire the input, so some
musical knowledge is required.
• To take advantage of the digitally recorded sound, knowledge of software
and music is required to edit recorded tunes.

2.2.2 MEMORY OR STORAGE DEVICES

33
Memory is required in a computer to store programs and the data processed by
programs.
Computers and Communication Technology

Computer memory is made up of a large number of cells. Each cell is

capable of storing one bit of information in the form of binary numbers. Memory

System
Memory in a computer system is required for the storage and subsequent
retrieval of instruction and data. A computer system uses a variety of devices for
storing instructions and data required for its operations. Normally, the
information to be stored on a computer is classified in two basic categories –
data and instructions.
Although a memory system is a very simple system, it exhibits a
wide range of technology. But unfortunately, faster memory is more costly. On
the other hand, memories with smaller cost have very high access time. This is
the time taken by the CPU to access a location in memory. This results in slower
 operation of the CPU. Thus, the cost versus access time has led to a hierarchy
of memory where we supplement fast memories with larger, cheaper and slower
memories. Therefore, memory system may have different types, costs,
organisations, technologies and performances. (Figure 2.20)

Computer Memory Hierarchy

Figure 2.20 : The Memory Hierarchy

Types of Memory
34
A memory system can be considered to consist of three types of memories.
These are as follows:
Components of CCT

1. Internal processor memories

2. Primary memory or main memory
3. Secondary or auxiliary memory
Any storage unit of a computer may have the following characteristics:
Storage capacity is the amount of information/data a storage unit
can hold. Accessing the data to/from these memories may be fast or slow.
The speed and availability of inexpensive memory has had enormous
impact on computer technology. The high speed memory devices are more
expensive and occupy less space in comparison to the slow speed memory
devices.
Internal Processor Memories
These consist of the small set of high-speed registers and high speed buffer
memory (cache) which are internal to a processor and are used as temporary
locations where actual processing is done.
Register is a small amount of storage available on the CPU whose
contents can be accessed more quickly than storage available elsewhere.
Processor registers are at the top of the memory hierarchy and provide the
fastest way for a CPU to access data.

The important registers, within the CPU are:

Program Counter (PC). A program counter keeps track of the next instruction to be
executed.
Instruction Register (IR) is a register which holds instruction to be decoded by the control
unit.
Memory Address Register (MAR), is a register which points to the memory location which the
CPU plans to access, either for reading or for writing.
MBR (memory buffer register) which is also referred to as memory data register (MDR) is
used for storage data either coming to the CPU or data being transferred by the CPU.
Acculmular (ACC) is a general purpose register used for storing variables, temporary results
and results produced by arithmetic logic unit of the CPU.
Besides these, a processor can have many other registers. But these are the most basic and
most essential registers necessary for any CPU.

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a small high speed buffer memory used to hold instructions
temporarily during processing.

35
The CPU of a computer system commonly uses cache memory
(Figure 2.21) where it holds or buffers the contents of the main memory
Computers and Communication Technology

because the CPU runs much faster than the main memory. Thus to reduce the
waiting time of the CPU the cache is used. Cache memory reduces traditional
system bottlenecks because system RAM is much slower than CPU. This
prevents the processor from having to wait for a program and data from slower
main memory.
A cache typically operates by retaining copies of blocks of storage, each
containing recently used information. This memory (or caches) is usually
transparent or invisible to the processor.

Figure 2.21 : Cache memory

Cache is a collection of data duplicating

original values stored elsewhere or
computed earlier, where the original data is
expensive to fetch (owing to longer access
time) or to compute, compared to the cost of
 reading the cache. In other words, a cache
is a temporary storage area where frequently
accessed data can be stored for rapid
access. Once the data is stored in the cache,
future use can be made by accessing the
cached copy rather than refetching or Primary Memory
recomputing the original data, so that the
Figure : CPU memory cache
average access time is reduced.

It is a large memory which is fast but not as fast as an internal processor

register. The processor directly accesses this memory. It is mainly based on
integrated circuit.
The primary memory or the main memory is part of the main
computer system. The processor or the CPU directly stores and retrieves
information from it. This memory is accessed by the CPU, in a random fashion.
That means any location of this memory can be accessed by the CPU to either
read information from it, or store information in it. The primary memory itself is
implemented by two types of memory technologies. The first is called Random
Access Memory (RAM) and the
36
other is read only memory (ROM). A more appropriate name for RAM is
Components of CCT

RWM (read write memory), the CPU can write and read information from any
primary memory location implemented using RAM. The other part of primary
memory is implemented using ROM which stands for Read Only Memory.
There are two types of built-in memory, permanent and temporary,
known as ROM and RAM, respectively, details of each given below:
Read Only Memory (ROM)
As we know, in the computer terminology, read means transferring data
instruction from an input source to the computers, main memory (or CPU) and
write is transferring data/instruction from computer’s main memory to an output
device. Therefore, read only means data/ instruction can be retrieved from the
ROM chip but cannot be modified.
Types of ROM
Basically, there are two types of ROM, namely, manufacturer programmed and
user-programmed.
Manufacturer–Programmed Read Only Memory
Manufacturer-programmed ROM is one in which data is stored in it permanently
by the manufacturer of the ROM. For example, a computer manufacturer may
store the system boot program permanently in the ROM chip used on the
motherboard.
User–Programmed Read Only Memory
User-programmed ROM is one in which the user can load and store “read-only”
programs and data. Such a ROM is commonly known as PROM (programmable
read-only memory), because, a user can program it. PROM (programmable
read-only memory) is a memory chip on which we can store a program. But
once the PROM has been used, we cannot wipe it clean and use it to store
something else. Like ROMs, PROMs are non-volatile.
Other kinds of user-programmed ROM are EPROM and EEPROM.
Both of these are special types of PROM. EPROM (erasable programmable
read-only memory) can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light while
EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory) can be
erased by exposing it to an electrical charge.

