Activity 2

OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED

To verify that the relation R in the set A piece of plywood, some pieces of
L of all lines in a plane, defined by wire (8), plywood, nails, white paper,
R = {( l, m) : l || m} is an equivalence glue.
relation.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
Take a piece of plywood of convenient size and paste a white paper on it. Fix
the wires randomly on the plywood with the help of nails such that some of
them are parallel, some are perpendicular to each other and some are inclined
as shown in Fig. 2.

DEMONSTRATION
1. Let the wires represent the lines l1, l2, ..., l8.
2. l1 is perpendicular to each of the lines l2, l3, l4 (see Fig. 2).
 3. l6 is perpendicular to l7.
4. l2 is parallel to l3, l3 is parallel to l4 and l5 is parallel to l8.
5. (l2, l3), (l3, l4), (l5, l8), ∈ R

OBSERVATION
1. In Fig. 2, every line is parallel to itself. So the relation R = {( l, m) : l || m}
.... reflexive relation (is/is not)
2. In Fig. 2, observe that l2
l3 . Is l3 ... l2? (|| / || )
So, (l2, l3) ∈ R ⇒ (l3, l2) ... R (∉/∈)
Similarly, l3 || l4. Is l4 ...l3? (|| / || )
So, (l3, l4) ∈ R ⇒ (l4, l3) ... R (∉/∈)
and (l5, l8) ∈ R ⇒ (l8, l5) ... R (∉/∈)

∴ The relation R ... symmetric relation (is/is not)

3. In Fig. 2, observe that l2 || l3 and l3 || l4. Is l2 ... l4 ? (|| / || )
So, (l2, l3) ∈ R and (l3, l4) ∈ R ⇒ (l2, l4) ... R (∈/∉)

Similarly, l3 || l4 and l4 || l2. Is l3 ... l2 ? (|| / || )

So, (l3, l4) ∈ R, (l4, l2) ∈ R ⇒ (l3, l2) ... R (∈,∉)
Thus, the relation R ... transitive relation (is/is not)
Hence, the relation R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. So, R is an
equivalence relation.

APPLICATION NOTE
This activity is useful in understanding the This activity can be repeated
concept of an equivalence relation. by taking some more wires
in different positions.

104 Laboratory Manual

Activity 4
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To demonstrate a function which is Cardboard, nails, strings, adhesive
one-one but not onto. and plastic strips.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Paste a plastic strip on the left hand side of the cardboard and fix two nails
in it as shown in the Fig. 4.1. Name the nails as a and b.
2. Paste another strip on the right hand side of the cardboard and fix three
nails on it as shown in the Fig. 4.2. Name the nails on the right strip as
1, 2 and 3.
3. Join nails on the left strip to the nails on the right strip as shown in the Fig. 4.3.

DEMONSTRATION
1. Take the set X = {a, b}
2. Take the set Y = {1, 2, 3}.
3. Join elements of X to the elements of Y as shown in Fig. 4.3.
OBSERVATION
1. The image of the element a of X in Y is ______________.

The image of the element b of X in Y is ______________.

So, the Fig. 4.3 represents a _____________________.

2. Every element in X has a _________ image in Y. So, the function is
_____________ (one-one/not one-one).
3. The pre-image of the element 1 of Y in X __________ (exists/does not
exist). So, the function is __________ (onto/not onto).

Thus, Fig. 4.3 represents a function which is _________ but not onto.

APPLICATION
This activity can be used to demonstrate the concept of one-one but not onto
function.

108 Laboratory Manual

Activity 5
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To draw the graph of sin −1 x , using the Cardboard, white chart paper, ruler,
graph of sin x and demonstrate the coloured pens, adhesive, pencil,
concept of mirror reflection (about eraser, cutter, nails and thin wires.
the line y = x).

