CHAPTER 2
BACKGROUND THEORY OF SOLAR GENERATION SYSTEM
2.1. Introduction to Solar Generation System
The sun is the most source that gives and supports the two types of
transformations such as heat and light. There are two main types of solar systems,
namely photovoltaic solar system and solar thermal system. Photovoltaic solar system
is a technology designed to convert sunlight directly into electricity using photovoltaic
effect. Solar thermal system captures the sun’s heat and converts into mechanical
energy than in turn to electricity and known as concentrated solar power (CSP). [6]
Solar Collector
Sunlight To Taps
Battery
Tank
Charge
Array Controller
Boiler
AC Load
Inverter Pump
Figure 2.1. Photovoltaic Solar System and Solar Thermal System [6]
2.2. Photovoltaic Solar System or Solar Generation System
Solar generation systems can be classified into two types. Two main types of
solar generation systems are grid connected (On-Grid) and off grid (standalone) solar
systems. [5]
2.2.1. On-Grid Solar Generation System
An on-grid solar generation system is a type of that is directly connected to the
public electricity using solar photovoltaic (PV) panels and supplies power both to the
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local load and to the utility grid, depending on demand and solar generation levels.
These are the simplest systems and do not require batteries because they are not
designed for back-up power but to contribute power back into the existing power
supply. But back-up power is required, battery will be connected. This system will
reduce air pollution produced by utility companies that burn coal. Electricity derived
from contributing clean, green power from own roof created jobs and in sunny states is
better than electricity derived from fossil fuels. On-Grid systems are generally designed
to reduce power demands from the utility by ‘net metering’ power or to sell power back
to the utility. A typical system includes solar modules, a mounting structure and AC
inverter for power to be fed back through the AC power distribution system. [5]
Utility Grid
Sun
Meter
Module
Charge House
Controller
Battery
Figure 2.2. On-Grid Solar Generation System [6]
2.2.2. Off-Grid Solar Generation System
An off-grid solar generation system is a stand-alone power system that operates
independently of the public electricity grid. It is designed to generate, store, and supply
electricity using solar photovoltaic (PV) panels, making it an ideal solution for remote
areas where grid access is unavailable or unreliable. Typically, the photovoltaic system
has a fossil fueled generator connected for back-up purposes. Array of PV panels are
connected together in groups or strings. These strings or groups are all connected
together in a combiner box which is located near the array. The DC electricity from the
PV panels flows through combiner box to a controller in the inverter system. The
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controller regulates the DC power to the batteries. The inverter converts the DC power
to AC electricity. The AC electricity goes to the main electrical panel. The electricity
is used by the loads connected to the panel, such as light or appliances. There are several
basic configurations of solar generation system. [5]
Sun
Inverter
Module
Charge House
Controller
Battery
Figure 2.3. Off-Grid Solar Generation System [6]
[Link]. Direct coupled DC system
A direct coupled DC System is a simple, battery-less solar setup where a DC
load is powered directly by a DC source, like a solar panel without energy storage in
between. Applications requiring the most power during the sunniest part of the day are
ideal for this type of system. Pumping water for irrigation or to a storage tank, running
a fan for ventilation, or operating a pump to collect solar heat is examples of appropriate
applications. The direct coupled DC system is shown in Figure 2.4.
PV
DC
Array Load
Figure 2.4. Direct Coupled DC System [2]
[Link]. Power point tracking DC system
The power point tracker constantly monitors the system performance and makes
electrical adjustments to keep the system operating as close as possible to its maximum
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output. And it dynamically adjusts the voltage and current from a solar panel to operate
the maximum power point. [2]
PV Power Point DC
Tracker Load
Array
Figure 2.5. Power Point Tracking DC System [2]
[Link]. Self-regulated DC system
A self-regulated DC System is a setup in which the source and load are naturally
matched, or the components are selected so that voltage and current remain within safe.
Again, the loads are DC only. If adequate battery storage is provided, and the loads are
used consistently, this can be a reliable system. [2]
PV DC
Battery
Array Load
Figure 2.6. Self-Regulated DC System [2]
[Link]. Direct AC system
Deep well water pumping, AC loads must be provided with power, but only
during the day. If the DC output of a photovoltaic array is converted to AC with an
inverter, it can supply the AC load directly as shown in Figure 2.7.