Flash EEPROM memory works much faster than traditional EEPROMs because instead of
erasing one byte at a time, it erases a block or the entire chip, and then rewrites it. The
electrons in the cells of a Flash-memory chip can be returned to normal (“1”) by the
application of an electric field, a higher-voltage charge.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

37
RAM chips are meant for primary storage. They hold temporarily (a)
software/program instructions and (b) data before and after processing.
Computers and Communication Technology

“Random Access” means that any location can be referenced in the

same time and in the same manner, as it is independent of the address or
location in the memory. It is a volatile memory. It holds data and instructions,
during their execution. The additional RAM chip can be plugged into the special
socket on the motherboard known as Single In-Line Memory Module (SIMM).
Random Access Memory capacity ranges from 16 MB to 4 GB on personal
computers.
Types of RAM
RAM chips are of two types, namely, static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM
(DRAM).
Static RAM (SRAM)
The SRAM can store data as long as power is applied, without the need for
periodically rewriting the data into memory. Contents (memory cell) of this RAM
will stay in a given state (store a bit) indefinitely, provided that power to the
memory circuit is not interrupted. The main applications of SRAM are in areas
where only small amounts of memory are needed or where high speed is
required.
Advantage
SRAM can provide very high speed.
Disadvantage
SRAM is costly and has low power packing density.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
This memory stores data as charges on capacitors. With Dynamic RAM, the
stored data will gradually disappear because of capacitor discharge, so that it is
necessary to periodically refresh the data (i.e. recharge the capacitors). In the
process of refreshing, the information is read from the memory cell and written
back in the same position. Typically, each memory cell of a DRAM must be
refreshed at least every 2 to 10 millisecond or its data will be lost.
 Advantage
It has high capacity and power consumption is low.
Disadvantage
The need for refreshing of dynamic RAM because some external refreshing
circuits is required.

Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Memory (CMOS)

Besides RAM and ROM there is a third type of primary memory or storage called as CMOS.
It is used to store the system configuration, date, time and other important data. When a computer is
switched on, BIOS matches the information of CMOS with 38
the peripheral devices and displays error in case there is any mismatch.
Components of CCT

Table 2.4 : Comparison between ROM and RAM

RAM
ROM
Random Access Memory
Read Only Memory
It holds information temporarily.
It stores information permanently.
Information is lost when power supply is
Information is not lost even if the computer switched off.
is switched off.
Known as volatile memory.
Known as non-volatile memory.
Holds operating system and application
Holds system software such as Boot programs which are currently in use.
Loader.
Types of RAMs are Dynamic RAM and
Types of ROMs are PROM, EPROM Static RAM.
EEPROM.
Secondary or Auxiliary Memory

Auxiliary memory is much larger in size than main memory but is slower than
the latter. It normally stores system programs and data files. These cannot be
accessed directly by the processor.
Secondary or auxiliary memory, also known as secondary storage,
is the memory that supplements the main storage. This is a long-term,
non-volatile memory. The term non-volatile means it stores and retains the
programs and data even after the computer is switched off. Unlike RAM which
looses the contents when the computer is turned off and ROM to which it is not
possible to add anything new, auxiliary storage device allows a computer to
record information semi-permanently. This is to ensure that this information can
be read later by the same computer or by another computer. Auxiliary storage
devices are also useful in transferring data or programs from one computer to
another. They also function as backup devices which allows backup of the
valuable information that we are working on. So, even if by some accident our
computer crashes and the data in it is in unrecoverable mode, we can restore it
from your backups. The most common types of auxiliary storage devices are
floppy disks, hard disks, magnetic tapes and magnetic disks.

Sequential and Random Auxiliary Storage Devices

Based on the type of data access, sequential and random, auxiliary storage devices can be
classified as sequential access media and random media.
In case of sequential access media, data stored in media can only be read in sequence. To
get to a particular point on media, we have to go through all the preceding points. Magnetic
tapes are examples of sequential access media.
In contrast, disks are random access media, also called direct access media, because a disk drive
can access any point at random without passing through intervening points. 39
Other examples of direct access media are magnetic disks, optical disks, etc.
Computers and Communication Technology

Floppy Disk
Floppy disk (often called floppies or diskettes) is a soft magnetic disk. It is called
floppy because it flops if we wave it (atleast the 5¼ inch variety does). The data
on the floppy disk is organised in terms of tracks and sectors. Unlike most of the
hard disks, floppy disks are portable because these can be removed from a disk
drive. Disk drives for floppy disks are called floppy drives. Floppy disks are
slower to access than hard disks and have less storage capacity but are less
expensive and are portable.
There are two basic sizes of a floppy, namely 5¼ inch and 3½ inch.
5¼ inch : This is the common size floppy for PCs made before 1987. This type
of floppy is generally capable of storing between l00K and 1.2MB of data. The
most common sizes are 360K and 1.2MB.
3½ inch : Floppy (Figure 2.22) is something of a misnomer for these
disks as they are encased in a rigid envelope. Despite their small size, these
floppies have a large storage capacity than their cousins – from 400K to 1.4MB
of data. The common sizes for PCs are 720K (double density) and 1.44MB
(high density).

Figure 2.22 : Floppy

Optical Disk
An optical disc is an electronic data storage medium that can be written to and
read using a low-powered laser beam. Optical disk can store much more data,
i.e. upto 6 GB. There are three basic types of optical disks namely, CD–ROM,
 WORM and Erasable.
40
CD-ROM : Like audio CDs, CD-ROMs come with data already encoded
Components of CCT

onto them. The data is permanent and can be read any number of times but
CD-ROMs cannot be modified (Figure 2.23).
WORM : This term stands for “Write Once, Read Many” with a WORM disk
drive. One can write data only once onto a WORM disk. After that, the disk
behaves just like a CD-ROM.

Laserdisc
CD Mini-CD
Figure 2.23 : Optical disks

Erasable : Optical disks that can be erased and loaded with new data are just
like magnetic disks. These are often referred to as EO (Erasable Optical) disks.
Hard Disk
Hard disk is a magnetic disk (Figure 2.24)
on
which computer data can be stored. Hard
disks
hold more data and are faster than floppy
disks.
A single hard disk usually consists of
several
platters. Each platter requires two read/write
heads, one for each side. All the read/write
heads are attached to a single access arm
so
that they cannot move independently. Each
platter has the same number of tracks. A
track
location that cuts across all platters is called
a cylinder. For example, a typical 84 MB hard
disk for a PC might have two platters (four
sides) and 1,053 cylinders.
Magnetic Tape
 41
Magnetic tape (Figure 2.25) is a magnetically
Figure 2.24 : Hard disk
coated strip of plastic on which data can be
Computers and Communication Technology

Figure 2.25 : Magnetic tape

encoded. Tapes for computers are similar to the tapes used to store music.
Some personal computers, in fact, enable one to use normal cassette tapes.
Tapes are considerably cheaper than storing data on disks but accessing data
from tapes is much slower than accessing data from disks. Tapes also have
large storage capacities, ranging from a few hundred KB to several GB. These
are generally used only for long-term storage and backup.
Table 2.5 : Primary Storage vs. Secondary Storage
Secondary Storage
Primary Storage
It is auxiliary memory which works under
It is the main memory as part of the CPU. the control of CPU.
It is most expensive. Relatively less expensive than primary
memory.
Storage capacity is generally in MB or GB. Storage Capacity is in GB and TB.
Retrieval and processing is very fast. Retrieval and processing is comparatively
slower.
Based on semi conductor technology. Based on magnetic or optical technology.