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Take a cardboard of suitable dimensions, say, 30 cm × 30 cm.
2. On the cardboard, paste a white chart paper of size 25 cm × 25 cm (say).
3. On the paper, draw two lines, perpendicular to each other and name them
X′OX and YOY′ as rectangular axes [see Fig. 5].
 4. Graduate the axes approximately as shown in Fig. 5.1 by taking unit on
X-axis = 1.25 times the unit of Y-axis.
5. Mark approximately the points

π π π π π π
 ,sin  ,  ,sin  , ... ,  ,sin  in the coordinate plane and at each
6 6 4 4 2 2
point fix a nail.
6. Repeat the above process on the other side of the x-axis, marking the points
 –π –π   –π –π   –π –π 
 ,sin ,  ,sin  , ... ,  ,sin  approximately and fix nails
 6 6   4 4   2 2 
on these points as N1′, N2′, N3′, N4′. Also fix a nail at O.
7. Join the nails with the help of a tight wire on both sides of x-axis to get the
–π π
graph of sin x from to .
2 2
8. Draw the graph of the line y = x (by plotting the points (1,1), (2, 2), (3, 3), ...
etc. and fixing a wire on these points).
9. From the nails N1, N2, N3, N4, draw perpendicular on the line y = x and produce
these lines such that length of perpendicular on both sides of the line y = x
are equal. At these points fix nails, I1,I2,I3,I4.
10. Repeat the above activity on the other side of X- axis and fix nails at I1′,I2′,I3′,I4′.
11. Join the nails on both sides of the line y = x by a tight wire that will show the
graph of y = sin −1 x .

DEMONSTRATION
Put a mirror on the line y = x. The image of the graph of sin x in the mirror will
represent the graph of sin −1 x showing that sin–1 x is mirror reflection of sin x
and vice versa.

110 Laboratory Manual

OBSERVATION
The image of point N1 in the mirror (the line y = x) is _________.
The image of point N2 in the mirror (the line y = x) is _________.
The image of point N3 in the mirror (the line y = x) is _________.
The image of point N4 in the mirror (the line y = x) is _________.
The image of point N1′ in the mirror (the line y = x) is _________.
The image point of N′2 in the mirror (the line y = x) is _________.
The image point of N′3 in the mirror (the line y = x) is _________.
The image point of N′4 in the mirror (the line y = x) is _________.
The image of the graph of six x in y = x is the graph of _________, and the
image of the graph of sin–1x in y = x is the graph of __________.

APPLICATION

Similar activity can be performed for drawing the graphs of cos –1 x, tan −1 x , etc.

Mathematics 111
Activity 9
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To find analytically the limit of a Paper, pencil, calculator.
function f (x) at x = c and also to check
the continuity of the function at that
point.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION

 x 2 – 16 
 , x ≠ 4
1. Consider the function given by f ( x) =  x – 4 
 10, x = 4 


2. Take some points on the left and some points on the right side of c (= 4)
which are very near to c.
3. Find the corresponding values of f (x) for each of the points considered in
step 2 above.
4. Record the values of points on the left and right side of c as x and the
corresponding values of f (x) in a form of a table.

DEMONSTRATION
1. The values of x and f (x) are recorded as follows:

Table 1 : For points on the left of c (= 4).

x 3.9 3.99 3.999 3.9999 3.99999 3.999999 3.9999999

f (x) 7.9 7.99 7.999 7.9999 7.99999 7.999999 7.9999999

 2. Table 2: For points on the right of c (= 4).

x 4.1 4.01 4.001 4.0001 4.00001 4.000001 4.0000001

f (x) 8.1 8.01 8.001 8.0001 8.00001 8.000001 8.0000001

OBSERVATION
1. The value of f (x) is approaching to ________, as x → 4 from the left.
2. The value of f (x) is approaching to ________, as x → 4 from the right.

3. So, lim f ( x ) = ________ and lim+ f ( x ) = ________.

x→ 4 x →4

4. Therefore, lim f ( x ) = ________ , f (4) = ________.

x →4

5. Is lim f ( x ) = f (4) ________ ? (Yes/No)

x →4

6. Since f ( c ) ≠ lim f ( x) , so, the function is ________ at x = 4 (continuous/

x →c
not continuous).

APPLICATION
This activity is useful in understanding the concept of limit and continuity of a
function at a point.

Mathematics 123
Activity 11
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To verify Rolle’s Theorem. A piece of plywood, wires of
different lengths, white paper,
sketch pen.
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Take a cardboard of a convenient size and paste a white paper on it.
2. Take two wires of convenient size and fix them on the white paper pasted on
the plywood to represent x-axis and y-axis (see Fig. 11).
3. Take a piece of wire of 15 cm length and bend it in the shape of a curve and
fix it on the plywood as shown in the figure.