PV AC
Inverter
Array Load
Figure 2.7. Direct AC System [2]
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This system is appropriate for many of the same situations as the direct DC
system. The inverter must be protected from temperature extremes and inclement
weather. The cost of an inverter is significant, and it reduces the overall system
significantly, and it reduces the overall system efficiently. However, if the application
requires a device which cannot operate on or be converted to DC, this is the simplest
way to do this job. [2]
[Link]. Regulated DC system
Many systems require some way to prevent damaging the batteries from charge
levels which are too high or too low. A charge controller is used to keep the batteries
from being overcharged. An optional feature of many controllers is a load cutoff. This
turns off some or all of the loads whenever the batteries state of charge gets too low.
Although the additional component adds to the complexity of the system, draws
additional power, and can reduce overall reliability, the charge controller extends the
battery.
PV Charge DC
Array Controller Load
Battery
Figure 2.8. Regulated DC System [2]
2.3. Typical Components of Off-Grid Solar Generation System
Off-Grid solar generation systems generally have a common design and consist
of the following components:
• PV array
• Charge controller
• Battery
• Inverter
• Loads
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2.3.1. Photovoltaic PV Array
Photovoltaic (PV) array is a system of interconnected PV modules that converts
sunlight into electricity. It's the fundamental power-generating unit in a solar power
system, composed of multiple PV panels. These arrays are scalable, meaning their size
can be adjusted based on power needs, ranging from residential systems to large-scale
power plants. The phenomenon of converting sunlight into electricity is done by using
the PV arrays or panels which consist of PV cells. A PV array is a group of solar
modules. Modules are designed to supply electricity at a certain voltage, such as a
common 12 V system. The standard number of solar cell in a single module is usually
36 and sometimes 34 cells. The current produced is directly dependent on how much
light strikes the module. PV panels generate direct current (DC) power that can be used
for charging batteries, running loads direct or generating mains quality, alternated
current (AC) power via an inverter. PV arrays or panels may be connected in parallel,
in the case the panel current is additive, or panels may be connected in series where
panel voltage is additive. [5]
[Link]. Structure of PV array
The PV cell is the basic unit of PV array and they are used to convert sunlight
into electrically. PV cells can be connected together to form larger units called
modules. Modules, in turn, can be connected to form even larger units known as arrays,
which interconnected for more power and so on. PV arrays have to be mounted on some
sorts of stable, durable structure that can support the array and withstand wind, rain,
hill and other adverse conditions. [5]
Photovoltaic cell Module
Panel Array
Figure 2.9. Cell, Module, Panel and Array [5]
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[Link]. Structure of soar cell
In conventional solar cells, the electrical field is created at the junction between
two regions of a crystalline semiconductor having contrasting types of conductivity. If
the semiconductor is silicon, one of these regions (the n-type) is doped with phosphorus,
which has five valence electrons (one more than silicon). This region has a much higher
concentration of electrons holes. The other region (the p-type) is doped with boron,
having three valence electrons (one less than silicon). The large difference in
concentrations from one region to another causes a permanent electric field from the
n-type region towards the p-type region. [5]
` Nearly all cells currently available have a p-n junction of this type. In silicon
cells (the most common type of solar cell) the junction is obtained by diffusing a layer
of phosphorus into a wafer of silicon previously doped with boron. The junction is very
shallow, typically only about 0.2 to 0.5 micro meter deep. This shallow, diffused layer
is commonly called the emitter. The electrical contact with the illuminated side of the
cell (the side where the diffusion is done) has to leave most of the surfaces uncovered
otherwise light cannot enter the cell. However, the electrical resistance of the contact
must not be too high. In contrast, the electrical contact on the dark side of the cell covers
the whole surface of the cell. Usually, an antireflective coating is applied to the
illuminated side of increase the fraction of incident light absorbed. [5]
Sun’s Ray
Metal
Anti-reflective
Coatings Silicon N-Type
Silicon P-Type
Black Contact
Figure 2.10. Structure of Conventional Silicon Solar Cell [5]
[Link]. Solar panel
Solar panels, also known as photovoltaic (PV) panels, are devices that convert
sunlight directly into electricity. They are a crucial component of solar energy systems
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and are used in residential, commercial, and industrial applications to provide clean,
renewable power. By capturing the sun’s energy and transforming it into usable
electrical energy, solar panels help reduce reliance on fossil fuels and lower greenhouse
gas emissions. [6]
Figure 2.11. Example of Solar Panels [6]
Solar panels can be wired in series or in parallel to increase volts or amps
respectively, and they can be wired both in series and in parallel to increase both volts
and amps. Series wiring refers to connecting the positive terminal of one panel to the
negative terminal of another. The resulting outer positive and negative terminals will
produce voltage which equals the sum of the two panel's voltages, but the amperage
stays the same as that of one panel. So, two 12 V and 3.5 A panels wired in series
produces 24 V at 3.5 A. Four of these wired in series would produce 48 V at 3.5 A.