2.2.3 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

The central processing unit is one of the two most important components of the
microcomputer. It is the electronic brain of the computer. In addition to
processing data, it controls the functions of all the other components.
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) or the “Central Processor” carries
out a variety of essential data manipulation (including arithmetic/ logical
calculations, comparisons, sorting, etc.) and controlling tasks in the computer.
CPU consists of Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control
42
Unit (CU).
Components of CCT

Memory Unit Table

 1 Bit (Binary digit) 0 or 1
1 Byte 8 Bits
1 Kilo Byte (KB) 210 Byte or 1024 Byte
1 Mega Byte (MB) 1024 Kilo Byte
1 Giga Byte (GB) 1024 Mega Byte
1 Tera Byte (TB) 1024 Giga Byte
1 Peta Byte (PB) 1024 Tera Byte

Every microprocessor contains a system clock. The speed at which

the processor executes instructions is known as Clock Speed and it is
measured in Megahertz (MHz).
Megahertz (MHz): a measure of frequency equivalent to 1 million
cycles per second.
Gigahertz (GHz): a billion cycles per second.

Where mega means millions and Hertz means cycles. Therefore 550 MHz processor
performs 550 million cycles per second. Generally, clock speed determines the system
performance. Technology advances for higher clock speed. The latest generation of
processors operates in gigahertz (GHz) i.e. a billion cycles per second.

Arithmetic Logic Unit

The Arithmetic Logic Unit carries out as the name suggests Arithmetic and
Logical operations on the data made available to it. Basic Arithmetic functions
which an ALU can carry out are addition and subtraction. More powerful CPUs
can support additional mathematical operations like multiplication and division.
The logical operation which it can carry out are greater than, equal to, less than
and comparison between two numbers. Besides these operations some
processors also support operations which check if particular bits are on or off.

A computer performs its operation in a fraction of a second. The increasing speeds given
below are:
Millisecond = 10 – 3 second
Microsecond = 10 – 6 second
Nanosecond = 10 – 9 second
43
– 12
Picosecond = 10 second
Computers and Communication Technology

Control Unit
The Control Unit can be thought of as the brain of the CPU itself. It controls the
computer based on the instructions it decodes, how other parts of the CPU and
in turn, the rest of the computer systems should work in order that the
instruction gets executed in a correct manner.
Register
The register is a special, high-speed storage area within the CPU. All data must
 be represented in a register before it can be processed. For example, if two
numbers are to be multiplied, both numbers must be in registers, and the result
is also placed in a register. (The register can contain the address of a memory
location where data is stored rather than the actual data itself.)

2.2.4 OUTPUT DEVICE

The output devices of the computer are used to display results in electronic or
paper medium.
Common output devices which produce output that is easily
understood are Printers and Monitors.
The results generated by the output devices may be of two types:
Hardcopy Output : Such outputs are non-electronic version/permanent, and
thus may be used at later date as and when they are required. They are usually
on paper and are generally used to produce reports. The devices which are
used to produce hardcopy output are printers, graph plotters, computer output
microfilm, etc.
Softcopy Output : Such outputs are electronic, thus they are available either on
screen or may be stored digitally on some storage device. The softcopy may be
directly seen on screen or may be stored on hard disk/ CD/ DVD for further use.

Other output devices used for specific purposes are Projector, Sound card, Speakers and
Video card.

Printers
A printer is an output device that prints characters, images and symbols on
paper. On the basis of the printing technique used, printers may be classified as
impact or non-impact printers.
Impact printers are like typewriters, as they use some sort of striking/
hammering action to press carbon or fabric ribbon against paper to create a character or a pattern.
These devices are noisy and are not capable of producing high resolution graphics. The most common
impact 44
printers are character printers (e.g. daisy wheel, dot matrix) and line printers
(e.g. chain printers, drum printers). Among impact printers,
Components of CCT

line printers print one line at a time, so, these printers are extremely fast. Impact
printers are ideal to be used for carbon copies.
Dot-matrix Printers
The print head of Dot-matrix printers (Figure 2.26) uses small pins, which strike
on the paper to create a character or image. They are more economical than
most of other types of
printers, with lowest running cost. These printers
are not used much now-a-days. However, at
places
where invoices and delivery notes are produced
with a copy and the quality is not important, these
are still used.
Advantages
• The main advantage of dot-matrix printers now
 is the ability to produce carbon copies. They
Figure 2.26 : Dot-Matrix Printer
provide a cheap, reliable method of getting
multiple copies of a printout.

• The other advantage is the low cost of printouts. It has low maintenance and
running costs.
Disadvantages
• Dot-matrix printers are noisy, slow and produce a lower quality output.
Non-impact printers overcome the limitations of impact printers. They form
characters or images without making print heads strike the paper. They use
thermal, electrostatic, chemical or inkjet technology to produce printed output.
They are fast and quiet in operation. The most common non-impact printers are
inkjet printers and laser printers. These printers can come in two categories, one
produces output with only one colour (i.e. black colour) and the other one
produces output in multicolour.
Day–by–day, with advancement in the field of printing technology,
the quality and speed of these printers are going up and prices are coming
down. Colour printers are increasingly being used in homes and offices alike.
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers (Figure 2.27) use liquid ink technology. These printers are
available in comparatively lower prices and are capable of producing reasonably
good quality prints. The running cost of these printers is very high and so are
not preferred by those seeking large volumes of prints. These printers are
relatively noiseless during printing operation.
Advantages
45
• Inkjet printers are relatively inexpensive to buy, especially if colour is
needed.