4. Take two straight wires of the same length and fix them in such way that
they are perpendicular to x-axis at the points A and B and meeting the curve
at the points C and D (see Fig.11).
DEMONSTRATION
1. In the figure, let the curve represent the function y = f (x). Let OA = a units
and OB = b units.
2. The coordinates of the points A and B are (a, 0) and (b, 0), respectively.
3. There is no break in the curve in the interval [a, b]. So, the function f is
continuous on [a, b].
4. The curve is smooth between x = a and x = b which means that at each point,
a tangent can be drawn which in turn gives that the function f is differentiable
in the interval (a, b).
5. As the wires at A and B are of equal lengths, i.e., AC = BD, so f (a) = f (b).
6. In view of steps (3), (4) and (5), conditions of Rolle’s theorem are satisfied.
From Fig.11, we observe that tangents at P as well as Q are parallel to
x-axis, therefore, f ′ (x) at P and also at Q are zero.

Thus, there exists at least one value c of x in (a,b) such that f ′ (c) = 0.

Hence, the Rolle's theorem is verified.

OBSERVATION
From Fig. 11.

a = ______________, b = _____________

f (a) = ____________, f (b) = _________ Is f (a) = f (b) ? (Yes/No)

Slope of tangent at P = __________, so, f (x) (at P) =

APPLICATION
This theorem may be used to find the roots of an equation.

128 Laboratory Manual

Activity 14
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To understand the concepts of local A piece of plywood, wires,
maxima, local minima and point of adhesive, white paper.
inflection.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Take a piece of plywood of a convenient size and paste a white paper on it.
2. Take two pieces of wires each of length 40 cm and fix them on the paper on
plywood in the form of x-axis and y-axis.
3. Take another wire of suitable length and bend it in the shape of curve. Fix
this curved wire on the white paper pasted on plywood, as shown in Fig. 14.
 4. Take five more wires each of length say 2 cm and fix them at the points A, C,
B, P and D as shown in figure.

DEMONSTRATION
1. In the figure, wires at the points A, B, C and D represent tangents to the
curve and are parallel to the axis. The slopes of tangents at these points are
zero, i.e., the value of the first derivative at these points is zero. The tangent
at P intersects the curve.
2. At the points A and B, sign of the first derivative changes from negative to
positive. So, they are the points of local minima.
3. At the point C and D, sign of the first derivative changes from positive to
negative. So, they are the points of local maxima.
4. At the point P, sign of first derivative does not change. So, it is a point of
inflection.

OBSERVATION
1. Sign of the slope of the tangent (first derivative) at a point on the curve to
the immediate left of A is _______.
2. Sign of the slope of the tangent (first derivative) at a point on the curve to
the immediate right of A is_______.
3. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate left
of B is _______.
4. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate right
of B is _______.
5. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate left
of C is _______.
6. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate right
of C is _______.
7. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate left
of D is _______.

Mathematics 135
 8. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate right
of D is _______.
9. Sign of the first derivative at a point immediate left of P is _______ and
immediate right of P is_______.
10. A and B are points of local _______.
11. C and D are points of local _______.
12. P is a point of _______.

APPLICATION
1. This activity may help in explaining the concepts of points of local maxima,
local minima and inflection.
2. The concepts of maxima/minima are useful in problems of daily life such
as making of packages of maximum capacity at minimum cost.

136 Laboratory Manual

Activity 16
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To construct an open box of maximum Chart papers, scissors, cellotape,
volume from a given rectangular sheet calculator.
by cutting equal squares from each
corner.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Take a rectangular chart paper of size 20 cm × 10 cm and name it as ABCD.
2. Cut four equal squares each of side x cm from each corner A, B, C and D.
3. Repeat the process by taking the same size of chart papers and different
values of x.
4. Make an open box by folding its flaps using cellotape/adhesive.

DEMONSTRATION
1. When x = 1, Volume of the box = 144 cm3
2. When x = 1.5, Volume of the box = 178.5 cm3
 3. When x = 1.8, Volume of the box = 188.9 cm3.
4. When x = 2, Volume of the box = 192 cm3.
5. When x = 2.1, Volume of the box = 192.4 cm3.
6. When x = 2.2, Volume of the box = 192.2 cm3.
7. When x = 2.5, Volume of the box = 187.5 cm3.
8. When x = 3, Volume of the box = 168 cm3.
Clearly, volume of the box is maximum when x = 2.1.