Parallel wiring refers to connecting positive terminals to positive terminals and negative
to negative. The result is that voltage stays the same, but amperage becomes the sum of
the number of panels. So, two 12 V and 3.5 A panels wired in parallel would produce
12 V at 7 A. Four panels would produce 12 V at 14 A. Series and parallel wiring refers
to doing both of the above - increasing voltage and ampere to achieve the desired
voltage as in 24 or 48 V systems. [6]
[Link]. Working principles of solar panels
When photons in sunlight hit the solar panels, a certain portion of it is absorbed
within the semiconductor material, such as silicon. The energy of the absorbed light is
also transferred to the semiconductor. Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose
from their atoms by the energy, allowing them to flow freely through the material to
produce electricity. This flow of electrons is a current. Due to the special composition
of one or more electric fields on solar cells, the electrons are forced to move in a certain
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direction. The complementary positive charges that are also created (like bubbles) are
called holes and flow in the direction opposite of the electrons in a silicon solar panel.
An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current (DC)
electricity. By placing metal contacts on the top and bottom of the solar cells, we can
draw that current off to use externally. [5]
[Link]. Mono-crystalline solar panels
Monocrystalline solar panel is a type of photovoltaic panel made from a single,
continuous crystal structure of high-purity silicon. The silicon is formed into cylindrical
ingots and sliced into thin wafers. Monocrystalline panels are known for their high
efficiency, typically ranging from 18% to 22. They also perform well in low-light
conditions and have a long lifespan, often exceeding 25 to 30 years. Due to their
efficiency and durability, monocrystalline panels are ideal for rooftops with limited
space or where maximum power output is required. However, they are also the most
expensive type because of the high-quality silicon and complex manufacturing process
involved. [6]
Figure 2.12. Monocrystalline Solar Panel [6]
[Link]. Poly-crystalline solar panels
Polycrystalline solar panels are a popular type of photovoltaic panel made from
silicon fragments that are melted together and poured into a mold to form square-shaped
wafers. Unlike monocrystalline panels, which use a single crystal structure,
polycrystalline cells consist of multiple silicon crystals, giving them a blue, speckled
appearance. These panels typically have an efficiency of around 13% to 17%, which is
slightly lower than monocrystalline panels. This is due to the presence of multiple
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crystal boundaries in each cell, which can reduce the movement of electrons and,
therefore, the overall energy conversion efficiency. [6]
Figure 2.13. Poly-crystalline Solar Panel [6]
[Link]. Amorphous solar panels
These are not really crystals, but a thin layer of silicon deposited on a base
material such as metal or glass to create the solar panel. These Amorphous solar panels
are much cheaper, but their energy efficiency is also much less so more square footage
is required to produce the same amount of power as the mono-crystalline or poly-
crystalline type of solar panel. Amorphous solar panels can even be made into long
sheets of roofing material to cover large areas of a south facing roof surface. [6]
Figure 2.14. Amorphous Solar Panel [6]
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Table 2.1. Conversion Efficiencies of Various PV Modules [6]
Typical Efficiency
Type Level
Range
Mono-crystalline High 18% - 22%
Poly-crystalline Medium 13% - 17%
Amorphous Low 6% - 10%
2.3.2. Charge Controller
The charge controller is an essential part of nearly all power systems that charge
batteries, whether the power source is PV, wind, hydro, fuel, or utility grid. Its purpose
is to keep the batteries properly fed and safe for a long time. The primary function of a
solar charge controller is to prevent the battery from being over/under charged by the
solar array. Charge controllers block reverse current, prevent battery overcharge and
over discharge. The relationship between the average solar radiation over a day and the
power generated by the panels is largely linear, although the fluctuations are large, due
to the different actual solar radiation levels across a day. Most charge controllers have
various set points for regulation based on battery voltages. Variable set points can be
adjusted by potentiometers, dipswitches, jumpers, displays, computers, and other
means. The charge set points should be adjusted for temperature with either a local or
remote temperature probe.