Figure 2.27 : Ink-Jet Printer

Figure 2.29 :
Flatbed Plotter
Figure 2.28 : Laser

Printer

Figure 2.30 : Roller

Plotter
Computers and Communication Technology
 • Laser printers are comparatively economic for
• Inkjet printers are also lighter in weight than large number of printouts.
other printers and some are small enough to be
carried around in a portable carry case. Disadvantage
Disadvantages • Initial costs of laser printers are comparatively
high.
• Inkjet printers are slower than laser printers. •
• Size of laser printers is comparatively bigger. •
If left unused for long periods of time the
Repair cost and cartridges of these printers are
cartridges can easily dry out.
generally expensive.
• Colour cartridges are expensive in
Plotter
comparison. Laser Printers (Non–Impact
A plotter (also known as a graph plotter) is an
Printer)
output device, which produces high quality
Laser printers produce high quality paper prints diagrams on paper. Colour pens are used to
at a high speed (with an average speed as 6 to draw lines on the paper which is placed in the
12 pages per minute). They are almost plotter. Some plotters have a flat area (plotter
noiseless and use dry magnetic ink technology. base) to put the paper on. These are known as
flatbed plotters (Figure 2.29). There is another
Advantages type of plotters, the roller plotter which uses a
• Laser printers are noiseless, high speed and large roll of paper mounted on a roller (Figure
high quality printers. 2.30). Usually a plotter
is capable of producing prints on very large size paper sheets but have a speed
slower than printers. Graph plotters are used for drawing building plans, graphs
and three-dimensional drawings. They are often
46
used by architects and engineers designing machines, bridges, etc.
Components of CCT

Table 2.6 : Comparison between Impact printers and Non-Impact printers

Printer and Line Printer.
Impact Printers Non-Impact Printers

Work like typewriter and use striking/ They use thermal, electrostatic chemical
hammering action. and inkjet technologies.
Print in black or single colour. Produce single colour/multicolour output.
Almost noiseless.
Are noisy.
High resolution graphics can be produced.
High resolution graphics cannot be
Examples: Inkjet, Laser Printer, Plotters,
produced.
etc.
Examples: Dot Matrix Printer, Character

Control Devices (Lights, Buzzers, Robotic Arms, Motors)

Many other devices may be connected to the computer to
produce output. For example, lights may be
connected to a computer which will respond to
electrical signals that tell them to switch on and
off. Buzzers may also be used for sound as the
computer sends an electrical signal to switch them
on and off.
Also, a computer can control all sorts of
 devices
which are operated by motors. Robotic arms are
an example of a device which has its an actuator.
movements controlled by the computer. When Figure 2.31 : Control Devices (Robots)
an output device moves something it is called

Control devices like traffic lights, buzzers and motors are used
when the computer is controlling a situation such as regulating traffic lights or
assembling cars.
Softcopy Output : Display Devices
Terminals
Terminal is a display device that may be used for entering data online from a
remote location and for retrieving data. Depending upon the processing
capability, terminals may be classified as intelligent or dumb terminals.
Intelligent Terminal refers to a terminal with its own memory processor
and a firmware that can perform certain functions independently. They are
usually personal computers, having their own local data processing capability,
data storage and input/ouput capability. For a PC to be a terminal, a
communication adapter (may be a modem) is essential. If
47
terminals are communicating to one or several hosts and peers, then a
Computers and Communication Technology

network program is also needed. There are two types of intelligent terminals,
namely, General purpose and Job-oriented. The PC is an example of General
Purpose Terminal. Typical General Purpose application of terminal is the
Internet connection. This is the most pervasive terminal application and comes
with modem and browser software. Job-oriented terminals are designed and
developed for specific tasks. Typical job oriented application of terminal includes
airline reservation system terminal, a fast forward terminal ATM and a terminal
for monitoring of a hospital patient. In such terminals hardware and software are
customised to fit the application.
Dumb terminals are meant to enter the data and to receive output from the
main computer, as they cannot process data on their own. These terminals are
connected to the main computer through a communication link.
Video Display System
Video Display System provides a visual link between the user and the computer.
The videos subsystem of a PC consists of two main components:
(a) Monitor and
(b) Video adapter (also called video card or graphic adapter)
A monitor is a display device which can produce text and
graphic as output. A monitor may use different display
technologies like a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) and Liquid Crystal
Display (LCD). CRT contains a vacuum tube which is used for
display on screen in a computer. LCD is a technology in which
molecules of a liquid crystal line up in such a manner that it
creates images on the screen by blocking or transmitting light on
the screen.
 Audio Response Unit
computer.
Voice output is useful for people
who are partially sighted. The
computer can read word
processed documents and
communicate by sound output
from the computer. Voice output is
also useful for those who are
physically handicapped and
cannot speak. By typing on a
Figure keyboard they are able to
2.33 : Visual display unit - LCD communicate using the spoken
As a voice recognition system word. Directory enquiries at
allows the user to talk to a Telecom Services use voice
48 computer, a voice response
Figure 2.32 : Visual display unit - CRTsystem permits a computer to talk output to tell the caller the number
that the computer system has
back to the user. Many found. Voice output is also used in
organisations use audio response multimedia presentations and
systems to respond to human provides a valuable means of
inquiries that are transmitted over communication.
telephone lines to the central
Components of CCT

Advantages
• The user cannot see the result on the computer screen, but can know the
result even when they are located far away from it, or when they are visually
handicapped.
Disadvantages
• The quality of voice output is getting better but it still sounds like a set of
small sounds strung together and is therefore obviously electronic and
rather unnatural.
• Sound files used for voice output occupy a large amount of memory. 2.2.5

COMPUTER PORTS
The input/output device is a
piece of hardware that can
be used for both providing
data to a computer and for
receiving information from it.
But how does the computer
communicate with these
external devices? There are
input/output interfaces
called ports (Figure 2.34). A computer port is Figure 2.34 : Computer system showing verious
ports
a

connecting socket, outside the system into which different types of cables are
plugged. I/O ports are the interfaces through which computers communicate
with external devices such as printers, modems, joysticks and terminals.
Physically, they are distinguished by their external shape, numbers and shape
of contact pins/points. Different interfaces and ports have different
communication speeds and bandwidths to carry data to and from the CPU.
Some such commonly used ports are explained below.
Parallel Port : A parallel port transmits 8 bits of a byte of data in parallel as it
contains eight or more data lines for control of I/O devices. It is commonly used
to connect the printer to a computer. It is used for transmitting fast data over
short distances because interference among multiple signals limits the cable to
relatively short distances.
Serial Port : A serial port transmits one bit of a byte at a time as a single stream
of bits. It is meant for transmitting slow data over long distances.
Communication over a phone system is an example of serial communication. A
serial port connects a variety of devices such as modems, scanners, barcode
readers and device control circuits.
PS/2 Port : It is one of the serial port connectors used to plug mouse and
keyboards into a personal computer. It consists of six pins in a
49
small and round shaped socket.
Computers and Communication Technology

Universal Serial Bus (USB) Port : USB port is the most popular port used to
connect up to 127 peripheral devices such as digital camera, speaker, scanner,
printer, plotter, modem, joystick, pen drive, etc. USB permits Plug and Play – i.e.
it allows us to install device drivers as and when the devices are plugged on.
Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) Port : SCSI port allows data
transmission in a “daisy chain” to up to 7 devices at a speed (32 bits at a time)
much higher than serial and parallel ports. The devices that may be connected
to SCSI ports are hard-disk drives, CD-ROM drives, scanners, backup units,
network adapters etc. In daisy chain several devices are connected in series. If
data has to reach the seventh device then it needs to go through, all the six
devices first.