OBSERVATION
1. V1 = Volume of the open box ( when x = 1.6) = .................
2. V2 = Volume of the open box ( when x = 1.9) = .................
3. V = Volume of the open box ( when x = 2.1) = .................
4. V3 = Volume of the open box ( when x = 2.2) = .................
5. V4 = Volume of the open box ( when x = 2.4) = .................
6. V5 = Volume of the open box ( when x = 3.2) = .................
7. Volume V1 is ____________ than volume V.
8. Volume V2 is ____________ than volume V.
9. Volume V3 is ____________ than volume V.
10. Volume V4 is ____________ than volume V.
11. Volume V5 is ____________ than volume V.

So, Volume of the open box is maximum when x = ________.

APPLICATION
This activity is useful in explaining the concepts of maxima/minima of functions.
It is also useful in making packages of maximum volume with minimum cost.

Mathematics 141
 NOTE
Let V denote the volume of the box.
Now V = (20 – 2x) (10 – 2x) x

or V = 200x – 60x2 + 4x3

dV
= 200 –120 x +12 x 2 . For maxima or minima, we have,
dx

dV
= 0 , i.e., 3x2 – 30x + 50 = 0
dx

30 ± 900 – 600
i.e., x = = 7.9 or 2.1
6

Reject x = 7.9.

d 2V
= –120 + 24 x
dx2

d 2V
When x = 2.1, is negative.
dx 2

Hence, V should be maximum at x = 2.1.

142 Laboratory Manual

Activity 19
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To evaluate the definite integral Cardboard, white paper, scale,
b pencil, graph paper
∫a (1 − x 2 ) dx as the limit of a sum and
verify it by actual integration.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Take a cardboard of a convenient size and paste a white paper on it.
2. Draw two perpendicular lines to represent coordinate axes XOX′ and YOY′.
3. Draw a quadrant of a circle with O as centre and radius 1 unit (10 cm) as
shown in Fig.19.

The curve in the 1st quadrant represents the graph of the function 1 − x 2 in the
interval [0, 1].
DEMONSTRATION
1. Let origin O be denoted by P0 and the points where the curve meets the
x-axis and y-axis be denoted by P10 and Q, respectively.
2. Divide P0P10 into 10 equal parts with points of division as, P1, P2, P3, ..., P9.
3. From each of the points, Pi , i = 1, 2, ..., 9 draw perpendiculars on the x-axis
to meet the curve at the points, Q1, Q2, Q3 ,..., Q9. Measure the lengths of
P0Q0, P1 Q1, ..., P9Q9 and call them as y0, y1 , ..., y9 whereas width of each part,
P0P1, P1P2, ..., is 0.1 units.
4. y0 = P0Q0 = 1 units
y1 = P1Q1 = 0.99 units
y2 = P2Q2 = 0.97 units
y3 = P3Q3 = 0.95 units
y4 = P4Q4 = 0.92 units
y5 = P5Q5 = 0.87 units
y6 = P6Q6 = 0.8 units
y7 = P7Q7 = 0.71 units
y8 = P8Q8 = 0.6 units
y9 = P9Q9 = 0.43 units
y10 = P10Q10 = which is very small near to 0.

5. Area of the quadrant of the circle (area bounded by the curve and the two
axis) = sum of the areas of trapeziums.

(1 + 0.99 ) + ( 0.99 + 0.97 ) + ( 0.97 + 0.95 ) + ( 0.95 + 0.92 ) 

1  
= × 0.1  + (0.92 + 0.87) + (0.87 + 0.8) + (0.8 + 0.71) + (0.71+ 0.6) 
2  + (0.6 + 0.43) + (0.43) 
 

Mathematics 151
 = 0.1 [0.5 + 0.99 + 0.97 + 0.95 + 0.92 + 0.87 + 0.80 + 0.71 + 0.60 + 0.43]

= 0.1 × 7.74 = 0.774 sq. units.(approx.)

1
6. Definite integral = ∫0 1 – x 2 dx

1
 x 1 – x2 1  1 π 3.14
= + sin −1 x  = × = = [Link]
 2 2  0 2 2 4

Thus, the area of the quadrant as a limit of a sum is nearly the same as area
obtained by actual integration.

OBSERVATION
1. Function representing the arc of the quadrant of the circle is y = ______.
1

2. Area of the quadrant of a circle with radius 1 unit = ∫ 1– x 2 dx = ________.

0

sq. units
3. Area of the quadrant as a limit of a sum = _______ sq. units.
4. The two areas are nearly _________.