Most Charge Controllers are variables of one these four basic types:
• Shunt regulator or charge controller
• Series regulator or charge controller
• PWM charge controller
• MPPT charge controller
[Link]. Shunt regulator
A shunt regulator is a type of voltage regulation device used to maintain a
constant output voltage by diverting excess current away from the load. Unlike series
regulators that control the flow of current through a load, shunt regulators work by
“shunting” or bypassing excess current directly to the ground (or return path) to keep
the voltage across the load stable. The shunt regulator operates by comparing the output
voltage to a reference voltage. When the output voltage exceeds the desired level, the
15
regulator becomes conductive and redirects the excess current away from the load. If
the output voltage is within safe limits, the regulator remains mostly inactive. [12]
Shunt regulators are generally solid-state and contain a blocking diode prevents
the battery from being shorted at the same time. Shunt regulators are generally for
negatively grounded systems only as the lock diode is usually in the positive line. Shunt
regulators are on/off type controllers. This means the solar array is either on or off; the
battery sees the full charge current available or none. The controller allows current from
the array to flow to the battery until the disconnect voltage is reached, at which time
the solar array is shorted, preventing any further current to flow to the battery. Without
any charge current, the battery voltage will drop until the reconnect voltage is reached
at which time the controller will allow current to flow to the battery again. [12]
[Link]. Series regulator
Series regulators are on/off type controllers. The solar array is either on/off, so
the battery sees the full charge current or none. The regulator allows the current from
the array to flow to the battery until the disconnect voltage is reached, at which time
the solar array is disconnected (open circuited) and prevents any further current to flow
to the battery. Without any charge current, battery voltage will drop until the reconnect
voltage is reached, at which time the regulator will allow current to flow to the battery
again. The battery voltage will rise, and the cycle will repeat. The duration of the pulses
can be from hours to seconds depending on: battery state of charge and health, load
current, temp., etc.
Unlike shunt regulators, some series regulators can control multiple relays or
transistors, allowing for multiple disconnect or reconnect set points and stepped charge
current. If the series regulator has a single relay, it is simply a single stage charge
controller. Additional relays with different set points can make the regulator a multi-
stage controller. As the regulator opens the solar array to regulate the battery voltage,
series regulators run much cooler than shunt regulators. [12]
When the series regulator opens the array during regulation, measuring the array
voltage during this time will yield an array voltage that should be closed to the open
circuit value. During normal charging, the array voltage should be slightly higher than
the battery voltage (battery voltage + the voltage drop from diodes or transistors). If an
array voltage value is less than the battery voltage was ever measured during normal
operation, this would indicate a problem. [12]
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[Link]. PWM charge controller
PWM regulators are similar to series regulators, but they use a transistor instead
of a relay to open the array. By switching the transistor at high frequency with some of
various modulated widths, a constant voltage can be maintained. The PWM regulator
self- adjusts by varying the widths (lengths) and speed of the pulses sent to the battery.