PS2 Connector

Serial Connector

USB Device/Connector

Ports
 Parallel Connector

LAN Connector

Figure 2.35 : Different types of ports

Fire Wire (IEEE 1394) Port : Fire Wire port is a relatively a new technology for
high speed data communication. The need of this arose due to large audio and
video data movement from multimedia devices. The devices connected via Fire
Wire Port are Video Camera, External Hard Disk Drives, External CD/DVD
Drives. Microsoft has developed device drivers to support IEEE1394 in all the
versions after Windows 95. Linux also supports this port. It is extremely fast with
Data Transfer Rate up to 400 Mb/sec.

2.2.6 COMPUTER EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE

Computer maintenance entails a four-fold attack against deterioration of
hardware, security threats, software bugs and performance
50
degradation. Each can seem overwhelming or insignificant but,
Components of CCT

considering the importance of computer systems operations, the cost and time
are trivial compared to the hassle of getting a system up and running after a
crash.
In fact, we should upgrade the computer every three years or so,
but we will have to transfer all the data and software from the original computer,
whereas a hard-drive swap is a transparent upgrade.
Preventive Maintenance
It is important to maintain computer equipment and consumables. Routine or
preventive maintenance ensures that the computer equipment will remain in
good working order. Examples of preventive maintenance of computer
equipment are the cleaning of the keyboard, monitor and mouse. There are a
few important DOs and DON’Ts which, if adhered to, can save a lot of
maintenance and repair cost. This is known as preventtive maintenance. The
basic preventive maintenance features are given in Appendix 2.1.

2.3 COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Letters and telegrams have been the modes of communication for a very long
time. They require setting up of post offices in various regions and then a
hierarchical level of post officers and transport systems to carry the mails. Such
a huge infrastructure is required for the mail delivery system. This was a sort of
manual technology for mail delivery.
Then telephones were made more accessible to the common man.
Communication through letters reduced considerably. The e-mail has simply
revolutionised our lives, conquered time and space and communication is
instantaneous and [Link] scope of message that could be communicated
through e-mail in comparison to postal or telephone mode is mind boggling.
The e-mail enables one to send message content of any size
consisting of video, photographs, graphics, and audio. One can even keep track
of sent messages and received messages. Another communication technology
is chat where two persons can communicate by sending instant messages to
each other; they can even see each other using web cameras. E-mail and chat
technology are based on the Internet. This technology provides all options
under one roof with security provisions.
Communication is essentially exchange of information and
information by its own right has evolved as an independent technology. With the kind of information
explosion that has happened globally and the logical thirst for knowledge, computers have an eminent
role to play in view of their capacity to generate and store information as 51
well as their essentiality in the broadband technology on which the Internet
works.
Computers and Communication Technology

2.3.1 COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION

Computer technology promotes independence and self-assessment. It
stimulates the interest of the students. The various programs in the system help
students in self-assessment. Word processor programs help students in
organising their written work letter. Interactive computers also help students with
their pronunciation. Computer technology assists people in learning languages.
Teachers may evaluate their teaching methods with the help of computers. They
may also effectively use computer technology to enhance their teaching skills.
Computer technology assists people with learning disabilities. The physically
challenged may use graphics software and word processor to express
themselves. Computer technologies also benefit people with speech disability
by replaying film clips of their speeches and helping in practising their speech
skills.

2.4 SOFTWARE
A computer is a programmable device. A program is a stepwise organisation of
the different steps in which an event happens. When these steps are
predetermined and incorporated in a device we have actually programmed the
device to perform the job. Our human brain also functions as a programmed
device. But it is uniquely endowed with the power of altering a program with
which it initially started if the situation demands. It is in this that the computer is
different from the human brain. The computer does not have its own
intelligence. It can as an obedient servant, execute instructions. But it has
tremendous potential to execute them with an accuracy and speed far
exceeding the domain human physical [Link] with increasing
requirements, the human brain has worked out complex programs to make best
use of the capabilities of a computer, at the same time overcoming its
limitations.
52
Figure 2.36 : Classification of software
Components of CCT

Software is usually divided into two major categories:

System software
Application software.

2.4.1 SYSTEM SOFTWARE

System software is a set of one or more programs, which are designed to
control the operation and networking of computers. It acts as an intermediary
between computer hardware and application program. It can further be divided
into three types: Operating System, Language Processing and Utilities.

Operating System : An operating system is a set of instructions that manages

overall performance and functioning of the computer system by controlling the
resources such as CPU, memory, I/O devices and overall flow of information
within the system. It acts as an interface between the machine and its users.
Some examples are Linux, MS/PC-DOS, Mac OS, Windows 95/98/NT/ME/
Millienium/VISTA.

Language Processors : For program execution, instructions must be converted

into the machine language. Language processors are used to convert assembly
language and high-level language programs into machine level language.
Examples: assemblers, translators and compilers.

Utilities : These are designed to aid, manage and tune the computer hardware,
operating system or application software. These are also known as service
programs, service routines, tools, or utility routines. Examples: disk
defragmenter, disk compression, disk cleanup, disk checkup etc.

2.4.2 APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Application software is a set of one or more programs designed to do a specific
task such as processing of student admission examination result, pay
calculation, payroll, general accounting, inventory control. Different
organisations need different application programs. The special purpose
programs are also known as “packages”.

A computer system comprises not only of hardware or software but

of both. Hardware is generally controlled by the software. Software is a set of instructions called a
 program. British sp.–programme. Computer related spelt as program. In general, the word program
means a sequence of steps, like come home, wash hands, have a cup of tea or lunch and like this we
prepare a list of activities that we are going to 53
do throughout the day. Similarly while designing a software, instructions need to
be written in a proper sequence.
Computers and Communication Technology

Software can also be classified as given below:

2.4.3 SHAREWARE
Shareware software is copyrighted software that is distributed on a ‘try before
we buy’ basis by paying a nominal shareware fee. Users who want to continue
using the program after the trial period are encouraged to send a payment for
the program to the program developer. Shareware is generally less expensive
because often a single programmer develops it.