APPLICATION
This activity can be used to demonstrate the
concept of area bounded by a curve. This
activity can also be applied to find the
approximate value of π.
NOTE
Demonstrate the same activity
by drawing the circle x2 + y2 = 9
and find the area between x = 1
and x = 2.

152 Laboratory Manual

Activity 26
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To measure the shortest distance A piece of plywood of size
between two skew lines and verify it 30 cm × 20 cm, a squared paper,
analytically. three wooden blocks of size
2cm × 2 cm × 2 cm each and one
wooden block of size 2 cm × 2 cm
× 4 cm, wires of different lengths,
set squares, adhesive, pen/pencil,
etc.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Paste a squared paper on a piece of plywood.
2. On the squared paper, draw two lines OA and OB to represent x-axis,
and y-axis, respectively.
3. Name the three blocks of size 2 cm × 2 cm × 2 cm as I, II and III. Name the
other wooden block of size 2 cm × 2 cm × 4 cm as IV.
4. Place blocks I, II, III such that their base centres are at the points
(2, 2), (1, 6) and (7, 6), respectively, and block IV with its base centre at
(6, 2). Other wooden block of size 2 cm × 2 cm × 4 cm as IV.
5. Place a wire joining the points P and Q, the centres of the bases of the
blocks I and III and another wire joining the centres R and S of the tops of
blocks II and IV as shown in Fig. 26.
6. These two wires represent two skew lines.
7. Take a wire and join it perpendicularly with the skew lines and measure the
actual distance.
 Fig. 26

DEMONSTRATION
1. A set-square is placed in such a way that its one perpendicular side is along
the wire PQ.
2. Move the set-square along PQ till its other perpendicular side touches the
other wire.
172 Laboratory Manual
 3. Measure the distance between the two lines in this position using set-square.
This is the shortest distance between two skew lines.
4. Analytically, find the equation of line joining P (2, 2, 0) and Q (7, 6, 0) and
other line joining R (1, 6, 2) and S (6, 2, 4) and find S.D. using

( )( )








a2 – a1 ⋅ b1 × b2
 . The distance obtained in two cases will be the same.
b1 × b2
OBSERVATION
1. Coordinates of point P are ________.
2. Coordinates of point Q are ________.
3. Coordinates of point R are ________.
4. Coordinates of point S are ________.
5. Equation of line PQ is ________.
6. Equation of line RS is ________.

Shortest distance between PQ and RS analytically = ________.

Shortest distance by actual measurement = ________.

The results so obtained are ________.

APPLICATION
This activity can be used to explain the concept of skew lines and of shortest
distance between two lines in space.

Mathematics 173
Activity 27
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To explain the computation of A piece of plywood, white paper
conditional probability of a given pen/pencil, scale, a pair of dice.
event A, when event B has already
occurred, through an example of
throwing a pair of dice.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Paste a white paper on a piece of plywood of a convenient size.
2. Make a square and divide it into 36 unit squares of size 1cm each
(see Fig. 27).
3. Write pair of numbers as shown in the figure.

Fig. 27
DEMONSTRATION
1. Fig. 27 gives all possible outcomes of the given experiment. Hence, it
represents the sample space of the experiment.
2. Suppose we have to find the conditional probability of an event A if an event
B has already occurred, where A is the event “a number 4 appears on both
the dice” and B is the event "4 has appeared on at least one of the dice”i.e,
we have to find P(A | B).
3. From Fig. 27 number of outcomes favourable to A = 1
Number of outcomes favourable to B = 11
Number of outcomes favourable to A ∩ B = 1.
NOTE
11
4. (i) P (B) = , 1. You may repeat this activity by
36
taking more events such as the
probability of getting a sum 10 when
1 a doublet has already occurred.
(ii) P (A ∩ Β) =
36 2. Conditional probability
P (A | B) can also be found by first
P(A ∩ B) 1 taking the sample space of event B
(iii) P (A | B) = = . out of the sample space of the
P(B) 11 experiment, and then finding the
probability A from it.
OBSERVATION
1. Outcome(s) favourable to A : _________, n (A) = _________.
2. Outcomes favourable to B : _________, n (B) = _________.
3. Outcomes favourable to A ∩ B : _________, n (A ∩ B) = _________.
4. P (A ∩ B) = _________.
5. P (A | B) = _________ = _________.

APPLICATION
This activity is helpful in understanding the concept of conditional probability,
which is further used in Bayes’ theorem.

Mathematics 175