Unlike the on/off charge controllers which instantaneously cut off the power transfer to
minimize battery overcharging, PWM regulators act like a rapid on/off controller
constantly. When the width is at 100%, the transistor is at full ON, allowing the solar
array to bulk charge the battery. When the width is at 0% the transistor is the battery
when the battery is fully charged. [12]
Some PWM regulators have provisions for converting to a series (on/off)
regulator. This could be needed for sensitive loads that have an issue with the noise
created by the frequency of the PWM. Some PWM regulators have provisions for
converting to a series (on or off) regulator. This could be needed for sensitive loads that
have an issue with the noise created by the frequency of the PWM. Because PWM
charge controllers require transistors, they are always solid-state; this means heat
dissipation can become a problem, especially in larger solar arrays. [12]
As with series regulators, because the PWM regulator regulates by opening the
array during regulation (at high frequency), if you were to measure the array voltage
during this time, the array voltage during this time, the array voltage can be anywhere
between battery voltage and open circuit voltage depending on the regulator's charging
stage. If an array voltage value less than the battery voltage was ever measured during
normal operation, this would indicate a problem. [12]
[Link]. MPPT charge controller
The Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) charge controller takes the PWM
to the next level, by allowing the array voltage to vary from the battery voltage. By
varying the array input, the charge controller can find the point at which the solar array
produces the maximum power. The MPPT process works like this. Imagine having a
battery that is low, at 12 V. A MPPT takes a voltage of 17.6 V at 7.4 A and converts it
down, so that what the battery gets is now 10.8 A at 12 V. [12]
MPPT controllers takes the DC input from the solar panels, convert it to high
frequency AC, and then change it once again to a different DC voltage and current. The
point is the voltage will exactly adhere to the requirements of the battery. As the MPPT
17
charge controller uses the negative line as a reference and then switches the positive
line, they can be used in negative ground systems only. It is crucial to understand that
voltage is a potential difference. This means that the starting point is below zero, but
this is only used as a reference point. [7]
Since MPPT charge controllers can vary the charge current to the battery, the
regulator can be a multi-stage charger with bulk, absorption, and float settings. They
are always solid state; this means heat dissipation can become a problem, especially in
larger solar arrays. [7]
Charge controllers are arguably the most important components in off- grid
solar systems. Without them, batteries would be overwhelmed and unable to keep up
with the dynamic changes in energy that come from solar panels. [12]
[Link]. Comparison of different types of charge controller
Comparison of different types of charge controller lists is shown in Table 2.2.
The fixed module produces the maximum power only when there is direct sunlight to
the module.
Table 2.2. Comparison of Different Types of Charge Controllers [6]
Types Features Photos
• protect the battery from
overcharge or
Basic charge controller undercharge current
• prevent reverse current
• control the amount of
Pulse-width modulation current charging the
(PWM)charge controller battery
• trickle charge
• optimize the power output
Maximum Peak Power from the cell
Tracking (MPPT) charge • charge the battery to
controller optimal capacity
18
2.3.3. Batteries
In a solar power system, batteries are essential for storing the electricity
generated by solar panels for use during times when the sun is not shining, such as at
night or during cloudy weather. Without batteries, a solar system would only provide
power during daylight hours, making it unreliable for continuous electricity supply.
Batteries ensure a consistent energy supply by storing excess energy produced during
the day for later use, which is especially important in off-grid systems or as backup
power in grid-connected systems. The battery lifetime depends on various factors,
including battery type, correct sizing of the system, local environment, charge
regulation and maintenance. There are many types of batteries with different
chemistries, but the most common types of batteries used for solar-off grid systems are:
• Lead acid batteries
• Nickel-ion batteries
• Lithium-ion batteries
• LiFePO4 batteries
[Link]. Lead acid batteries
Lead-acid batteries are one of the oldest and most commonly used battery
technologies in solar energy systems. They are well-known for their reliability, low
upfront cost, and ability to provide high surge currents, which makes them suitable for
both off-grid and backup solar applications. Lead-acid batteries work by using a
chemical reaction between lead plates and sulfuric acid to store and release electrical
energy. [5]
One of the key limitations of lead-acid batteries is their depth of discharge
(DoD). Typically, only 50% of the battery’s capacity should be used regularly to avoid
shortening its lifespan.
Figure 2.15. Lead Acid Battery [11]
19
[Link]. Nickel-iron batteries
Nickel-Iron batteries are particularly interesting for solar applications due to
their extremely long lifespan up to 30 years or more. They are also very robust, can
withstand overcharging, and tolerate deep discharge better than most battery types.