2.4.4 FREEWARE
Freeware programs are programs that are given away free of charge and often
made available on the Internet. The programmer offers programs as freeware
either for personal satisfaction or to assess its reception among interested
users. Program developers often retain all rights to their freeware and users are
not free to copy or distribute or sell it further.

Open Source
“Open source describes the principles and methodologies to promote open access to the
production and design process for various goods, products, resources and technical
conclusions or advice. The term is most commonly applied to the source code of software
that is made available to the general public with either relaxed or non-existent intellectual
property restrictions. This allows users to create user generated software content through
either incremental individual effort, or collaboration.”
OSS – Advantages
Better for Coders – Open source software development is quite different from conventional
closed source software development. People start coding from the point of already existing
level of code. They are not required to waste their time and energy to research on
something, which has already been done by someone else.
Better for Users – The user does not have to get into huge budgetary issue for using
applications. The user can get his applications customised without getting into huge
investments.
Faster development – The applications are developed very fast by taking references from
OSS developers working worldwide.
Future of Open Source – So where does it all end? How exactly will open source shape our
lives leading us to a better tomorrow? It is for certain that with this level of growth and
progress, we expect to see open source as the driving force of the software industry in the
next few years.
Greater Freedom – OSS finds developers in users. Following the movement which has
started and following the guidelines they had set for building OSS, it will
54
continue its excellence in building better and better stuff for everyone.
Components of CCT
 Open Standards – Also known as Open Formats, Open Standards are much more than just
a published specification for storing digital content, media or data. It is a key to freedom.

Algorithm
When any job or task is written or described in a sequence of steps in plain
English language, it is called an algorithm. It can contain simple words, which
convey meaning, to do a task. For example, algorithm to add two numbers can
be simply described in a few steps given below:
1. Start
2. Accept first number as A
3. Accept second number as B
4. Take a number C = A + B
5. Display C
6. End
As the computer is a machine and does not have a brain of its own we
need to tell from where to begin and where to end. In the above example, use of
‘Start’ and ‘End’ is to indicate the beginning and end of the task.
Flowchart
Pictorial representation of these steps is known as flowchart. A flowchart uses a
particular set of symbols shown in Table 2.7. A flowchart can help to identify
bottlenecks or any inefficiencies in the program.

Table 2.7 : Various symbols used in flowchart

Start or end of the program

Computational steps or processing function of a program

Input or output operation

Decision making and branching

Connector or joining of two parts of program

Magnetic Tape

Magnetic Disk

Off-page connector

Flow line

Annotation
55
Display
Computers and Communication Technology

Example of Flowchart
Draw a flowchart to find the sum of first 50 natural numbers.
Answer : The required flowchart is given below:
 Algorithms and flowcharts are like road maps for accomplishing a given, well defined
task.

2.5 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

2.5.1 MACHINE LANGUAGE (FIRST GENERATION COMPUTER LANGUAGE)
After preparing an algorithm and a flowchart for a particular software it has to be
written in the computer coded language. Unlike humans, computers can
understand language of only 0s and1s (binary digits), i.e., binary number
system (Number system is given in Appendix 2.2). A program written in 0s and
1s is called machine language program or binary language program. Machine
language was the first generation (Figure 2.37) computer language.

Followed
Machine language only
User
56
Figure 2.37 : First generation language
Components of CCT

A sample code in machine language is shown below:

ADD 011814 is written as
0001000000000010011101100001100
Machine language is faster in executions since the computer directly starts
executing it but at the same time it is very difficult to write and understand.

2.5.2 ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE (SECOND GENERATION LANGUAGE)

As it was very difficult to generate code in machine language, the assembly
language was developed which consisted of small meaningful terms. This is
considered to be the second generation language (Figure 2.38).

I am an
assembler

Followed
Assembly language

User
Figure 2.38 : Second generation language

An example of an assembly language program for adding two numbers

X and Y and storing the result in some memory location:
LDA A Load value of A in accumulator
ADA B Add value of B in the value of accumulator
OUTA Display the content of accumulator on output device
A machine cannot execute an assembly languages program directly
as it is not in a binary form. An assembler is needed in order to translate an
assembly language program into the object code executable by the machine.
This is illustrated in the figure 2.39:

Assembly Language Program Assembler

Object code in matching language Figure 2.39 : An

assembler

Writing a program in assembly language is more convenient than

in machine language. It is more readable. But assembly language has some
complications associated with it like:
• Assembly language is not portable. It means that assembly language
program written for one processor will not work on a different processor.
57
• Assembly language program is not as fast as machine language because it
has to be first translated into machine (binary) language code.
Computers and Communication Technology

Machine language and assembly language are referred to as low

level languages since the coding for a problem is at the individual instruction
level.

2.5.3 HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE (THIRD GENERATION LANGUAGE)

We have heard about programming languages like C, PASCAL, COBOL,
FORTRAN and BASIC. These are called high level languages (HLL) or third
generation languages (Figure 2.40). The program shown below is written in
BASIC to obtain the sum of two numbers.
10 X=7
20 Y=10
30 PRINT X + Y
 40 END (.)
The time and cost of creating machine and assembly languages
was quite high and this was the prime motivation for the development of high
level languages.

I am compiler

Followed
High level languages

User
Figure 2.40 : Third generation language

A high level source program must be translated first into a form

which the machine can understand; this is done by a software called Compiler
(Figure 2.41).

HLL program Compiler Object Code (machine language) Figure 2.41 : A compiler

Advantages
• Readability
• Portability
• Easy Debugging
58
• Easy Software development
Components of CCT

2.5.4 FOURTH GENERATION LANGUAGE

Most fourth generation languages (Figure 2.42) are non–procedural languages.
The programmer does not have to give the details of procedure in the program,
but instead, specify what is wanted.
Major fourth generation languages are used to get information from files and
databases. They are query languages, which are used to answer queries or
question with data from a database. For example:
SELECT Name, Address
FROM Personnel
WHERE Name = “Ekambaram Vasudevan”;
 Followed
4 GLs

User

Figure 2.42 : Fourth generation language

2.5.5 FIFTH GENERATION LANGUAGE

Fifth generation programming languages will permit the user to give commands
in a more conversational way. These will use voice input devices rather than
traditional keyboards or pointing devices.
Fifth generation languages are used mainly in artificial intelligence research.
Example of fifth generation languages: PROLOG, OPS5, and MERCURY are
the best known fifth generation languages.