However, they are bulky, have a lower energy efficiency (around 60% to 70%), and
suffer from high self-discharge rates, meaning they lose stored energy relatively quickly
if not used. [5]
Figure 2.16. Nickel-iron Battery [11]
[Link]. Lithium-ion batteries
Lithium-ion batteries are the most popular and advanced battery technology
used in solar energy systems today. They have become the preferred choice for both
residential and commercial solar installations due to their high efficiency, long lifespan,
compact size, and minimal maintenance requirements. These batteries store energy by
the movement of lithium ions between a positive electrode (cathode) and a negative
electrode (anode) through an electrolyte during charging and discharging cycles. [5]
Figure 2.17. Lithium-ion Battery [11]
20
[Link]. LiFePO4 batteries
LiFePO4 (Lithium Iron Phosphate) battery is a type of lithium-ion battery that
have become the gold standard for solar energy storage due to their exceptional safety,
long lifespan, and reliable performance. They are widely used in both residential and
commercial solar power systems and are especially preferred for off-grid and backup
power applications. LiFePO4 batteries store energy through the movement of lithium
ions between a graphite anode (negative electrode) and a lithium iron phosphate
cathode (positive electrode). The electrolyte allows the lithium ions to shuttle back and
forth during charge and discharge cycles. The Battery Management System (BMS)
oversees temperature, voltage, and current to protect the battery and optimize its
operation. [5]
Figure 2.18. LiFePO4 Battery [11]
2.3.4. Inverter
A solar inverter is a crucial component in a solar power system that converts the
direct current (DC) electricity generated by solar panels into alternating current (AC)
electricity, which can be used by household appliances or fed into the electrical grid.
Since most electrical devices and the utility grid operate on AC power, the solar inverter
acts as the bridge between the solar energy source and practical energy use. Solar
inverters not only handle power conversion but also optimize energy output through
technologies like Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT), which ensures the panels
operate at their most efficient voltage and current levels. There are different types of
solar inverters, including string inverters, which connect multiple panels in a series;
microinverters, which are installed on each individual panel for more flexible and
efficient performance and hybrid inverters, which can manage both solar input and
battery storage. In addition to converting electricity, modern solar inverters often
provide monitoring features, allowing users to track energy production and system
21
performance in real time. Overall, solar inverters are essential for making solar power
systems functional, efficient, and compatible with modern energy needs. [10]
[Link]. Square wave inverter
Inexpensive square wave inverters switch the direct current input into a step-
function or “square” alternating current output. Consequently, square wave inverters
are only appropriate for small resistive heating loads, some small appliances and
incandescent lights. Square wave inverters can actually burn up certain motors in
different pieces of equipment. Because of its simple design, a square wave inverter is
inexpensive and easy to build, but it has significant limitations. The abrupt transitions
in voltage can create electrical noise and are not suitable for most modern appliances,
especially those with motors, transformers, or sensitive electronics like computers,
TVs, or microwaves. These devices may overheat, make noise, or malfunction when
powered by a square wave inverter. Due to their inefficiency and incompatibility with
many appliances, square wave inverters are rarely used in modern residential or
commercial applications and are mostly found in low-cost, small-scale systems where
performance is not a critical concern. [10]
[Link]. Modified sine wave inverters
Modified sine-wave inverters use field effect transistors (FET) or silicon-
controlled rectifiers (SCR) to switch direct current input to alternating current output.
These complex circuits can handle large surges and have much less harmonic distortion
in their output. This type of inverter is more appropriate for operating a wide variety of
loads including motors, lights, and standard electronic equipment (i.e. televisions and
stereos). However, certain electronic devices may pick up inverter noise running on a
modified sine-wave inverter. Also clocks and microwave ovens that run on digital
clocks will run either fast or slow on modified sine wave inverters. [5]
[Link]. Sine wave inverters
Sine-wave inverters are used to operate sensitive electronic hardware. They
have many advantages over modified sine wave inverters. These inverters are
specifically designed to remove most unwanted harmonics so they can operate even the
most sensitive electronic equipment that require a high-quality wave form. They have
high surge capabilities, and can start many motors easier. If so, it is called a utility line-
22
tie inverter tend to be modest and they are highly standardised products. Lamps are
reviewed in this standard, while information concerning radios and TV-sets (low stand
by losses, protection against reverse voltage, required voltage, etc.) are entrusted to
training and general information activities. [5]
Unlike square or modified sine wave inverters, a pure sine wave inverter ensures
that devices run quietly, efficiently, and without risk of damage. It provides stable
voltage and frequency, which helps reduce electrical noise and overheating in
equipment. These inverters are especially important in off-grid solar systems, RVs, and
backup power systems where reliable and clean power is required. [5]