59
Computers and Communication Technology

Summary
• A computer system is a combination of hardware and software used to perform a task more
efficiently and accurately.
• Hardware is the set of all tangible and physical components.

• Software comprises of a set of instructions.

• An input device is used to feed instructions or data into the computer.
• An output device is used to show the results processed by the computer.
• Input/output can be in the form of text, graphics or sound.
• A port is a connecting socket which can be used to transfer data to and from the computer. • A port
can be a parallel port, or a serial port.

• CPU is the brain of the computer which processes all the information.

• A software can be either a system software or application software.

• System software handles the working of the system.
• Application software is useful for a particular application in daily life.
 • Shareware is very inexpensive software.
• Freeware is a software which is free of cost.

EXERCISE
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUSTIONS
1. CPU is the brain of the computer. Comment.

2. Why is cache memory known as fastest memory?

3. What types of operations are performed by ALU?
4. What are the components of the storage unit of a computer system?
5. Define Input and Output devices.
6. Differentiate Shareware and Freeware.
7. What is Clock speed?
8. What is the relation between bit, byte, kilobyte, megabyte, gigabyte, terabyte and
petabyte?
9. “A device can be used as input as well as output”. Explain with an example. 10. What
do you understand by the word Microprocessor?

11. “Human speech may be used as input and output” discuss. What hardware and software
are required for it?

60
12. What do you mean by language processor? Give few examples of language processors.
Components of CCT

13. Expand the following terms

(i) ROM (x) VDU

(ii) RAM (xi) CRT
(iii) USB (xii) MDA
(iv) SCSI (xiii) CGA
(v) OMR (xiv) VGA
(vi) MICR (xv) SVGA
(vii) OCR (xvi) DPI
(viii) EPOS (xvii) XGA
(ix) MIDI (xviii) RAID

14. What do you understand by secondary storage? Why is there a need for secondary
storage devices?

15. What is firmware? State the use of firmware.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Draw a block diagram to illustrate the basic organisation of a computer system and
explain the functions of various units.

2. What is the relation between a flowchart and an algorithm?

3. What is the role of a computer in communication?

4. What are various parts of a computer and how do they work?

5. Differentiate between the following:

(a) System software and Application software.

(b) Software and Firmware.
 (c) Firmware and Liveware.
(d) Hardware and Software.
(e) Primary memory and secondary memory

6. What is utility software? Where are they used?

7. What is an operating system? Describe its main functions.

8. List out some of the key functions performed by the system software of a computer
system.

9. “The computer cannot perform anything on its own, thus any error in the output is not a
technological error”. Comment.

10. “Although the computer possess various advantages, it also has certain limitations” -
Explain.

11. What are I/O devices? What is the significance of using such devices?

12. Differentiate between parallel port and serial port. Why are they necessary for the
computer system?

13. What do you understand by ‘interactive input devices’? Discuss a situation where they
are appropriate for use.

61
14. What is the difference between locator and pointing devices? Describe their applications.
Computers and Communication Technology

15. What is digitising tablet? Is it an input or output device? What kind of applications are
associated with this device?

16. Identify the differences between vision-input system and image scanning system.

17. What are offline data entry devices? How are they different from online data entry
devices?

18. Why do we require output devices? Describe the various forms of output.

19. A report needs to be generated for managers in an organisation, containing total sales
over the year with a graph indicating the last 5 years’ sale and
prediction for the next year. What kind of output devices will be appropriate for
this purpose and why?

20. Describe the utility of printers.

21. Write short notes on the following:

(a) Scanner
(b) MIDI
(c) Intelligent Terminal
(d) Ports
(e) Non-Impact Printers

22. Distinguish between the following:

(a) Laser Printer and Dot Matrix Printer
(b) Dumb-terminal and Intelligent Terminal
(c) Impact Printer and Non-Impact Printer
(d) Optical Mark Reader and an Optical Character Reader.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following language(s) has portability as its main feature?
(i) Assembly language
(ii) High level language
(iii) Machine language
(iv) 4GL

2. Debugging is the term for

 (i) compilation
(ii) execution
(iii) removing errors
(iv) not reading comments

3. Hardware is –
(i) Tangible equipment
(ii) In-tangible equipment
(iii) Set of instructions
(iv) Operating system

4. Assembler converts –
(i) Assembly language to Machine language
(ii) Machine language to Assembly language
(iii) Assembly language to High level language

(iv) High language to Assembly language 62

Components of CCT

Activities
1. Look at the computer in your school and observe the following:
(a) What type of input devices and output devices are used?
(b) To which type of port are they attached.
2. Ask your teacher to show you an inkjet print cartridge and laser toner cartridge. Why do you think
ink-jet print cartridge dries out faster than laser toner cartridge?
3. Can you access the computer using a microphone to use word processing software. 4. Observe
what kind of software/utilities you use on a computer.

5. Look at your own computer and note down its memory, speed, type. Also draw and label the main
components of your computer. Observe the software used on your computer system.

APPENDICES
APPENDIX 2.1 : PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE OF COMPUTER EQUIPMENT The
basic preventive maintenance features are described below:
• Excessive dust buildup inside the computer can cause overheating, which degrades
performance as well as accelerates wear and tear of the interior parts.
If we are not already familiar with opening the computer to do a little dusting,
hire a professional for a through cleaning job. The cost should be minimal,
especially if we request it during the yearly hard-drive swap.
• The keyboard can be cleaned by turning it upside down and gently tapping the bottom of
the keyboard.
• Monitors can be cleaned with a dry soft cotton cloth.
• Printers require routine maintenance as well. Clearing out paper jams, changing
cartridges and cleaning the printer will lengthen the life of the printer. Most
printers have a print head clearing function or we can use a print head cleaning
kit. Make sure that you read the manufacturer’s instructions before performing
any maintenance.
• Consumables like floppy disks, CD, DVD and paper require correct storage to ensure
that they will be usable when required. They should be stored in a
clean and dry area.
• To ensure that the moisture content of the paper is kept at an optimum level, paper
should be stored in a sealed container. Moist paper tends to curl and
jam in the paper path of a printer.
• The case within which the motherboard, power supply, drivers, ect. are housed, has a
number of vents that allow for a controlled airflow from the power supply
and processor fan to keep the components at a satisfactory operating
temperature.
Effect of Negligence to Computer Equipment
• Loss of Money : The loss of computer equipment caused by mechanical failure of
hardware components is common. When losses occur, the cost of
repairs is absorbed by the affected organisation’s budget.
• Waste of time and reputation : Gross negligence results in physical damage,
defacement, or destruction of computer equipment; theft;
63
unauthorised access or use; unauthorised alteration, substitution, or
deletion of programs, command files, data files, documentation, or other
Computers and Communication Technology

material; wiretapping or any form of unauthorised signal interception;

divulgence of confidential information or computer access methods to
unauthorised persons.
• Performance Degradation : Computers often have too many temporary files cluttering
the system, a fragmented file system, viruses/spyware/adware,
and unnecessary programs running on startup. Windows XP has several
software packages to help clean up systems, including Disk Cleanup, Disk
Defragmenter and Check Disk. Each speeds up computers and is easily
used by novices.
If the computer is still operating slower than expected, we should look into
software packages to run deep checks of the entire system, inspecting its registry, missing
shortcuts and Windows files. These programs can increase system performance by
removing thousands of unneeded registry settings from uninstalled software, cleaning up
unnecessary programs from startup, and removing the deluge of temporary files stored on
everyone’s computer.

APPENDIX 2.2 : NUMBERS SYSTEM

Decimal Number System
Most people today use decimal representation to count. In the decimal system there are 10
digits:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

These digits can represent any value, for example:

754.
The value is formed by the sum of each digit, multiplied by the base (in this
case it is 10 because there are 10 digits in the decimal system) in power of digit position
(counting from zero):

7 . 10 2 + 5 . 10 1 + 4 . 10 0 = 700 + 50 + 4 = 754

Base Digit Position

Position of each digit is very important! For example, if we place “7” at the end:

547
it will be another value:

5 . 10 2 + 4 . 10 1 + 7 . 10 0 = 500 + 40 + 7 = 547
Base Digit Position

Important note: Any number in power of zero is 1; even zero in power of zero is 1:

00 = 1 X 0 10 = 1 0 = 1
 Binary Number System
64
Most modern computer systems operate using binary logic. By convention we use the
values zero and one. These two values, coincidentally, correspond to
Components of CCT

the two digits used by the binary number system. Therefore, computers employ the binary
system.
Similarly, in binary (Base–2), all the columns are powers of 2. Think of the
following table as the four least significant digit place holders for the binary number system
just like the tables above using the decimal number system:

Eight’s column Four’s column Two’s column One’s column (Most significant (Least significant digit)
digit)

23 22 21 20

The binary number 10100101b equals to decimal value of 165:

10100101b =
= 1 . 2 7 + 0 . 2 6 + 1 . 2 5 + 0 . 2 4 + 0. 23 + 1 . 2 2 + 0 . 2 1 +1 . 20
= 128 + 0 + 32 + 0 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1 =165 Base Digit Position

For example, let’s look at the binary number:

1011

and convert it to decimal number.

Eight’s Four’s Two’s One’s

1 x 23 Plus 0 x 22 Plus 1 x 21 Plus 1 x 20

1x8 Plus 0 x 4 Plus 1 x 2

Which equals Plus 1 x 1 Which equals 8 Plus 0 Plus 2 Plus 1

The total is : 11 (in decimal), which equals 8 + 0 + 2 + 1.

In other words,
10112= 1110.
The subscripted number indicates the number base.

Example 1

What is the decimal equivalent of the binary number 0111 (also written as 01112) ? Answer
0 x 23 Plus 1 x 22 Plus 1 x 21 Plus 1 x 20
Plus 1 x 4 Plus 1 x 2

= 0 x 8 Plus 1 x 1
=0+4+2+1

Total = 7 (also written as 710)

Example 2
65
What is the decimal equivalent of the binary number 1010 (also written as 10102) ?
Computers and Communication Technology

Answer

1 x 23 Plus 0 x 22 Plus 1 x 21 Plus 0 x 20

Plus 0 x 4 Plus 1 x 2

= 1 x 8 Plus 0 x 1
=8+0+2+0

Total = 10 (also written as 1010)

Different number systems are summarised in Table 2.8

Table 2.8 : Binary to decimal conversion

Binary Evaluate 24 23 22 21 20 Value Decimal Number
Decimal Value 1 >

1 1 0 > 4
0
1 0 1 0 > 8+0
1
6 1 0 1 1 0 > 16+0+4
10 1 1 0 0 1 > 1+8+0
22
25
16 8 4 2

1 1 1 1 1 > 16+8+4+2+1 31

Decimal To Binary Conversion

To convert a decimal number to binary, first subtract the largest possible power of two, and
keep subtracting the next largest possible power form the remainder, marking 1s in each
column where this is possible and 0s where it is not.
Example 3 (Convert decimal 44 to binary)
44
–32
12
–8
4
–4
32 16 8 4 2 1 0

101100

Example 4 (Convert decimal 15 to binary)

15
–8
7
–4
3
–2
66 1
32 16 8 4 2 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
Components of CCT

Binary Arithmetic
Rules of Binary Addition
•0+0=0
•0+1=1
•1+0=1
• 1 + 1 = 0 and carry 1 to the next more significant bit.
Example 5

11+11=11 1 Carry
11 =

+11 =

0 3 (base 10) 3 (base 10)

1 1 0 = 6 (base 10)

Rules of Binary Subtraction

•0–0=0
• 0 – 1 = 1 and borrow 1 from the next more significant bit • 1 – 0 =
1
•1–1=0

Example 6

00100101 – 00010001 = 0 Borrows

00100101 =

–00010001 =

00010100 37 (base 10) 17 (base 10)

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 = 20 (base 10)

Rules of Binary Multiplication

•0x0=0
•0x1=0
•1x0=0
• 1 x 1 = 1 and no carry or borrow bits.

Example 7

00100101 × 00010001 = 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 = 41 (base 10) 11110110 × 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 = 6

(base 10)

00000000
00101001 17 (base 10)

00101001
 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 = 246 (base 10)

67
Binary Division
It is a repeated process of subtraction (as in decimal division).
Computers and Communication Technology

Example 8

00101010 ÷ 00000110 = 1 1 1 = 7 (base 10)

1 1 0 ) 0 0 120 1 0 1 0 =

–110 =

1
1 0 20 1

–110
110

00000111 42 (base 10)

6 (base 10)
borrows

–110

There are other number systems also. Table 2.9 gives a comparison between different
Number Systems.

Table 2.9 : Comparison of various number systems

Number system Base value Symbolic character set

Binary 2 0,1
8

10

Octal 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Decimal 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Hexadecimal 16 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
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